WAVE ENERGY

Vladimir.I. Vissarionov
Department of nontraditional and renewable energy sources, Moscow Power Engineering
Institute (TechnicalUniversity), Russia
Valeri V. Volshanik
Department of water power utilization, Moscow State University of Civil Engineering, Russia
Keywords: Wind waves, Energy conversion, Wave power device (WPD), Wave power plant
(WPP), Feasibility indexes, Environmental aspects
Contents
1.Waves Origin
2.Energy of Wind Waves
3.Methods of Wave Energy Extraction
4.Application of Wave Energy
5.Wave Energy Converters Classification
6. Conclusion
Acknowledgements
Related Chapters
Glossary
Bibliography
Biographical Sketches
Summary
Renewable energy of windwaves in oceans, seas and large lakes is charged by the solar
radiation and wind. The mean specific power of perturbations in the World Ocean is estimated
as 2.7 W m-2. However in waves that are traveling hundreds of kilometers the energy becomes
concentrated. The mean specific power of waves is about 25 kW per meter of wave front for
the countries of the Northern Hemisphere. The technical potential of the waves is estimated to
be some 2.7 billion kW. This is about the same figure as the power of power plants of the
whole world. The electric power demand of the most developed countries of Europe, Asia and
America can be covered by 20% only using coastal wind waves.
Wave energy is renewable, environmentally clean. Utilization of this energy does not produce
wastes and does not need land estrangement. Deployment of wave power plants decreases the
expenses for coastline protection. Wave devices may combine functions of levees and dams.
Unfortunately usage of wave energy is also associated with some disadvantages that hamper
it's market penetration. First, it is in most cases impossible to match the produced power with
customer's demand. Second, there are problems of siting and fixing wave devices offshore,
problems of transmission of energy to the customer, problems of survival in stormy conditions
and others.
The first engineering design of wave converters was elaborated more than 200 years ago,
whereas the first real device that converted wave energy into electricity appeared at the
beginning of the 20th century.

Up to today more than 2000 technical designs for wave power extraction have been proposed.
A lot of R&D on wave power utilization is carried out in UK, Japan, US, Norway and other
countries. The two first wave power plants (WPP) were built in Norway.
There are many proposals on how to use the energy produced by a WPP: to feed it into an
existing power grid, to supply isolated power consumers, to recharge batteries and gascylinders, to liquefy air, to desalinate sea water, to lift the deep ocean water to the surface, to
supply offshore rigs and platforms with potable water, etc.
Development of highly efficient WPP is impossible without summarizing experience and
systematization of known configurations. Many attempts have been made to classify the
proposed configurations, however, up to now there is no classification of WPP that would
satisfy everyone because many of the WPP are characterized by multi-stage energy
conversion, a great number of components within a WPP have complex functioning.
Enumeration of advantages of wave engineering, introduction of modern economic methods
that take into account environmental benefits of WPP, intensive R&D in this area aimed to
upgrade technical schemes of wave energy conversion raise hopes that they will have a
significant share in energy balance of coastal countries.
1. Waves Origin
Waves on the water surface are the most visible part of energy in seas, oceans, large lakes and
storage ponds.
There are four types of energy sources in nature that produce perturbations in the sea: wind,
that originates ripple and wind waves; seismic distortions, causing tidal or tsunami waves;
solar and lunar gravity fields that become a source of larger tidal waves; and movement of
objects on the sea surface.
Only wind wave utilization has been demonstrated in industrial devices. Tsunami waves are
random and have very high specific energy. It makes it very difficult to utilize them. Tidal
waves are converted by special technique Waves produced by objects are also random and so
powerless and are therefore of no interest.
Solar power that is consumed either by the land surface or by water mass is the origin of the
renewable energy of wind waves. However, in the waves the energy appears to be more
concentrated. Air above warm water moves upward, squeezing colder and heavier air down.
Besides there is a general air circulation in the atmosphere, whereby warm air above the
equator waters goes up and moves towards polar region, where it is cooled, goes down and
streams back. The shape of the landscape and the earth rotation affects air circulation. The
general picture of wind circulation is presented on Figure 1.

