Exercise

1-2

Velocity of Propagation
EXERCISE OBJECTIVE
Upon completion of this unit, you will know how to measure the velocity of
propagation of a signal in a transmission line, using the step response method.
Based on the measurements, you will know how to determine the relative
permittivity of the dielectric material used to construct this line.

DISCUSSION
Velocity of Propagation
A radio signal travels in free space at the velocity of light (approximately
3.0 @ 108 m/s, or 9.8 @ 108 ft/s). In a transmission line, a signal will travel at a relatively
lower speed. This is due mainly to the presence of the dielectric material used to
construct the line. In fact, the velocity of propagation of a signal in a transmission
line, vP, is dependent upon the distributed inductance and capacitance of the line,
L' and C' (see Figure 1-34). The equation for calculating v P is:
vP '
where

1
L' C'
vP =
L' =
C' =

Velocity of propagation (m/s or ft/s);

Distributed inductance, in henrys per unit length (H/m or H/ft);
Distributed capacitance, in farads per unit length (F/m or F/ft).

1-35

Velocity of Propagation

Figure 1-34. Equivalent circuit of a two-conductor transmission line.

Step (Transient) Response Method

The velocity of propagation of a signal in a transmission line can be measured by
using the step response method. This methods requires that a step generator and
a high-impedance oscilloscope probe be both connected to the sending end of the
line, using a bridging connection, as Figure 1-35 shows. The receiving end of the
line is left unconnected [impedance of the load in the open-circuit condition (4 S)].

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Velocity of Propagation

Figure 1-35. Measuring the velocity of propagation of a signal by using the step response method.

The signal propagation through the line is described below (refer to Figure 1-35).
At time t = 0, the step generator launches a fast-rising, positive-going voltage,
VI, into the line. The rising edge of VI is called a step, or transient. This step is
incident because it comes from the generator and is going to travel down the line
toward a possibly reflecting load.
Incident step VI propagates at a certain velocity, vP, along the line. It arrives at
the receiving end of the line after a certain transit time, T. There its level has
decreased by a certain amount due to the resistance of the line.
Since the impedance of the load at the receiving end of the line is in the opencircuit condition (4 S), it does not match the characteristic impedance of the line.
This impedance mismatch causes the incident step to be reflected back toward
the generator. The reflected step, VR, gets back to the step generator after a
time equal to twice the transit time, 2T. 2T is synonymous with round-trip time,
or back-and-forth trip time.
The signal at the sending end of the line, as a function of time, is the step response
signal. As Figure 1-36 shows, this signal is the algebraic sum of the incident step
VI and reflected step VR. Step VR is superimposed on step VI, and is separated by
a time 2T from the rising edge of VI.

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Velocity of Propagation

Figure 1-36. Voltage at the sending end of the open-circuit line (step response signal).

By measuring time 2T on the oscilloscope screen, the velocity of propagation of a

signal in a transmission line, v P, can be determined, using the formula below.
vP '
where

2l
2T
vP =
l =
2T =

Velocity of propagation (m/s or ft/s);

Length of the line (m or ft);
Round-trip time, i.e. time taken for the launched step to travel
from the generator to the line receiving end and back again to
the generator (s).

Transmission lines that are lossy, and whose series losses are predominant, will
appear as a simple RC network (resistor-capacitor network) for a short time
following the launching of a voltage step, as Figure 1-37 shows. This is due to the
high-frequency components contained in the voltage step.

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Velocity of Propagation

Figure 1-37. Lossy line with predominant series losses.

The time constant, J, of the RC network (not to be confused with the transit time T)
is determined by constants Rs and C, which are themselves derived from the
distributed series resistance, R's, series inductance, L', and parallel capacitance, C',
of the line. Consequently, the time constant of the RC network is independent of the
length of the line.
In that case, the incident and reflected steps observed at the sending end of the line
will first rise to a certain level, and then increase exponentially at a rate determined
by the time constant of the RC network, as Figure 1-38 shows. This does not
prevent the measurement of time 2T on the oscilloscope screen for calculation of
the velocity of propagation. However, it is clear that lossy lines cause a degradation
in the rise time of voltage steps.

