Climate Responsive Scientific Process of Design

Graphic representation of the process of design

Relationship between built-form and the environment should become the driving force behind this scientific process, based on a scientific
methodology.
Available tools of analysis allow critical performance and evaluation of built and overall space network. It seems logical to develop a
process, almost in the form of an algorithm, which will help find the optimal form/solution for a given set of requirements and constraints.
Evidently based on a design hypothesis, it is possible to generate a set of solutions through this process/algorithm. From this set of
solutions the optimal solution can be arrived at. However, the reverse is not true. Given a case (the design hypothesis) and a rule (the
simulation model) one may obtain by deductive inference the unique possible result (the performance characteristics of the given
hypothesis). If instead, one defines the required result (the performance characteristics) there does not exist a mode of inference by which,
using a given rule (a specific algorithm) one may determine uniquely the case (the design solution).
The idea of climatically responsive design is to modulate the conditions such that they are always within or as close as possible to the
comfort zone. This is shown conceptually in the Fig. 2.6. The ambient conditions over 24 hours period and is shown by the line A. For a
majority of the time it is outside the comfort zone. Modulations introduced by the landscape, built-form, envelope, materials and other
control measures bring the conditions within the comfort range throughout the 24 hours period cycle. This is the goal of climate responsive
design.
However, unlike industrial manufacture, designing is not a linear process. Parameters are interrelated and interactive. Often they need to
be considered simultaneously and in a cyclical manner. Any process of design must, therefore, allow for this flexibility and dynamism. This
process and the design tool is outlined in later sections.
The basis of our attempt at climate responsive design involves considering climate as a parameter of design in every aspect of the building
and built environment. Our first task is to put forth these various aspects in a logical sequence. In effect, we are dissecting the design into
its constituent elements1 so that we can act upon each in turn. The sequence proceeds from macro level details to micro level details.

The ideal climatic design: successive modulation of ambient conditions so as to bring internal conditions within the comfort zone

Design Sequence
(i) Landform: topography and slope orientation
(ii) Vegetation type and pattern
(iii) Water bodies
(iv) Street widths and orientation
(v) Open spaces and built spaces
(vi) Ground character
(vii) Plan form
(viii) Plan elements
(ix) Building orientation
(x) Surface area to volume ratio
(xi) Roof form
(xii) Fenestration pattern and configuration
(xiii) Fenestration orientation
(xiv) Fenestration controls
(xv) External colors and textures
(xvi) Roof materials
(xvii) Walls
(xviii) Internal layouts and partitions
(xix) Internal materials
(xx) Internal finishes

Two dimensional schematic diagram of the heat balances of urban and rural surfaces.

Frequency distribution of urban heat island intensity.

A qualitative study of these modulations, at each level, is an essential prerequisite to climatic design. What follows is just that. Each level is
explained in terms of its climatic implication, the conceptual understanding thereof and its effect on the building design. The various levels
together provide an extensive understanding of the interaction of the building and the microclimate.
To enable the qualitative and quantitative analysis of landform the energy balance at the surface should be analyzed and the consequent
effect of this be taken into account in the design process.

Climatic Implications
The building orientation determines the amount of radiation it receives. The orientation, with respect to air patterns, affects the amount of
natural ventilation possible.
Building Design
In the northern hemisphere it is generally understood that north faces receive minimum direct radiation and south faces receive the
maximum. This however is not entirely true. For instance, at 28 deg N on June 22nd the sun is mostly in the northern hemisphere. An
examination of solar charts would reveal that a northern orientation receives little radiation in summers only for latitudes that are sufficiently
far from the equator, in fact north of 32 deg N. In other words, while Southern faces receive more radiation in winter.
Climatic Implications
Roof materials determine the amount of heat transfer through the roof inwards or outwards as well as the time taken for this heat transfer
to take place.
Theoretical Understanding
Each material has a characteristic specific heat. When it comes to heat exchanges we are concerned with both the specific heat of the
material and the amount (or mass) of the material. The product of mass and specific heat, is known as the thermal mass. While the specific
heat is a property of the material, the thermal mass depends on the amount of the material as well. The thermal mass (or capacity) is an
indicator of the heat storing ability of a material. Heat flow through materials is determined by the conductance and resistance of the

material. What we need to know is the heat flow from or to a space. For this we need to know the air to air resistance of materials. So we
need to take into account not just the resistance of the material but also that of the air film at the surface of the material. The reciprocal of
the air to air resistance is known as the transmittance or U-value of the material. It is the U-value which is most commonly used. Two points
have to be made. One, when heat flows through a material, a certain amount of heat is absorbed by the material. Two, heat flow is not
instantaneous but depends on the U-value and thickness of the material. Therefore, for any material of a given thickness, there is a certain
amount of time lag before the heat is transmitted. Since some of the heat is absorbed, not all of it is transmitted. This leads us to two other
significant properties of materials-the time lag and the decrement factor. The time lag is the time difference between the maximum outdoor
and maximum indoor temperatures and the decrement factor is the ratio between the two. Therefore, specific heat and transmittance are
values intrinsic to a material. Depending on its thickness we can know the amount of heat absorbed and transmitted and the time taken for
this transmission.
Building Design
In hot and cold climates the roof should have a low transmittance value. This would ensure maximum heat gain and heat loss, respectively.
Using insulation would minimize the heat stored by the roof. However, in the absence of insulation, a low U -value would generally imply a
high thermal capacity. In warm humid climates heat storage is undesirable. The roof should, therefore, be light, probably having high Uvalues and low heat capacities.

Level One: Landform Level Two: Landform Orientation

Prime Parameters: Air temperature, Air movement

Landform variations and the microclimate. Flat site experience little variation. air speed increases up the slope and decrease down it. Depression valleys experience
lower air temperatures. They have little air movement unless they lie in the direction of airflow.