Figure 1. Prevailing winds caused by solar radiation

Despite the fact that the mean density of energy sources charged by the sun is much less than
the original solar one, their energy in some cases becomes more concentrated. For example,
the mean specific power of the solar radiation in latitude 15o North is 0.17 kW m-2. Average
wind velocity at this latitude in the middle of the Pacific is about 10 m s-1, and the specific
power is 0.58 kW m-2. Whereas the specific power of a middle- sized wave in this region is
8.42 kW m-2.
The mean specific power of the World ocean surface is 2.7 W m-2, i.e. less than mean specific
density of solar radiation by about 100 times. However traveling substantial distances of
hundreds km, perturbation accumulates energy. Subsequently, when it meets wave power
devices, it is already concentrated (see Figure 2). So, the energy flow of a 1 m deep water
layer with a wave height of 3 m and a period of 10 s is three times higher than the solar
constant (1.36 kW m-2), and when the wave's height is 5 m and the period is 13 s, it exceeds
the solar constant by a factor of 7. That is why the usage of derived energy from sun and wind
is of high interest.

Figure 2. Wind wave specific power, kW m-2 according to: - Halls; - Tornkvist; o - Sichkarev
2. Energy of Wind Waves
Wind wave energy is a type of mechanical energy of ocean water masses (Figure 3). The
energy is renewable, predictable, environmentally friendly and can be economically used. The
electric power demand of most developed countries of Europe, Asia and America can be
covered by only 20% of the available coastal wind wave power. One can mention such
benefits of wave energy as absence of wastes and estrangement of land, and decrease of
expenses due to coastal erosion. Improvement of environmental conditions and economy of
fossil fuel in many regions can be achieved by replacing conventional power plants with wave
power plants.

Figure 3. Main types of kinetic and potential energy of wind waves

However, being so attractive, wave energy still suffers from a number of disadvantages that
withhold it's wide usage. The most significant disadvantage is that the energy is intermittent.
Most of WPP's can not fit consumer's needs due to rapid changes in meteorological
conditions. That is why it is important to minimize this disadvantage by using energy storage
facilities or integrate WPP into a system with alternative power sources. A rather low density
of wave energy increases the WPP dimensions, subsequently increasing the amount of
materials and cost. Special methods and ways of energy extraction are necessary due to
substantial fickleness of the mean wave energy.
3. Methods of Wave Energy Extraction
Development of wave power engineering is restrained by a number of technical difficulties.
Those includes problems of WPP mooring and power transmission from the power plant to
the consumer, work in storm conditions, corrosion and biological damage prevention, choice
of proper materials, decrease of cost etc. However, similar marine problems are facing
hydrotechnical structures or marine vessels. Being widely explored by mankind, the ocean
reveals its secrets so that such problems will no longer be an issue in the near future.

It's been 200 years since engineers worked to invent new ways and devices of wave energy
extraction. The very first mention about usage of wind wave energy goes back to the 18th
century. The patent was given on July 12, 1779 to Zharers (father and son) from Paris for the
first wave device. The first USA patent for the wave energy conversion device was given in
the 1844. In 1898 P. Right patented a device (see Figure 4), and in 1902 the patent was
conferred to James Grahem from New York for a vessel, powered by wave energy. A first
operating device was constructed in 1910 in France, Bordeaux. This 1 kW device could
convert wave energy into mechanical energy. A power plant called Bushe-Prasekue was built
also in France at the beginning of the 20th century. Its scheme is given on Figure 5.