1-39

Velocity of Propagation

Figure 1-38. Incident and reflected steps at the sending end of a lossy line with predominant series
losses.

Velocity Factor
The velocity of propagation of a signal in a transmission line is usually expressed
as a percentage of the velocity of light in free space. This percentage is called the
velocity factor, vF. For example, a transmission line with a vF of 66% will transmit
signals at about 66% of the velocity of light.
vF '
where

1-40

vP
c

@ 100%

vF =
vP =
c =

Velocity factor (%);

Velocity of propagation in the transmission line (m/s or ft/s);
Velocity of light in free space (about 3.0 @ 108 m/s, or
9.8 @ 108 ft/s).

Velocity of Propagation
In the case of coaxial cables, the velocity factor varies from about 66 to around
85%, as indicated in Table 1-1.
TYPE OF COAXIAL CABLE

VELOCITY FACTOR, vF (%)

RG-8

66

RG-58

66

RG-174

66

RG-400

70

RG-11

75

RG-316

79

LMR-195

83

RG-8X

84

LMR-400

85

Table 1-1. Velocity factor of various types of coaxial cables.

TRANSMISSION LINES A and B of the circuit board are RG-174 coaxial cables.
Consequently, they have a theoretical velocity factor, v F, of 66%.

Relative Permittivity (Dielectric Constant)

The velocity of propagation of a signal in a transmission line is determined mainly
by the permittivity of the dielectric material used to construct the line. Permittivity
is a measure of the ability of the dielectric material to maintain a difference in
electrical charge over a given distance.
The permittivity of a particular dielectric material is normally expressed in relation
to that of vacuum. This ratio is called relative permittivity, or dielectric constant.
When the velocity of propagation in a transmission line is known, the relative
permittivity of the dielectric material used to construct that line, ,r, can be
determined by using the equation below.
,r '

where

c2
vP

,r =
c =
vP =

Relative permittivity (dielectric constant);

Velocity of light in free space (3.0 @ 108 m/s, or 9.8 @ 108 ft/s);
Velocity of propagation (m/s or ft/m).

The formula for calculating relative permittivity indicates that a higher velocity of
propagation indicates a lower relative permittivity, since the velocity of light is a
constant value.

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Velocity of Propagation
Table 1-2 lists the relative dielectric constants of various materials.
MATERIAL

RELATIVE PERMITTIVITY,
,r

VELOCITY FACTOR,
vF (%)

Vacuum

1.00000

100

Air

1.0006

99.97

Teflon

2.10

69.0

Polyethylene

2.27

66.4

Polystyrene

2.50

63.2

Polyvinyl chloride (PVC)

3.30

55.0

Nylon

4.90

45.2

Table 1-2. Relative dielectric constant of various materials.

Procedure Summary
In this procedure section, you will measure the velocity of propagation of voltage
steps in the transmission lines of the circuit board. Based on the measured velocity,
you will determine the relative permittivity of the dielectric material used to construct
these lines.

PROCEDURE

Measuring the Velocity of Propagation

1. Make sure the TRANSMISSION LINES circuit board is properly installed

into the Base Unit. Turn on the Base Unit and verify that the LED's next to
each control knob on this unit are both on, confirming that the circuit board
is properly powered.

2. Referring to Figure 1-39, connect the STEP GENERATOR 50-S BNC

output to the BNC connector at the sending end of TRANSMISSION
LINE A. Leave the BNC connector at the receiving end of TRANSMISSION
LINE A unconnected (open-circuit).
Then, connect the STEP GENERATOR 100-S BNC output to the trigger
input of the oscilloscope, using a coaxial cable.
Finally, using an oscilloscope probe, connect channel 1 of the oscilloscope
to the 0-meter (0-foot) probe turret at the sending end of TRANSMISSION
LINE A. Make sure to connect the ground conductor of the probe to the
associated 0-meter (0-foot) shield turret.

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Velocity of Propagation
Note: When connecting an oscilloscope probe to one of the five
probe turrets of a transmission line, always connect the ground
conductor of the probe to the associated (nearest) coaxial-shield
turret. This will minimize noise in the observed signal due to the
parasitic inductance introduced by undesired ground return paths.