Pressure Difference caused by obstacles

Landform optimization in hot climates: building in a depression and shading from heat and wind minimizes heat gain and discomfort

Protection from katabatic winds on slope; A cool mass of air descending down a slope (katabatic wind) can be deflected or minimized by thick vegetation.Air speeds
are greatest on the crest

Other Parameters: Climatic Implications

The landform or topography of a site and surrounding could either be flat, sloping or undulating (mounds etc.). If the land is flat, similar
conditions would prevail over the entire site. The location of the building in such a case is not dictated by climatic concerns. However,
slopes and depressions lead to different levels of air temperature and air movement at different parts of the site. Cooler air tends to collect
in depression or dips in the land. As a result, the air temperature is lower in such areas. Also air speed increases up the windward slope.
Air speed is maximum at the crest and minimum on the leeward side.
Theoretical Understanding
These phenomena can be easily understood. Cool air has a higher density than hot air. As a result cool air is heavier and tends to settle
down in depressions while hot air rises. This fact also explains convection currents in liquids and gases. On the other hand, air movement
is also affected by pressure difference. Airflow normally takes place from high pressure zones to low pressure zones. Obstacles in the path
of airflow cause an air-buildup and therefore a high pressure area on the windward side. Similarly, direction of the airflow would now
depend on the shape of the obstacle and the magnitude of the pressure difference. Further, as the area through which a fluid flows
decreases, fluid velocity increases and vice versa.
Building Design
These phenomena would have an implication on our building design. In hot climates building in a depression implies relatively lower air
temperatures. When building on a slope, the leeward side is preferable, as long as the orientation is acceptable. In both cases warm
breezes would be minimized. The collection of water in a depression might allow for a water body. This would also be beneficial in cooling
the place. In cooler climates not only do we not place our building in the depression we also avoid the path of the cool air down the slope.
Here, again, vegetation could help in protecting from cool breezes. In humid climates our primary concern is maximizing air movement. We
must, therefore, place our building on the top of the windward slope where the air speed would be the highest.
However, even in a cold or humid climate we might be forced to place our building in a depression. If so, we can take measures to mitigate
the effects. A study of the different levels to enhance or suppress the effects of decisions taken at earlier levels.
Other Possible Effects
The placement of our building might affect other parameters as well. Daylight levels in a depression will have to be considered. We also
need to remember that in hot climates the relatively lower air temperature obtained in depressions is mostly limited to the minimum nighttime temperature. In some cases, this itself may be uncomfortably high

Level Two: Landform Orientation

Prime Parameters:Radiation

Landform orientation and building placement in hot climates. If the slope is steep or the sun is low, a northern slope may minimize heat gain but this would also cut
off winter sun. In some cases earth sheltered construction on the south slope would be the answer

Other Parameters:Daylight
Climatic Implications

Landform orientation has little meaning when the land is flat. However, the orientation of slopes would make a difference. In northern
latitudes (away from the equator) south slopes receive the most while north slopes receive the least direction radiation. In the southern
latitudes, just the reverse happens. East and west oriented slopes receive direct radiation. In the southern latitudes, just the reverse
happens. East and west oriented slopes receive direct radiation mostly during the morning and evening, respectively.
Building Design
In hot climates, a north slope would be preferable as it would receive the least direct radiation. However, this is true only if the slope is
steep enough to shade the building. As a result slope orientation is of little consequence. The building should be placed so as to maximize
airflow.
Other Possible Effects
Hot-dry climates often have cool or cold winters. While the prime need is to minimize heat gain, there is also a period when heating is
required. If, therefore, one is building on a sufficiently steep north slope, it would be advisable to build into the slope. This would make the
building warmer during winter and cooler during summer. However, we would be deprived of the pleasure of direct sunshine. The amount
of daylight available needs to be considered. Further, we also need to consider the airflow pattern for the slopes we are building on.
Building placement from the point of airflow and that of solar radiation may not always be the same. Often we need to reach a compromise
based on greater need.

Level Three: Vegetation Pattern

Prime Parameters:Air movement, Radiation

Vegetation increasing, decreasing and directing airflow

Vegetation causes pressure differences which shifts the air path

Other Parameters:Relative Humidity, Daylight

Climatic Implications
Vegetation and trees in particular, very effectively shade and reduce heat gain. It also causes pressure differences, thereby, increasing and
decreasing air speed or directing airflow. They can, therefore, direct air into a building or deflect it away.
Theoretical Understanding

Plants, shrubs and trees absorb radiation in the process of photosynthesis. As a result, they actually cool the environment. Trees and
hedges also affect airflow. Thick vegetation effectively cut it off. On the other hand, careful placement of trees and hedges can direct and
increase air speeds. This is achieved by planting trees and hedges so as to make a narrowing 'path' for the air. This reduction of area
increases air speed. The placement of trees and hedges cause minor pressure differences which marginally changes the air path. This is
easy to understand. The leeward side/ wind shadow area is a low pressure zone. Air tends to shift towards this. In the case of hedges, the
low pressure shifts the path downwards. Airflow below the canopy of a tree is similarly shifted upwards. The understanding of these
pressure changes and the consequent air paths can be used to our advantage in building design.
Building Design
In hot-dry climates where heat gain is to be minimized, trees can be used to cut off the east and west sun. Hot breezes can be effectively
cut off. Planting deciduous trees is very useful in hot dry climates. They provide comforting shade in summer and shed their foliage in
winters allowing sun. Evergreen trees can be used in cold climates to cut off breezes. However, they would also absorb solar radiation and,
thereby, cool the place. In warm humid regions vegetation can be employed to maximize airflow. However, if they are not planted carefully
they would end up reducing air speeds.
Other Possible Effects
Trees and vegetation would also increase humidity levels. This needs to be considered when employing trees in hot-dry and
warm humid regions.