Figure 4. Scheme of a water engine patented by P. Right

1 - Hydraulic system, 2 - Shaft, 3 - Float, 4 - Lever, 5 - Anchor support
First practical usage of wind wave power began in the early 60th in Japan. A naval officer J.
Masuda invented a beacon powered by wind wave energy. There are about 700 of those
beacons installed worldwide.
The development of wave energy was spurred up by the energy crisis in 1973, when oil prices
soared. This crisis forced scientists of many countries to begin to look for alternative power

sources, especially in countries that suffered from lack of fossil fuel. That is why wave power
engineering has been mostly developed in insular countries (UK, Japan, Australia) and in
countries that have a long coastal line (USA, Norway, Portugal, France). However the
research was carried out even in Germany, where the wave power potential is small

Figure 5. Wave energy converter

1 - generator, 2 - air turbine, 3 - bypass, 4 - water proof lid, 5 - air, 6 - water
By 1982 there have been registered about 1000 wave energy conversion proposals. Half of
these proposals were developed from 1974 to 1982. Statistic shows that in 1975 there were no
more than 5 proposals annually, in 1975 more than 20, during 1976-1977 more than 40,
1978-1979 50, 1980-1981 more than 70 proposals yearly.
USA became a leader in number of new technical proposals on wave power plants (more than
400), followed by UK 350, France 100, Japan 50, USSR (Russia) 20. A few patents
were issued to Czechia, Romania, Belgium, Denmark, Norway, Sweden, Italy, Finland,
Canada.
Several reports of wave energy usage appeared in technical literature in the end of the 18th
century. Before 1970 there were only several works published. Since 1970 there has been a
growth of interest in this topic and an increase of number of publications. In 1974 there were
more than 40 publications, in 1979 150. The number of publications do witness a growing
interest in wind wave energy. It becomes regular to publish articles on wave power

engineering in such magazines as "Water power and Dam Construction", "New scientist",
"Electrical Review", "Energy Digest", "Ocean Industries", "Nature" (UK), "Meerestechnik"
(Germany) and others. The number of authors on this topic outnumbers 500.
A new international magazine was published in UK in January 1979, which was called
"Applied Ocean Research". This magazine collected articles that dealt with problems of ocean
research, design and construction of wave, tidal and other power devices that consume the
energy of the ocean; study of the climate, meteorological, hydrographical and other
characteristics of the World oceans.
Reports and papers on the usage of wave power were submitted at more than 60 international
congresses and symposiums devoted to power engineering, physics of the ocean,
shipbuilding, protection of the coasts, etc. A number of international conferences were
devoted solely to the problem of wave energy.
4. Application of Wave Energy
There are lots of ways on how to use electric or other types of energy, produced by WPP,
including power supply to locations in the open sea, remote coastal areas, and insular
customers. These also include batteries and gas-cylinders recharge, seawater desalination
using electrolysis, liquid air production, conversion of oxygen and nitrogen to produce
fertilizers and explosives, powering of refrigerators etc.
Except for the main purpose of electrical power production, WPP can be used as moles for
coastal protection of marine structures. In particular they can include devices capable of
intercepting and transporting accretions, avoiding their impact with hydro-technical
structures. A collateral effect of wave power devices deployment may become a greatly
increased quality of fishing, navigation and sport conditions.
However there are numbers of drawbacks that limit the usage of wave energy. First, this
energy is characterized by rather small concentration; second, it is intermittent and
randomized; as it was mentioned above, the power produced by WPP cannot match the
customers needs. When designing WPP these disadvantages must be taken into account and
minimized. This may be achieved by construction of energy storage that can accumulate WPP
products during its function period and deliver these products according to consumers' needs.
Their construction brings further complications and expenses.
The usage of wind wave energy has to be devoted to customers and production processes,
which can allow power supply interruption for a few hours during a day, or even for some
days. However the possibility to create permanently operating systems must be also
considered.
Taking this into account, it is possible to consider three main directions of wave energy usage:
1. To supply countries and their regions with power produced by WPPs. Such projects are
carried out within the frame of national programs, led either state or private companies. In this
case the WPP capacity is rated at hundreds or thousands of MW;
2. To supply power to local consumers, located on the coastline or in the sea. This direction is
the most expedient at present. These projects can be carried out either within the frame of
national programs or by private companies. Capacities of such WPP are rated at 5-20 MW;

