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DOI 10.1007/s11249-010-9733-y
ORIGINAL PAPER
Received: 15 October 2009 / Accepted: 3 December 2010 / Published online: 6 January 2011
The Author(s) 2010. This article is published with open access at Springerlink.com
line (RMS) for valley roughness Rvq and the linear triangle
area for valleys A2, are strongly correlated with the engine
operational properties. Higher values of Rvq and A2 are
associated with an improvement in engine performance but
result in a deterioration in the exhaust harmful emission.
1 Introduction
J. Michalski
e-mail: jmichals@prz.edu.pl
123
556
123
of the plateau profile results in an increased lube oil consumption and exhaust emission of soot and particles (particulate matter), carbon oxides [carbon monoxide (CO),
carbon dioxide (CO2)], and hydrocarbons (HC) [6, 12]. The
oil film thickness, pressure, and oil blow-by volume depend
directly on the width and depth of honing scratches, and the
distance between them [13]. Some models of friction and
oil flow through the liner surface roughness are discussed
by Jocsak et al. [14], including the gasoline and diesel
engine performance parameters as a function of cylinder
liner roughness heights, the distribution of their coordinates, honing crosshatch angle, and lubrication oil
properties.
Owing to numerous findings in tribology research and a
tendency towards manufacturing high power-to-mass ratio,
downsized engines frequently endowed with new stateof-the-art technologies, such as variable valve actuation
(VVA) or variable compression ratio (VCR) [15], a number
of new approaches in plateau honing technology have
emerged. One of these, characterized by a smooth surface
and reduced depth of the base honing valleys, is slide
honing [16]. The main objectives in developing this technology were to reduce wear, friction losses, and lube oil
consumption while maintaining a productivity comparable
with that of conventional plateau honing and achieving a
high degree of reliability of the process itself and in mass
production conditions, a long tool life, minimum deformation in the honed surfaces, i.e., minimal dislocations in
the boundary layer, and the creation of a uniform and
consistent surface over the whole cylinder bore. The
scuffing resistance may be achieved by altering the
geometry of basic honing valleys [17]. The finest material
ratio parameters of the cylinder liner surface in terms of oil
consumption and the emission of harmful exhaust compounds have been estimated for both cast iron liners [18]
and liners made of aluminum alloys [19].
Further modification of slide honing procedure consists
of increasing the honing angle by reducing the rotational
speed of the honing tool. This slide/helical honing at a
honing angle of 140 is the next step for reducing emissions and extending oil change intervals [20]. Various
endurance tests performed on six-cylinder production
engines with liners made of standard gray cast iron have
proved the advantages of helical honing: (1) the wear in the
reversal zone was reduced by approximately 40% compared to the previous production honing process; (2) longterm oil consumption was reduced by 50% and remained
very stable over the entire running-in time, with values
between 0.04 and 0.05% of the fuel consumption [21].
Although the helical honing process is more expensive than
slide honing, a comparatively new study carried out on a
reciprocating tester found that, in general, such smoothed
bore surfaces produce lower ring and bore wear [22].
557
123
558
123
coarse honing peaks with a much finer texture but leaves the
valleys unaltered. All operations were performed on a
WMW SZS-250 machine tool with hydraulic clamping of
the honing sticks, which were fastened in the head of the
innovation design [36]. In the coarse-honing procedure,
diamond sticks of grit size D54 or pure green carborundum
sticks (SC, 99C) of grit size 100 and 120 alternatively mixed
with microcrystal corundum (5SGG) of 150 grain size were
used. Plateau honing was performed using D7 diamond
sticks or green carborundum sticks (VC) of grit size 320 and
500. The operation settings were the input variables in the
experiment and concerned honing time (1075 s), stick
pressure (0.61.5 MPa for diamond sticks, 0.20.5 MPa
for carborundum sticks), honing tangential velocity
(1923 m/min), and average axial velocity of the honing
head (1012 m/min). Both machining motion velocities
were synchronized to maintain a honing angle of 50. The
honing allowance was 0.070.11 mm for rough honing and
total 0.020.05 mm for coarse and fine (plateau) honing.