Figure 1-39. Measuring the velocity of propagation of voltage steps through TRANSMISSION
LINE A.

3. Make the following settings on the oscilloscope:

Channel 1
Mode . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Normal
Sensitivity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.2 V/div
Input Coupling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DC
Time Base . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.2 s/div
Trigger
Source . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . External
Level . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.3 V
Input Impedance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 MS or more

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Velocity of Propagation
Note: Throughout this course, the oscilloscope settings for the
time base and channel sensitivity are given as a starting point for
guidance and may be modified as necessary to obtain the
maximum possible measurement accuracy.

4. On the oscilloscope screen, observe the step response signal at the

sending end of TRANSMISSION LINE A. This signal corresponds to the
step response of TRANSMISSION LINE A. Does the reflected step appear
superimposed on the incident step, a certain time interval separating these
two steps, as Figure 1-40 shows?

G Yes

G No

Figure 1-40. Incident and reflected steps at the sending end of TRANSMISSION LINE A.

5. Observe that the incident and reflected steps first rise to a certain level, and
then increase exponentially, as the voltage across a capacitor charging
through a series resistor. Does this indicate that TRANSMISSION LINE A
have predominant series losses?

G Yes

1-44

G No

Velocity of Propagation
G

6. When the incident step arrives at the receiving end of TRANSMISSION

LINE A, it is reflected back toward the sending end because
a. TRANSMISSION LINE A is not terminated by a load impedance equal
to the Thevenin impedance of the STEP GENERATOR.
b. TRANSMISSION LINE A is not terminated by a load impedance equal
to its characteristic impedance.
c. the receiving end of TRANSMISSION LINE A is open-circuit, causing
the characteristic impedance of the line to be infinite.
d. the Thevenin impedance of the STEP GENERATOR is not equal to the
characteristic impedance of TRANSMISSION LINE A.

7. Decrease the oscilloscope time base to 0.05 s/div.

On the oscilloscope, measure the round-trip time, 2T, separating the rising
edge of the incident step from the rising edge of the reflected step, as
Figure 1-41 shows. This is the time required for the step launched by the
step generator to travel to the receiving end of TRANSMISSION LINE A
and then back to the step generator.
2T =

@ 10!9 s

Figure 1-41. Measuring time 2T.

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Velocity of Propagation
G

8. Based on the round-trip time, 2T, measured in the previous step, and on a
line length, l, of 24 meters (78.7 feet), calculate the velocity of propagation,
vP, through the line.
vP '

2l
2T
@ 108 m/s or @ 108 ft/s

vP =

9. Express the velocity of propagation, vP, obtained in the previous step as a

percentage of the velocity of light, or velocity factor, vF, using the formula
below.
Your result should be near the theoretical value of 66% for a RG-174
coaxial cable (type of cable used for TRANSMISSION LINES A and B of
your circuit board).
vF '

vP

@ 100%

where c = velocity of light in free space (3.0 @ 108 m/s, or 9.84 @ 108 ft/s)
vF =

Determining the Relative Permittivity (Dielectric Constant)

G 10. Based on the velocity of propagation vP obtained in step 8, determine the

relative permittivity, ,r of the dielectric material used to construct the
RG-174 coaxial cables used for TRANSMISSION LINES A and B.
The result should be quite near the theoretical value of 2.25 for
polyethylene (dielectric material used to construct the RG-174 coaxial
cables used for TRANSMISSION LINES A and B).
,r '

c2
vP

where c = velocity of light in free space (3.0 @ 108 m/s, or 9.84 @ 108 ft/s)
,r =

Effects that a Change in Line Length Has on the Round-Trip Time (2T)

G 11. As Figure 1-42 shows, increase the length of the line from 24 to 48 meters
(78.7 to 157.4 feet) through end-to-end connection of TRANSMISSION
LINEs A and B. To do so, connect the BNC connector at the receiving end
of TRANSMISSION LINE A to the BNC connector at the sending end of

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Velocity of Propagation
TRANSMISSION LINE B, using a short coaxial cable. Leave the
BNC connector at the receiving end of TRANSMISSION LINE B
unconnected (open-circuit).