3. To convert wave energy into mechanical energy of different types for devices and technical
processes. This direction is very close to the above one, because any type of mechanic energy
can finally be converted into electricity. However this approach is of a great importance at the
beginning of construction because it is possible to skip one of the conversion stages. It also
allows excluding the cost of electric units that can reach for some devices 80%.
There are a few schemes of wave energy usage for vessel propulsion. The first successful
attempt of such application was made by Herman Linden (Italy) in 1898[Vershinsky, 1986].
His boat, called "Autonavt" moved with a speed of 5.4 km h-1, when moving up the wind. At
present there has been registered more than 40 patents of vessels having propulsion systems
that use wave energy.
WPD with capacities in the range 10-100 W are already rather widely used in human
activities related with the ocean. There are about 700 beacons operating in the ocean which
are powered by wave energy. Similar power devices can be used on ocean research stations
and platforms.
To explore and operate coastal oil deposits and to decrease consumption of expensive diesel
fuel when fishing trawlers are staying in ports, one can use a WPP with power of up to 1MW.
Small power devices may find their usage in coastal areas for water desalination, cooling or
heating plants. This type of wave energy usage doesn't require high standards of electricity
and can allow the use of commercial DC generators.
It becomes expedient to use WPP for water electrolysis in order to produce oxygen and
hydrogen, which may soon become fuel for aircraft's and space vehicles.
WPD designed for water pumping are likely to be widely used. The water power produced by
pumps can be easily converted into electricity, using ordinary hydro-energy devices. These
devices can be located on the coast instead of off shore, which is more preferable for stability
and durability.
A promising potential of wave pump development may become extraction of some metals
from water, e.g. uranium. The problem of uranium extraction applying wave power is most
intensively studied in Japan. There also exist projects that allow the recovery of metallic
brines and manganese concretion using wave power pumps.
Projects in many countries have been carried out concerning the ocean thermal energy
conversion (OTEC). An OTEC plant includes powerful pumps that pump deep cold water into
a heat exchanger. If these pumps are using wave power their price can be greatly decreased,
which may lead to a decrease in the cost of electricity produced by OTEC.
One cannot but admit that wave pumps can be used to develop mariculture, based upon
artificial upwelling i.e. pumping the deep ocean water which is rich with nutrient, biogenic
matter to the surface in order to increase the output and growth rate of various species
(mussels, oysters, seaweeds etc.). Wave pumps can also supply water to the shore into fish
breeding ponds or into water treatment systems.
It is also possible to use wave pumps for pumping storage installations either coastal or
underwater, and to increase littoral hydro power plants output by pumping seawater into the
storage reservoir.
A company called "Wikkers" is producing small wave pumps to pump-out water from yachts
and cutters.

Economic indices of WPP are lower than that of conventional power plants. This pushes
engineers to design multipurpose WPP, that could, along with electricity generation, pump
water or produce compressed air. It also must be addressed to different consumers e.g. those,
who work in the open sea and the ones who work on the shore. One can mark out
multifunctional devices that can be used not only for water mass energy utilization. They can
serve as well as levees, mooring lines, breakwaters etc. Apart from that, these devices can be
used to protect shore structures and buildings from waves. Such project is designed to protect
Russian erections of Tugurskaya tidal power plant from wind waves demolition by a WPP.
There are lots of separate design attempts of ways to convert wave energy into usable form.
However, in spite of the fact that there are lots of new inventions, the main types of devices
for wave energy extraction can be numbered as many as 7 or 9. This makes further upgrade of
WPP easier.
5. Wave Energy Converters Classification
It is impossible to develop highly efficient WPP without summarizing experience and
systematization of known constructions. Many attempts have been made to classify the
experience gained by designing WPP constructions. However up to now, there is no
classification of WPP that would have satisfied everyone because of the multi-stage energy
conversion and a great number of components within WPP having complex functioning.
One of the first attempts to classify WPP was made by V.V. Shuleikin (Russia). The problem
of classification was also dealt by P.A.Mudrikh, V.V. Volshanik, G.V. Matushevsky. A great
contribution was made by V.I.Sichkarev and A.S.Shpak. Classifications were also proposed by
Japan scientists: M.Masubuti, H.Tanka, M.Hirosy, M.Kato and N.Yamomoto, and scientists of
other countries: V. Durskhoff, M. MacCormic, K. Watts, D. Graham, D. Avans. Most of these
classifications don't cover all the variety of designs. For example, M.Hirosi, M.Tanaka and
M.Kato classify WPP's in three categories by the form of energy obtained in the first energy
conversion stage: pneumatic, mechanic and of potential energy of the displaced water.
N.Yamoto and M.Hirosi had further generalized the classification, discerning movable or
fixed units in the first stage and also on floating or anchored devices.
M.French classifies WPP as attenuators and terminators, based on its location related to the
wave's front. N.V. Veshnevsky classifies WPP by a number of stages of energy conversion,
namely with one-, two-, three- or five- stage. One-stage systems convert wave energy into
electricity directly, using piezo-electrical effect. Two- or three- stage systems contain one or
two mechanical energy conversion steps plus generator.
In the five-stage system along with an engine and generator there is an accumulator
(pneumatic or hydraulic). An updated WPP classification by a number of energy conversion
stages was given by V.I. Sichkarev (Table 1).
Number of
stages
1