Using these settings, we varied the cylinder liner roughness
parameters as shown in Table 2. The liner surface topography was checked with Form Talysurf Series 2 profilometer,
with the 2-lm spherical tester tip located 25 mm from the
top end of the liners. Measurements were performed along
four reciprocally perpendicular lengths of 17.5 mm, with
sampling steps of 0.25 lm and a tip velocity of 0.5 mm/s.
The Gaussian filter of kc = 2.5 mm cut-off was applied.
559
Table 2 Five FRANKLIN 4A-235-B31 aircraft engines with a different cylinder liner surface topography
Roughness profile parameters
Engine no.
1
0.831.01
.841.02
.38.46
.67.81
.881.02
Average maximum height for the five sample length: the roughness profile
(Rtm, lm)
3.534.65
3.314.43
1.402.52
2.563.68
4.135.35
4.185.46
2.572.99
4.766.04
2.723.14
2.323.59
1.031.45
3.084.36
2.002.42
6.828.10
1.812.23
2.673.51
2.264.73
1.331.88
1.792.78
2.034.59
1.392.03
1.612.00
0.811.27
1.051.58
1.331.77
2.803.39
2.232.73
1.142.05
2.392.65
2.313.10
14.627.6
18.927.6
6.69.6
11.324.0
18.226.6
1.152.32
1.042.76
0.751.94
1.001.88
0.921.33
0.490.70
1.052.75
0.490.87
1.052.14
0.210.40
0.871.53
0.330.73
1.232.50
0.170.36
0.931.49
1.411.58
1.531.77
0.710.96
1.411.60
1.341.62
0.690.97
0.530.91
0.350.52
0.430.77
0.340.47
2.32.8
1.64.2
0.71.5
1.02.3
0.51.0
0.030.04
0.580.71
0.010.02
0.630.76
0.020.03
0.110.14
0.090.11
0.060.07
0.090.11
0.090.11
30.036.7
28.034.3
33.140.4
31.238.2
10.012.2
4 Experimental Procedure
4.1 Testing Rig and Equipment
Each of five tested FRANKLIN 4A-235-B31 engines was
fitted with the brand-new cylinder sets consisting of a
specific honed liner and standard piston, rings, pins, and
valves. The engines drove an eddy-current dynamometer.
The test house allowed testing with simulations of
increased dustiness of the ambient by the system that doses
road dust into the inlet manifold [9]. The engines were
connected to the fuel and air-cooling installation. Additionally, an extra lubrication oil tank with cooling device
was applied to avoid the effect of changing oil properties
on research results. The oil was super-fine filtered. The
engines were fuelled with Avgas 100LL (low-lead) aviation fuel that satisfied the requirements of ASTM D910-04a
and Defence Standard 91-90 (DERD 2485); semi-synthetic
anti-wear AeroShell Multigrade 15 W-50 oil was used as
the lubricant.
The main working and performance parameters of the
engine were continuously monitored; for instance, the
temperature of the cylinders was monitored with thermocouples mounted below the spark-plug packing washers.
1.932.35
.901.32
1.111.53
3.824.24
Figures 1 and 2 show the research stand, which consisted of three systems: system supplying abrasive medium,
hydraulic system for oil cleaning and conditioning, and the
engine itself. The oil cleaning/conditioning system was
applied in order to limit the wear of the other elements
(apart from the pistonpiston ringcylinder assembly) that
could appear due to grinding flour settling into the lubrication oil. The principle of this system is based on the
growth of capacity of circulated oil as well as improved
rigor of the filtrationthe system includes an additional
filter. The whole system is presented in detail in Fig. 2. It
consists of an oil reservoir (3), hydraulic pump (4), pressure-reducing valve (5), flow controller (6), additional
5-lm grade filter (7), and cut-off valves (10, 11, 12). It was
switched on only in the cases where it was found that the
other parts of the engine could be severely worn. Figure 2
also shows how the grinding particles feeder was connected
to the engine inlet manifold. While Fig. 2 shows the
scheme for an automotive engine, the same systems with
few modifications were used for the aircraft engines tested
here. The feeder was located over the engine carburetor
(18), in a convergentdivergent nozzle (Laval nozzle). The
particles were carried from the feeder into the carburetor by
a flexible conduct pipe through convergent nozzle (17).