Level Four: Water Bodies

Prime Parameters: Radiation, Air Temperature

Water bodies absorb much heat during the day and reradiate it at night

Other Parameters: Humidity

Climatic Implications
Water absorbs relatively large amount of radiation. They also allow evaporative cooling. As a result, during the daytime areas around water
bodies are generally cooler. At night, however, water bodies release relatively large amounts of heat to the surroundings. This heat can be
used for warming purposes.
Theoretical Understanding
The above stated phenomena are rather easy to understand. Water has a relatively high latent heat of evaporation as well as specific heat.
In other words, water uses up a comparatively large amount of heat in evaporating. It also absorbs or releases a comparatively large
amount of heat for a unit rise or fall of temperature. So, when water evaporates by the movement of air, it cools the air. This is evaporative
cooling. In the process humidity rises. Evaporation is slow if the relative humidity is already high. Water has a specific heat, a little more
than twice that of concrete. The means that the same volume of water would absorb about twice as much heat as concrete for the same
rise of temperature. This can either reduce heat gain or if desired the radiation absorbed can be used as an indirect source of heat.
Building Design
In hot-dry climates, water/ water bodies can be used both for evaporative cooling as well as minimizing heat gain. Taking into account wind
patterns and vegetation they can be used to direct cool breeze into the house. A roof pond minimizes heat gain through the roof. In cold
climates, water bodies are beneficial only if their heat gain and loss can be controlled. This would happen only if the water body can be
enclosed by the building. However, we may be faced with a large water body in a cold region. The best thing to do then is to stay away
from it. The wind pattern would have to be studied and winds avoided either by building location, vegetation pattern or both. In warm-humid
regions water bodies are best avoided. The minimal benefit provided by evaporative cooling would be offset by the heightened humidity
levels.
Other Possible Effects

In hot-dry climates, we need to consider the severity of winters. Changing wind patterns in different seasons and the vegetation pattern
may be useful in avoiding winter winds. The increases humidity levels would have to be considered. This does not pose a problem in hotdry zones. It is in composite zones that the greatest challenge is faced. Water bodies would be inappropriate in the monsoons and winters
though being beneficial in the hot season. Ideally they should be drained off during humid and cold seasons.

Level Five: Street Widths and Orientation

Prime Parameters: Radiation, Daylight

Street widths in hot climates: narrow north-south streets minimize eastern and western radiation.

Arrangement of building blocks to maximize airflow.

Street widths in cold climates. Wide east-west streets maximize the scope for south winter sun.

Other Parameters: Air movement

Climatic Implications
The amount of direct radiation received on the street (and to an extent, on the lower floors) is determined by the street width. The
orientation affects the time of the day when the radiation is received. Modulating the street width and orientation can very effectively control
solar radiation.
Theoretical Understanding

The solar altitude and azimuth determines the position of the sun at all times. The street width to building height ratio determines the
altitude up to which solar radiation can be cut off. Similarly, the street orientation determines the azimuth up to which solar radiation can be
cut off. As a result they can be used very effectively to minimize or maximize heat gain. Street width to building height ratio also affects the
daylight received.
Building Design
In hot-dry climates, the prime need is to minimize heat gain. This could be achieved by cutting off the sun. Small street width to building
height ratio ensures narrow streets and , thereby, shading. In particular, streets running north-south should be narrow. This would enable
mutual shading from the horizontal morning and evening sun. East-west streets are avoidable as they allow uncomfortably low sun in the
mornings and evenings. However, if unavoidable, they too should be narrow. The exact orientation of streets can be determined by
considering the solar geometry in combination with building heights. This will enable us to orient the streets such that comfortably low sun
is shielded off by the buildings. In cold climates, wide streets, especially the east-west streets allow buildings to receive the south sun.
However, the need here is not just to gain heat but also conserver that which is received. So settlements should be compactly planned.
North-south streets should be narrow. Low building heights are preferred. This would enable heat gain from the roof to be maximized.
However, heat loss also has to be minimized. In warm-humid climates the primary need is for air movement. Streets, should therefore, be
oriented to utilize the natural wind patterns.
Other Possible Effects
In many cases, we may not have a say over street pattern or width. Our scope for designing at this level would then be considerably
reduced. Corrective measures can, however, still be taken but our approach then would be at a different level

Level Six: Open Spaces and Built Form

Prime Parameters: Radiation, Airflow

Absorptive surfaces and smaller open spaces radiate less heat to buildings around

Greater the exposure of the walls and ground to the sky, the more the heat loss.

Compact planning in the modern context: Large heat production of modern buildings makes compact planning inappropriate in hot regions due to the decrease in
heat loss capacity.

Compact planning in cold climates: while heat gain is reduced by compact planning, the decrease in heat loss is significant.