Conversion stages

Wave - piezoelectric generator

Wave - water flow - magnetohydrodynamic generator

Wave - water flow with hydro turbine - induction electric generator
Wave - water flow with induction electric generator
Wave - water flow - piezoelectric generator

Wave - air flow - air turbine - induction electric generator

Wave - water flow - hydro turbine - induction electric generator

Wave - water flow - air - air turbine - induction electric generator

Wave - water flow - liquid - hydro turbine - induction electric generator
Wave - water flow - hydraulic pipe - hydraulic motor - induction
electric generator
Table 1: WPP classification by numbers of energy conversion stages
(by V.I. Sichkarev)

Table 1. WPP classification by numbers of energy conversion stages (by V.I. Sichkarev)
Classifications of the second conversion stage are based on a final product of WPP, which is
mainly electricity. This greatly narrows the ability to apply this classification, because it
cannot be applied to WPD, that are used as pumps, compressors or other mechanical systems.
Besides, these classifications have a serious disadvantage. They classify devices by technical
or structural features, and do not touch the used wave processes. A slight progress was
achieved by H.Tanaka's classification, based on WPP usage of shallow and deep waves.
Floating bodies are classified by a number of degrees of freedom. Devices, deployed on the
coastline are classified by the way of wave treatment (concentration, diffraction and steady
water).
While the theory of the wave energy extraction has been developed, classifications, based on
different components of wave energy conversion began to appear. For example, V.Durtskhoff
suggested and V.V. Volshanik and G.V. Matushevsky developed and added the classification,
based on the form of wave energy that a WPD uses (see Figure 6). This classification makes it
possible to describe schemes of the wind influence upon a WPP working tool. M. Masubuty
classification divides WPP's by the way the tool moves while extracting energy.
Almost simultaneously the classification appeared developed by P.A. Mudrikh, added by
V.I.Sichkarev and A.S. Shpak. Their classification takes into account not only the wave
process, used by a WPD, but also the method of structure stabilization.

D. Lenman and G. Skobi have developed a rather complete, however sophisticated

classification, that takes into consideration used wave components, methods of energy
conversion and ways of structure stabilization. The classification cross-link allows the
application to a single type of WPD a number of ways of stabilization and to examine the
possibility to use a number of wave processes in a WPD.