Figure 1-42. Increasing the length of the line from 24 to 48 meters (78.7 to 157.4 feet).

G 12. Set the oscilloscope time base to 0.2 s/div. Observe that the round-trip
time, 2T, separating the rising edge of the incident step from the rising edge
of the reflected step has doubled, as Figure 1-43 shows.

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Velocity of Propagation

Figure 1-43. The round-trip time, 2T, separating the rising edges of the incident and reflected steps
has doubled.

Time 2T has doubled because the

a.
b.
c.
d.

velocity of propagation has decreased by a factor of two.

length of the line has doubled.
relative permittivity has doubled.
characteristic impedance of the line has doubled.

G 13. On the oscilloscope screen, observe that the incident and reflected steps
first rise to a certain level, and then increase exponentially as they did with
the shorter 24-meter (78.7-foot) long line.
These steps increase at the same rate as they did with the shorter length.
This occurs because the time constant of the series RC network
temporarily presented by the line is determined by the
a. characteristic impedance, which is a constant.
b. total series resistance and parallel capacitance of the entire line.
c. series resistance, parallel capacitance, and series inductance of the
line per unit length.
d. velocity factor, which is a constant.

G 14. Turn off the Base Unit and remove all the connecting cables and probes.

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Velocity of Propagation
CONCLUSION

The velocity of propagation of a signal in a transmission line can be measured

by using the step response method: a fast-rising (transient) step is launched
into the line. The time required for this step to travel from the generator to the
receiving end of the line and then back to the generator is measured. This
time, 2T, permits calculation of the velocity of propagation. 2T is synonymous
with round-trip time, or back-and-forth trip time.

The velocity of propagation of a signal in a transmission line is only a

percentage of the velocity of light in free space. The velocity of propagation in
a transmission line, when expressed as a percentage of the velocity of light in
free space, is called the velocity factor.

The velocity of propagation in a transmission line is determined mainly by the

relative permittivity (dielectric constant) of the dielectric material used to
construct that line. The lower the relative permittivity is, the higher the velocity
of propagation will be.

REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. In a transmission line, a signal travels at a velocity
a. that is null if the impedance of the load at the receiving end of the line is in
the open-circuit condition (4 S).
b. that is directly proportional to the relative permittivity of the dielectric
material used to construct the line.
c. that usually increases as the diameter of the line conductors is decreased.
d. relatively less than 3.0 @ 108 m/s, or 9.8 @ 108 ft/s.

2. The permittivity of the dielectric material used to construct a transmission line

a. is a measure of the ability of the material to maintain a difference in
propagation velocity over a given distance.
b. is called dielectric constant, or relative permittivity, when expressed in
relation to the permittivity of vacuum.
c. is usually expressed as a percentage of the velocity of light in free space.
d. does not determine the velocity factor of that line.

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Velocity of Propagation
3. The velocity of propagation of a signal in a transmission line can be determined
by using
a. a high-impedance oscilloscope probe connected to the sending end of the
line and a step generator connected to the receiving end of the line.
b. a simple formula, if the time required for a voltage step to travel to the
receiving end of the line and back to the generator is known.
c. the step response method, provided that the load impedance perfectly
matches the characteristic impedance of the line.
d. a step generator and a high-impedance oscilloscope connected to the
receiving end of the line.

4. When the step response method is used, the signal observed on the
oscilloscope at the sending end of the line consists of
a. a reflected step superimposed on an incident step, the rising edge of the
incident step being of higher voltage than that of the reflected step due to
attenuation.
b. an incident step superimposed on a reflected step, the rising edge of the
incident step being of higher voltage than that of the reflected step due to
attenuation.
c. a reflected step superimposed on an incident step, the time separating
these steps being directly proportional to the velocity of propagation.
d. several incident steps, the time separating two successive incident steps
being determined by the length of the line.

5. When a voltage step is launched into a lossy line whose series losses are
predominant,
a. the high-frequency components contained in the voltage steps make the
line temporarily appear as a simple RC network.
b. the incident and reflected steps will first rise to a certain level and then
decrease exponentially.
c. it is not possible to measure the time separating the incident and reflected
steps.
d. the line will appear as a simple LC network from the perspective of the load.

1-50