Other Parameters:
Climatic Implications
Open spaces have to be seen in conjunction with built form. Together they can allow for freer air movement and increased heat loss or
gain. The lack of open spaces could reduce heat loss or gain. Thus they can make hot, cold or humid conditions more bearable or more
unbearable.
Theoretical Understanding
Open spaces in any complex are integral part of built form. The question is-how should they be positioned and how much should there be?
After all, any built mass modifies the microclimate. An open area, especially a large one allows more of the 'natural' climate of the place to
prevail. So obviously, large open spaces allow for freer air movement. The built pattern is also important. It can increase, decrease and
modify air speeds. Open spaces gain heat during the day. If the ground is hard and building surfaces are dark in color then much of this
radiation is reflected and absorbed by the surrounding buildings. If, however, the ground is soft and green then less heat is reflected.
Shading by surrounding buildings and trees can reduce heat gain to some extent. For summer shading, the building will have to be tall
because of the high solar altitude. In winters, on the other hand, since the sun is at a lower altitude even low buildings would shade large
areas. Heat loss at night by re-radiation also increases with more open spaces. During the day, buildings receive radiation from the sun
and sky. At night this heat is reradiated to the sky. The greater the exposure of the buildings to the sky, the more the heat loss. So not just
the roof, the walls also lose heat. If, however, buildings are tightly packed then all walls face each other and have little exposure to the sky.
Then, heat loss occurs only from the roof.
Building Design
In hot-dry climates, compact planning with little or no open spaces would minimize heat gain as well as heat loss. When heat production of
the buildings is low, compact planning minimizes heat gain and is desirable. This is how traditional settlements were often planned.
However, in modern cities, buildings produce much heat of their own. In such cases heat loss becomes important. In fact, the phenomenon
of heat build up in cities leads to the formation of heat islands. The size and scale of open spaces must, therefore, be optimized. If the
open space is too large, then there can be too much heat gain. If it is too small, then there may be insufficient heat loss at night. Further,
surface characteristics are important. The ground should be soft and preferably green. Building surfaces should not be very reflective.
Shading by trees or buildings would also reduce heat gain. Since the hot-dry climate might also have a cold season, trees should be
deciduous so as to allow winter sun. In cold climates open spaces should be small. Surfaces could be hard and absorptive. Compact
planning is, of course, preferred. They should allow the south sun into buildings. Trees, if any, should be deciduous. In humid climates
buildings should preferably not be attached to one another. Streets and the open spaces should be oriented with respect to wind patterns.
The open spaces and the funnel effect can be used to maximize airflow within the complex.
Other Possible Effects
Daylight levels would be affected by the form of planning. Compact planning would reduce the scope for daylight, while 'open' planning
allows more daylight. Fenestration would consequently be affected. In some cases we may have only a small plot in an otherwise built up
complex. We would have little say then, in the overall pattern of open spaces and built-form. Our measures for providing comfortable living
spaces would then be taken at other levels.

Level Seven: Ground Character

Prime Parameters: Radiation

Different ground materials reflect, store and absorb heat to different degrees

Other Parameters: Daylight

Climatic Implications
Depending on the ground surface, incident radiation can be absorbed, reflected or stored and re-radiated later. In other words, radiative
heat gain could either be decreased, increased during the daytime or increased during the night time. Depending on the climatic context
this could be used to our advantage.
Theoretical Understanding
The color and texture of a material's surface determines its reflectivity. The lighter the color and smoother the surface, more the reflectivity
of the material. The darker the surface and rougher it is, the lower the reflectivity. Such materials would store more heat and reradiate it at
a later time. This re-radiation mostly takes place at night when the surroundings are at a lower temperature. Vegetation, namely, trees,
shrubs, plants and grass utilize sunlight for photosynthesis. They absorb and consume the radiation. In this case the heat is neither
reflected nor reradiated.
Building Design
In hot climates ground surfaces preferably should be green in order to minimize heat gain. Where hard surfaces and paving are
unavoidable they should be rough but not very dark. This would make the ground less reflective but not highly absorptive. In cold climates
heat gain would be maximized by reflecting the heat or storing it. Ground surfaces should preferably be paved dark but smooth. This would
increase absorptivity and reflectivity. In humid conditions ground character is of consequence only when it can absorb moisture.
Other Possible Effects
The ground surface would also reflect daylight. Especially in sunny climates this could lead to uncomfortable glare. For this reason also,
hard paving should be minimized and, where necessary, should be rough.

Level Eight: Plan Form

Prime Parameters: Radiation, Air movement

Different plan forms have different perimeter to area ratio

Other Parameters:
Climatic Implications
The plan form of a building affects the airflow around and through it. It could either aid or hinder natural ventilation. The perimeter to area
ratio of the building is an important indicator of heat loss and gain. It, therefore plays a role in ventilation, heat loss and heat gain.
Theoretical Understanding
As stated earlier, physical obstacles in the path of airflow create pressure differences. This causes a new airflow pattern. Air tends to flow
from high pressure areas. knowing the direction of air movement, the plan form can be determined also as to create high pressure and low
pressure areas. Building openings connecting the high pressure areas to low pressure areas would cause effective natural ventilation. In
the case of radiative gains or losses, the perimeter is a crucial factor. However, it goes without saying that a large building would have a
greater perimeter than a very small building. To be able to make a real comparison we need to consider the perimeter to area ratio and not
just the perimeter. A large perimeter to area (P/A) ratio means that the same area would be bound by a much smaller perimeter. A small
P/A means that the same area would be bound by a much smaller perimeter. Greater the P/A ratio the greater the radiative heat gain
during the day and the greater the heat loss at night. Similarly, smaller the P/A ratio, the lesser will be the heat gain during the day and the
lesser the loss at night. Thus, the P/A ratio is an important factor in controlling heat gain and loss.
Building Design
In hot climates the P/A ratio should be kept to a minimum. This would cause minimum heat gain. Plan form for enhancing ventilation is not
a compelling proposition as breezes are often quite warm. In cold climates too the P/A ratio should be minimal. This ensures minimum heat
loss. Heat gain can often be achieved by solariums etc. In warm-humid climates the prime concern is a plan form for maximizing air
movement. Here too, minimizing the P/A ratio is useful as it minimizes heat gain.

Level Nine: Plan Elements

Prime Parameters: Air movement, Radiation and Air temperature

Integration of vegetation in the building to minimize heat gain

Courtyard atrium: Integration of operable glazing at the roof level allows the courtyard to be converted into a heat trap in winter.