Figure 6. Known types of WPDs that use various wave energy extraction (study with Figure
3)
All the classifications, mentioned above, are based on technical and physical features. Yet
WPDs can be classified differently. For example, using the number of ways of stabilization
for one WPD, or using different types of wave energy. Finalizing this survey, it has to be said
that up to now there is no universal classification, which encompass all the variety of possible
WPD.
6. Conclusion
The power of wind waves that can be efficiently used is estimated as 2.7 billion kW. This
figure is almost equal to the power of all the world's power plants. The specific density of
wave energy does surpass the density of wind energy by a factor of 10, and even exceeds the
density of solar radiation.
The energy of waves is renewable, predictable and environmentally clean. Electricity,
produced by a WPP and mechanical power produced by a WPD can be broadly used. This
gives good perspectives to the development of wave engineering on industrial scale.
WPD located on the shore decrease the wave's influence upon the beach because of extraction
of their energy, hence levees may be not necessary.
Economic indices of WPP are still inferior to that of conventional industrial power plants.
Thus, development of wave engineering must be aimed to solve the main problem: to
decrease the WPP energy cost at least to be competitive with conventional power. To this end,
it is necessary to upgrade constructions and increase energy extraction efficiency.
The analysis of wave power extraction schemes pinpoint the main roots along which the WPP
perfection can be achieved. One of the main demands is the need to concentrate the wave
before interaction with the working tool.
The industrial rates of wind wave energy utilization require detailed research of consumer's
demands on WPPs. As optimization criteria of various features can be used, derived from
certain conditions of WPP application and customer's requirements. In most real projects,
optimization has to be based on minimizing specific investments for the WPP construction.
Due to the randomized sequence of wave power, while optimizing calculations are carried
out, the integrated (monthly or annual) output of a WPP must be taken into account.
Enumeration of advantages of wave engineering and introduction of modern economic
methods that make credit to environmental benefits of WPPs give hope that necessary R&D
work will be carried out, aimed to improvement of wave energy extraction schemes and wide
spread application of WPPs in coastal countries.
Acknowledgments
Author is grateful to B. E. Monahov and V. I. Sichkarev for their help in preparing this article,
to N. M. Evstigneev for translation from Russian into English, to V. B. Druzhkina for
technical assistance.
Related Chapters

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Glossary
Wind waves

: Periodical distortion of the water surface, that turns into a

consecutive alteration of crests and depressions.
Wind wave power
: Mechanical power of water mass, caused by horizontal wind
distortion of the water surface.
Wind waves power
: Part of wind wave energy (global, regional, local) that can be
resources
considered as a source for extraction of power to meet practical
needs.
Wave power plant (WPP) : Installation, which is aimed to convert wave power into
electric power.
Wave Power Device (WPD) : Installation producing energy for various kind of end use.
Wind wave energy
: - Fixed or mobile structure, receiving forces from wind waves
converter
and converting them into different types of useful energy.
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Biographical Sketches
Vladimir. I. Vissarionov, Professor, Department of nontraditional and renewable energy sources, Moscow
Power Engineering Institute (Technical University), Russia
Born 25 July 1939, Yaroslavl, USSR
1962 Graduated from Leningrad Polytechnic Institute (recently St. Petersburg state technical university)
1970 Ph.D.
1983 Full Professor
1988 up to now Head of Chair Nontraditional Renewable Energy Sources Moscow Power Engineering Institute
(Technical University)
Author of 240 scientific publications including 27 monographs and textbooks and 24 patents
Main field of activity - renewable energy sources
Member of International Solar Energy Society
Chairman, Scientific and methodical council of the Russian Federation Ministry for Education for the specialty
Nontraditional renewable energy sources
Valeri V. Volshanik, Professor, Department of water power utilization, Moscow State University of Civil
Engineering, Russia
Born 14 November 1939, Moscow
1962 Graduated from the Moscow State University of Civil Engineering
1972 Ph.D.
1997 Full professor
1962 up to now collaborator of the Moscow State University of Civil Engineering, starting from 1997 Professor
at the Chair Utilization of hydraulic energy
Author of 150 scientific papers (in particular 17 concerned with wave energy) and 20 patents
Main field of activity - hydraulic engineering including wave energy installations
Member of the Russian Engineering Academy.

To cite this chapter

Vladimir.I. Vissarionov,Valeri V. Volshanik, (2004), WAVE ENERGY, in Renewable Energy Sources
Charged With Energy From The Sun and Originated from Earth-Moon Interaction, [Ed. Evald E. Shpilrain], in
Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS), Developed under the Auspices of the UNESCO, Eolss
Publishers, Oxford ,UK, [http://www.eolss.net] [Retrieved July 20, 2007]