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560
123
In the first stage, the engines were run in the fired runningin regime for 10 h at 1,4002,800 rpm and altered load
(Fig. 3a). The full-open throttle speed characteristic and
total efficiency of the engines were then checked. The
rough engine performance results were reduced to normal
conditions, i.e., an atmospheric pressure of 760 Torr and an
ambient temperature of 15C. All tested engines were
disassembled in order to be able to measure PC device
wear for detailed analysis of wear processes [37]. Similarly
to the after-machining analysis, the same 2D contact
instrumentation and procedures were used. At this stage,
given the heavy weight of the cylinders (12 kg) and the
necessity to carry out non-destructive tests on the blind
cylinders at a depth of 160 mm (each cylinder makes one
piece with the head), it was still impossible to perform 3D
measurements using Optical Profiling Systems (e.g., Wyko
NT9100; Veeco, Plainview, NY) or contact instruments
(Talyscan 150; Taylor Hobson Precision, Leicester, UK).
The engines were re-assembled and run under artificial
conditions that simulated increased dustiness of the ambient air. An elementary 3-h lasting effort cycle that combines 2 h and 50 min of the full load working at 2,800 rpm
and 10 min of the idle load (Fig. 3b) was repeated seven
times for a total operating time of 21 h. This self-elaborated testing schedule, which included the intensified wear
periods under the dusting conditions, ensured statistically
561
100
8
90
100
2h
50 min
90
h
6
70
60
50
30
2h
2h
2h
40
1h
1h
80
Engine load, %
Engine load, %
80
idle
60
50
40
Total time: 10 h
Total time: 3 h
1h
1
70
30
idle
10 min
Fig. 3 Engine speed and load schedule for the running-in operation (a) and the intensified wear elementary test (b)
123
562
85
300
80
290
75
70
65
60
Engine No. 1
Engine No. 2
Engine No. 3
Engine No. 4
Engine No. 5
55
50
Fig. 4 Performance
characteristics of the engines
after 10 h of running-in
operation
280
270
260
250
45
1700 1900 2100 2300 2500 2700 2900
240
1700 1900 2100 2300 2500 2700 2900
420
BSFC [g/(kWh)]
400
380
360
340
0.24
0.22
0.20
320
1700 1900 2100 2300 2500 2700 2900
9
200
HC conc. [ppm]
CO conc. [%]
8
7
6
5
150
100
4
3
1700 1900 2100 2300 2500 2700 2900
50
1700 1900 2100 2300 2500 2700 2900
123
300
80
290
75
70
65
60
55
50
Engine No. 1
Engine No. 2
Engine No. 3
Engine No. 4
Engine No. 5
Fig. 5 Performance
characteristics of the engines
after the full testing cycle
operation
563
280
270
260
250
240
1700 1900 2100 2300 2500 2700 2900
45
1700 1900 2100 2300 2500 2700 2900
420
BSFC [g/(kWh)]
400
380
360
340
0.24
0.22
0.20
320
1700 1900 2100 2300 2500 2700 2900
HC conc. [ppm]
CO conc. [%]
6
5
4
150
100
3
1700 1900 2100 2300 2500 2700 2900
50
1700 1900 2100 2300 2500 2700 2900
Fig. 6 Image of fax-film negative replication of cylinder liner surface after: a honing, b 10-h running-in operation, c 21-h intensified wear
operation. Observations under a Neophot 2 microscope, magnification 409
123
123
1. Rq, lm
0.21
Standard deviations
0.38
1.37
0.88
Rvk, lm
2.
0.39
1.44
0.97
0.84
Rvq, lm
3.