Heat trapping systems: Glazing traps heat and the space created could serve as a greenhouse or contain a water body. A water body would act as a thermal massstoring heat in the day and reradiating in the night.

Wind catchers

Other Parameters: Humidity, Daylight

Climatic Implications
The role of vegetation, water bodies, radiative heat gain and air movement have been seen at the overall site level. These elements could
be integrated with the building or the building complex for further benefits. In a sense, they can become elements of the design. Water
bodies and vegetation help in cooling a space by evaporation and the absorption of heat. Water bodies and greenhouses also aid in space
heating. Courtyards, and in certain cases, wind-towers cause heat loss and enhance ventilation. Thus, plan elements can help in heating,
cooling and even ventilation.
Theoretical Understanding
Water bodies: As mentioned earlier, water bodies are effective means of evaporative cooling. A high specific heat allows water to absorb a
comparatively large quantity of radiation. This also aids in cooling. On the other hand in cooler climates it can act as a heat storage
material, especially when enclosed by glazing. Vegetation: It ahs already been seen that vegetation can absorb radiation and therefore,
effect cooling. A greenhouse does just the opposite. It traps heat and helps in warming. Courtyards and Verandas: These can lead to very
airy structures especially when seen in conjunction with the fenestration. Air movement would be desirable in warm-humid conditions.
Shaded courtyards can be quite effective as reservoirs of cooler air in hot climates. At night, cool air tends to collect in the court.
Building Design

In hot climates, it is very desirable to integrate plant and vegetation, wherever possible, into the plan form. Gardens, roof gardens and
planters on windows and shades could well reduce heat gain. If water bodies can be integrated, that too would be beneficial. Further,
shaded courtyards would lead to lower air temperatures. In the cooler season also, roof gardens would be desirable. However, water
bodies would either have to be drained or enclosed by glazing. Shaded courtyards would, however, become uncomfortable cold. They
should either be avoided where winters are severe or have operable glazing at the roof level. Screening off by glazing would cut off cool air
and increase heat gain. Fixed glazing would, however be highly inappropriate as during summer it would lead to uncomfortable over
heating. In cold climates, heat gain is the primary aim. Greenhouses and glass boxes are very effective heat traps. While vegetation is not
crucial in this heat trap, water bodies can be useful. In humid climates courtyards and verandas aid in ventilation. Wind catchers, objects of
much interest, may also be employed. However, they have to be used with care. They are really effective only when there are strong (often
directional) and cool breezes. Such areas are often coastal regions. Here, the sea breeze in the evening is strong, directional and cool. In
hot-dry climates where even night breezes might be warm in summer, they are of little use.
Other Implications
As mentioned earlier, water bodies and vegetation can make warm climates uncomfortable due to the humidity. Further, vegetation and
water bodies may exclude daylight or cause glare respectively.

evel Ten: Building Orientation

Prime Parameters: Radiation, Air movement
Other Parameters:
Climatic Implications
The building orientation determines the amount of radiation it receives. The orientation, with respect to air patterns, affects the amount of
natural ventilation possible.
Building Design
In the northern hemisphere it is generally understood that north faces receive minimum direct radiation and south faces receive the
maximum. This however is not entirely true. For instance, at 28 deg N on June 22nd the sun is mostly in the northern hemisphere. An
examination of solar charts would reveal that a northern orientation receives little radiation in summers only for latitudes that are sufficiently
far from the equator, in fact north of 32 deg N. In other words, while Southern faces receive more radiation in winter.

Level Eleven: Surface Area to Volume Ratio

Prime Parameters: Radiation

Minimizing the surface area to volume ratio minimizes heat transfer.

Other Parameters:
Climatic Implications
The surface area to volume (S/V) ratio (the three dimensional extrapolation of the P/A ratio) is an important factor determining heat loss
and gain.
Theoretical Understanding
The greater the surface area the more the heat gain/ loss through it. So small S/V ratios imply minimum heat gain and minimum heat loss.
Building Design
In hot dry climates S/V ratio should be as low as possible as this would minimize heat gain. In cold-dry climates also S/V ratios should be
as low as possible to minimize heat losses. In warm-humid climates the prime concern is creating airy spaces. This might not necessarily
minimize the S/V ratio. Further, the materials of construction should be such that they do not store heat.

Level Twelve: Roof Form

Prime Parameters: Air movement, Day lighting

Various roof forms and their areas of exposure

Roof as a light source

Basic roof forms and their effect on ventilation

Other Parameters: Radiation

Climatic Implications
The roof can be used as a source of daylight into the building. Its form and overhangs also affect air movement patterns. They can either
increase or decrease the scope for natural ventilation.
Theoretical Understanding
Daylight can be obtained by either a horizontal (un shaded) or vertical (shaded) roof lights. In hot climates un shaded roof lights would be
quite undesirable as they would further add to the heat gain. By varying the roof projections with respect to the building width pressure
differences between the windward side and leeward sides could either be increased or decreased. This would increase or decrease natural
ventilation.
Building Design
In any climatic context, the roof can be relied upon as a means to enhance the light levels indoors. The nature of the roof light would
change with the climatic context. In overheated areas, roof lighting would be shaded to prevent heat gain. In under heated areas roof
lighting would be unshaded making it a supplementary source of heat.In hot as well as in cold climates the aim is to minimize natural
ventilation. In order to minimize this, the building should have as flat a roof as possible and the building width, in the direction of airflow
should be as large as possible. In warm-humid climates, natural ventilation is very desirable. The building should, in such a case, have its
longest dimension perpendicular to the direction of airflow. Further, the roof overhangs and pitch should be as high as possible. This would
result in the maximum pressure difference and consequently maximum airflow.

Level Fourteen: Fenestration Configuration

Prime Parameters: Radiation, Air movement, Day light

Effect of window position on light and ventilation. High windows act as ventilation points and also allow for the best distribution of light from overcast skies. Low
windows do not allow much ventilation but allow an even distribution of ground reflected light. Middle windows allow for even ventilation but does not distribute the
light as well. Light shelves allow for this .

Window shades for hot climates

Thumb rules for fenestration configuration

An ideal case fenestration positioning : Openings (windows), are placed on two external walls with the door on one internal wall. If air is incident on any of the
external windows, then the fenestration configuration not only ensures a good distribution of air but also has a larger outlet area than inlet area. If the air is incident
on any of the other walls then the door could act as the inlet into the room. Once again the outlet would be larger than the inlet and the configuration would allow
good air distribution.

Effect of window location on indoor air motion

Other Parameters:
Climatic Implications
The fenestration pattern and configuration involve the area, shape, location and relative positioning of the windows. This would affect the
air movement, daylight and glare indoors. If unshaded, the area would also affect radiative heat gain.
Theoretical Understanding
That the area of the opening should affect air movement and daylight is understandable. After all, it directly affects the amount of light and
breeze allowed in. The location of the opening (defined by the sill and lintel levels) also affect s ventilation. This is because temperature
differences cause air to rise. Openings at higher levels, therefore, aid airflow. This is known as 'stack effect'. The position of the opening
affects the distribution of light indoors as it affects internal reflections. So equal size openings at the floor level, window level and ceiling
level distribute the light differently. Theoretically an opening could have any shape. For our purposes, however, we are concerned with
basically two categories-narrow and long openings and not narrow or broad openings. The first is typified by a strip window, the second by
a square or circular one. Due to their dimensions they would affect internal air speeds. This would also affect light distribution indoors.
Building Design

In hot-dry climates windows need to be appropriately shaded. It is preferable if they are small in area. Being a sunny zone, smaller
openings would allow sufficient daylight. Airflow need not be encouraged since daytime air is hot. Due to low night temperatures natural
ventilation may be desirable. Window sizes, if increased for this purpose , must be efficiently shaded from radiative heat gain. High
openings or ventilators would be effective as heat vents. In warm-humid climates, fenestration areas should be large to facilitate ventilation.
Large overhangs would be desirable in cutting off diffuse solar radiation. The fenestration height should be such that there is a good
distribution of airflow over the human body. Lower sill levels might, therefore be preferable. In cold climates fenestration should be large, un
shaded but sealed. This would enable heat gain but reduce cool breezes. Fenestration location would be of little consequence. In
composite zone where all three conditions may occur, window shades hold the key. The shades must cut off summer sun but permit winter
heat gain. The window area would be determined by the duration of each season. If the winters or humid season is long, large windows are
preferred. Window location makes a difference to the quality of light obtained indoors. High windows (ventilators) provide the best
distribution of the direct and diffuse light. However, they also maximize the potential for glare and should have baffles. Low windows allow
ground reflected light. Light being reflected from the ceiling provides the most uniform ventilation. The middle located window, in
comparison, distributes neither sky light nor ground reflected light well. Some basic thumb rules can be followed, in the positioning of
windows, to enhance air movement. Windows should be staggered rather than aligned (unless the incident wind is already at an angle)
Partitions should not be placed near windows causing an abrupt change of wind direction. Similarly, windows on adjacent walls should
preferably not be so placed as to cause an abrupt change of wind direction. It has been said earlier that indoor air speeds are greater if
outlets are larger than inlets. It would be desirable to provide every room with windows on at least two walls. Each room would need to
have a door, this should be on a third wall. If the natural wind is incident on any one of the windows, the other window and the door will act
as outlets (of a greater area). Not being aligned, the airflow indoors would be better distributed. If the outside air is incident on both
windows then the large volume is itself likely to make the condition comfortable. The wind direction may not be incident on either of the
opening but on a window in another room. In such a case, the door acts as the inlet. The two windows (now outlets) would lead to a good
airflow. If their total area is greater than the door then the air velocity would also be increased. If only one external (or free) wall exists it
might be preferable to provide two windows on it rather than one. This would improve the ventilation when the air is incident angularly on
the windows.
Other Implications
In cold climates heat loss through the window at night can be substantial. Window areas would be limited by this as well. Heat gain system
like the trombe-wall and solar wall address just this issue. While they allow for heat gain during the day, heat loss at night is minimized.

evel Fourteen: Fenestration Pattern

Prime Parameters: Radiation, Air movement, Day light

Effect of window position on light and ventilation. High windows act as ventilation points and also allow for the best distribution of light from overcast skies. Low
windows do not allow much ventilation but allow an even distribution of ground reflected light. Middle windows allow for even ventilation but does not distribute the
light as well. Light shelves allow for this .

Window shades for hot climates

Thumb rules for fenestration configuration

An ideal case fenestration positioning : Openings (windows), are placed on two external walls with the door on one internal wall. If air is incident on any of the
external windows, then the fenestration configuration not only ensures a good distribution of air but also has a larger outlet area than inlet area. If the air is incident
on any of the other walls then the door could act as the inlet into the room. Once again the outlet would be larger than the inlet and the configuration would allow
good air distribution.