0.33
2.37
0.77
0.73
0.87
RDq,
4.
7.6
16.6
0.47
0.90
0.81
0.58
A2, lm
5.
2.1
33.8
-0.79
-0.63
-0.85
-0.84
-0.88
b, 1/lm
6.
0.003
0.019
-0.39
-0.20
0.55
0.18
0.31
0.67
g, 1/lm
7.
7.3
4.1
1.8
277.9
80.9
1.7
285.5
83.0
22.7
21.6
377.4
364.3
0.017
0.013
0.221
0.226
1.44
1.74
5.55
4.11
0.82
0.96
48.1
22.1
138.0
98.0
0.88
0.70
0.90
0.88
1
0.60
-0.67
0.53
-0.85
-0.53
0.48
0.22
0.47
0.20
-0.44
-0.66
-0.29
-0.10
0.75
0.65
0.08
0.48
0.70
0.54
0.59
0.45
0.27
-0.01
HC, ppm
13.
0.86
-0.52
0.55
-0.82
0.40
0.50
0.41
0.49
-0.72
-0.60
-0.28
-0.42
0.80
0.88
0.11
0.09
0.54
0.66
0.40
0.57
0.02
0.16
CO, %
12.
-0.99
0.60
-0.62
0.96
0.69
0.59
-0.61
-0.72
0.96
0.95
0.71
-0.07
-0.45
-0.42
-0.62
0.70
0.91
0.26
0.75
0.82
0.67
0.75
0.51
-0.74
0.11
0.40
0.45
0.64
-0.75
-0.90
-0.30
-0.70
-0.85
-0.68
-0.80
-0.51
0.30
0.55
-0.33
go
11.
-0.55
ge, g/kW h
10.
0.99
0.55
0.58
1
0.32
-0.95
-0.84
0.30
-0.97
0.67
0.67
-0.97
0.85
0.85
0.74
0.81
0.83
0.81
0.74
0.81
0.93
0.80
0.78
0.91
0.88
0.85
0.89
0.94
0.87
Mo, Nm
9.
0.94
Ne, kW
8.
For each parameter, the upper number refers to the running-in stage; the lower number refers to to the full cycle operation
0.75
Mean values
12. CO, %
11. go
9. Mo, N m
8. Ne, kW
7. g, 1/lm
6. b, 1/lm
5. A2,lm
4. RDq,
3. Rvq, lm
2. Rvk, lm
Rq, lm
1.
Parameter
Table 3 The values of the linear coefficient of correlation between the selected initial profile parameters after cylinder honing and operational properties of combustion engines
564
Tribol Lett (2011) 41:555567
565
ge
Mo
HC
Total efficiency o, %
ge=0.18*A2+19.29; Rxy=0.78
CO
25
350
Torque Mo, Nm
Mo=0.57*A2+271.96; Rxy=0.54
300
20
250
15
200
HC conc., ppm
HC=3.32*A2+61.32; Rxy=0.52
150
CO conc., %
CO=0.16*A2+2.06; Rxy=0.62
10
Ne
100
Power Ne, kW
Ne=0.21*A2+78.34; Rxy=0.68
50
0
6
14
18
22
0
6
26
10
14
18
22
A2 [m]
A2 [m]
26
40
30
a
Areal triangle area for valleys
Sa2 [m]
Fig. 8 Correlation of
equivalent two- and threedimensional parameters:
a linear A2 and areal Sa2
triangle area for valleys, b root
mean square deviation of the
profile Rq and the surface Sq
evaluated on the basis of 80
pairs of cylinder liner
measurements. Confidence
intervals = 0.95
10
100
95
90
85
80
75
Sa2=0.97*A2+0.33
Rxy=0.99
20
10
0
0
10
20
30
6 Conclusions
The results of this study demonstrate distinct variations in
engine performance due to differences in the initial
40
1.4
1.2
Sq=0.94*Rq+0.11
Rxy=0.95
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.4
0.6
0.8
1
1.2
1.4
Root-mean-square deviation of the profile
Rq [m]
123
566
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