Effect of window location on indoor air motion

Other Parameters:
Climatic Implications

The fenestration pattern and configuration involve the area, shape, location and relative positioning of the windows. This would affect the
air movement, daylight and glare indoors. If unshaded, the area would also affect radiative heat gain.
Theoretical Understanding
That the area of the opening should affect air movement and daylight is understandable. After all, it directly affects the amount of light and
breeze allowed in. The location of the opening (defined by the sill and lintel levels) also affect s ventilation. This is because temperature
differences cause air to rise. Openings at higher levels, therefore, aid airflow. This is known as 'stack effect'. The position of the opening
affects the distribution of light indoors as it affects internal reflections. So equal size openings at the floor level, window level and ceiling
level distribute the light differently. Theoretically an opening could have any shape. For our purposes, however, we are concerned with
basically two categories-narrow and long openings and not narrow or broad openings. The first is typified by a strip window, the second by
a square or circular one. Due to their dimensions they would affect internal air speeds. This would also affect light distribution indoors.
Building Design
In hot-dry climates windows need to be appropriately shaded. It is preferable if they are small in area. Being a sunny zone, smaller
openings would allow sufficient daylight. Airflow need not be encouraged since daytime air is hot. Due to low night temperatures natural
ventilation may be desirable. Window sizes, if increased for this purpose , must be efficiently shaded from radiative heat gain. High
openings or ventilators would be effective as heat vents. In warm-humid climates, fenestration areas should be large to facilitate ventilation.
Large overhangs would be desirable in cutting off diffuse solar radiation. The fenestration height should be such that there is a good
distribution of airflow over the human body. Lower sill levels might, therefore be preferable. In cold climates fenestration should be large, un
shaded but sealed. This would enable heat gain but reduce cool breezes. Fenestration location would be of little consequence. In
composite zone where all three conditions may occur, window shades hold the key. The shades must cut off summer sun but permit winter
heat gain. The window area would be determined by the duration of each season. If the winters or humid season is long, large windows are
preferred. Window location makes a difference to the quality of light obtained indoors. High windows (ventilators) provide the best
distribution of the direct and diffuse light. However, they also maximize the potential for glare and should have baffles. Low windows allow
ground reflected light. Light being reflected from the ceiling provides the most uniform ventilation. The middle located window, in
comparison, distributes neither sky light nor ground reflected light well. Some basic thumb rules can be followed, in the positioning of
windows, to enhance air movement. Windows should be staggered rather than aligned (unless the incident wind is already at an angle)
Partitions should not be placed near windows causing an abrupt change of wind direction. Similarly, windows on adjacent walls should
preferably not be so placed as to cause an abrupt change of wind direction. It has been said earlier that indoor air speeds are greater if
outlets are larger than inlets. It would be desirable to provide every room with windows on at least two walls. Each room would need to
have a door, this should be on a third wall. If the natural wind is incident on any one of the windows, the other window and the door will act
as outlets (of a greater area). Not being aligned, the airflow indoors would be better distributed. If the outside air is incident on both
windows then the large volume is itself likely to make the condition comfortable. The wind direction may not be incident on either of the
opening but on a window in another room. In such a case, the door acts as the inlet. The two windows (now outlets) would lead to a good
airflow. If their total area is greater than the door then the air velocity would also be increased. If only one external (or free) wall exists it
might be preferable to provide two windows on it rather than one. This would improve the ventilation when the air is incident angularly on
the windows.
Other Implications
In cold climates heat loss through the window at night can be substantial. Window areas would be limited by this as well. Heat gain system
like the trombe-wall and solar wall address just this issue. While they allow for heat gain during the day, heat loss at night is minimized.
Prime Parameters: Radiation received, Air movement
Other Parameters:
Climatic Implications
The orientation of the fenestration determines the amount of radiation incident on the opening. The orientation with respect to the air
pattern could increase or decrease natural ventilation.
Theoretical Understanding
Orientation with respect to solar geometry has been dealt with earlier . To obtain a good distribution of airflow within a building the wind
direction and inlet to outlet direction should not be the same. This would lead to better air circulation. If they are in a straight line then the
airflow will simply be through the room without much circulation.
Building Design
In hot-dry climates the fenestration should be oriented north. In cold climates they should be facing south. In humid climates they should be
within 45 deg of the perpendicular to the direction of airflow. the inlet and outlet not be in a straight line, in order to maximize airflow.
Prime Parameters: Radiation, Air movement, Day light

Light Shelves: devices and forms. Light shelves distribute light evenly inside a room.

Window shades for composite zones

Other Parameters:
Climatic Implications
Glazing, shades, light shelves, fly wire nets and the cross-sectional area of the windows can be important controls. They trap solar
radiation, cut it off, increase daylight level, keep out insects (in the process reducing air speed) and modify air velocities. They are,
therefore, able to affect and control heat gain, daylight and ventilation.
Theoretical Understanding
Glazing is the most commonly used control device for trapping solar radiation. It can be a major cause of heat gain, desirable or
undesirable. Shades, vertical and horizontal, control radiative heat gain. The solar altitude and azimuth during the overheated period can
be determined. There from, the projection of the horizontal and vertical shades can be adjusted so as to cut off the sun. Similarly, it can be
ensured that during under heated periods the sun is allowed in. Light shelves are horizontal projections in a window. They can be inside,
outside or partly within and partly within and partly outside the glazing. With reflective upper surface it brings more light into the rear of a
room. They can also function as horizontal shades cutting off the vertical sun. Fly wire nets are intended as control devices for insect.
However, they also reduce the air velocity indoors. Window cross section affects fluid flow velocities. Increasing the area of cross section
decreases the speed and vice versa. Air speeds can thus be enhanced or reduced.
Building Design
In hot climates, if glazed windows are used then they need to be shaded from the sun. Light shelves would be unnecessary. If the climate
is consistently hot, the window section can be increased towards the interior to decrease the air speed. In cold climates, optimum glazing is
advisable. Shading of the window is undesirable. Light shelves, if needed, would be very effective due to the low sun angle. window
section should, once again, be such that air velocity is reduced. In warm-humid climates window shades are not also much of an issue
since solar radiation is largely diffuse. Fly wire nets are all the more necessary due to the insects that thrive under these conditions. The
major need, that of increased ventilation, can be achieved by modifying the window section. In composite climates, we would need to
design shades that cut off sun in the summer but allow the sun in the under heated period. Further, the window section should enhance air
velocity while still acting as a shade. This could be achieved either by introducing a planter at the window sill or else by adding smaller
shades at the glazing.

Level Sixteen: Walls

Prime Parameters: Radiation

wall types

Wall systems to maximize heat gain

Other Parameters:
Climatic Implications
As in the case of roofs, wall materials are a major factor to consider in heat flow studies. As far as materials are concerned, what applies to
roofs is valid for walls as well. The difference is that more direct radiation is incident on the roof than the wall. in colder climates walls can
also be used for indirect solar heating.
Theoretical Understanding
There is more to walls than just their material. Cavity walls with air spaces of about 5cm between the two layers reduce heat transmission.
Further, the greenhouse effect is used to trap solar heat. A material like glass is transparent to the direct short wave radiation from the sun
but opaque to the reflected long wave radiation. as a result, though heat is radiated inwards, it is not reradiated outwards. Thus, a steady
heat build-up takes place. In a 24 hour cycle, radiative heat gain takes place only during the sunshine hours. At other times, though
radiative heat loss does not occur, conductive heat loss take place since glass has a very high U-value. This is especially true of colder
climates where external temperatures may be much lower at night. Therefore, while glazing can act as a heat trap it also causes significant
losses at other times. Attempts have been made to circumvent this problem. The approach is simple and is exemplified by the Trombe
Wall. The material of the wall is separated by a 5 to 10 cm air gap from an external glazing. Heat is trapped by the glazing and the air heats
up. Vents are provided at the bottom and top of the wall allowing air movement. Thus, hot air is distributed to the room. At night-time the
wall reduces heat losses. A variation of the trombe-wall is the solar wall. It is similar in every way except that it has no air vents. In this
case, the wall gets heated up during the day and radiates the heat inwards after sunshine hours. In terms of the effect, the two vary in time
period when the heat is transmitted inwards. In spite of the glazing, neither of these allow visual connection with the outside. This is where
the water wall or the translucent wall is different. A water wall is essentially a glass encasement containing water. As mentioned earlier,
water has a high specific heat, a little more than twice that of concrete. A water wall of equal thickness would absorb twice as much heat as
concrete for an equal rise of temperature. So, it would steadily reradiate heat for a longer time. Further, it also allows daylight indoors.
However, baffles must be provided in the wall to minimize convection currents which could increase heat loss.
Building Design
Wall materials, like roof materials should be of low U-values in hot and in cold climates. In warm-humid climates walls should have a low
thermal capacity. The trombe, solar and water walls are effective means of heat gain in cold climates
rime Parameters: Radiation received

Other Parameters:
Climatic Implications
Roof materials determine the amount of heat transfer through the roof inwards or outwards as well as the time taken for this heat transfer
to take place.
Theoretical Understanding
Each material has a characteristic specific heat. When it comes to heat exchanges we are concerned with both the specific heat of the
material and the amount (or mass) of the material. The product of mass and specific heat, is known as the thermal mass. While the specific
heat is a property of the material, the thermal mass depends on the amount of the material as well. The thermal mass (or capacity) is an
indicator of the heat storing ability of a material. Heat flow through materials is determined by the conductance and resistance of the
material. What we need to know is the heat flow from or to a space. For this we need to know the air to air resistance of materials. So we
need to take into account not just the resistance of the material but also that of the air film at the surface of the material. The reciprocal of
the air to air resistance is known as the transmittance or U-value of the material. It is the U-value which is most commonly used. Two points
have to be made. One, when heat flows through a material, a certain amount of heat is absorbed by the material. Two, heat flow is not
instantaneous but depends on the U-value and thickness of the material. Therefore, for any material of a given thickness, there is a certain
amount of time lag before the heat is transmitted. Since some of the heat is absorbed, not all of it is transmitted. This leads us to two other
significant properties of materials-the time lag and the decrement factor. The time lag is the time difference between the maximum outdoor
and maximum indoor temperatures and the decrement factor is the ratio between the two. Therefore, specific heat and transmittance are
values intrinsic to a material. Depending on its thickness we can know the amount of heat absorbed and transmitted and the time taken for
this transmission.
Building Design
In hot and cold climates the roof should have a low transmittance value. This would ensure maximum heat gain and heat loss, respectively.
Using insulation would minimize the heat stored by the roof. However, in the absence of insulation, a low U -value would generally imply a
high thermal capacity. In warm humid climates heat storage is undesirable. The roof should, therefore, be light, probably having high Uvalues and low heat capacities.
Climatic Implications
The surface characteristics affect heat transmission into the building.
Theoretical Understanding
This is easy to understand. The color of surface affects its reflectivity and, therefore, the heat is absorbed. The surface texture could vary
from smooth to rough. A rough textured surface (for example a grit finish with large aggregate size) causes self shading. It also increases
the area for re radiation. In comparison, a flat surface allows greater heat transmission. However, a smooth flat surface would be more
reflective. This again would minimize heat gain. Similarly, a light color would be more reflective while a dark color would be more
absorptive.
Building Design
In hot climates surface colors should be light while textures should be rough. This will result in greater reflectivity, shading and re radiation.
If a rough texture is not possible then a smooth surface would be preferable. In cold climates surface textures should be dark and flat
though not smooth. This would ensure maximum absorption and minimum shading and re radiation. In warm-humid climates, again, the
aim would be to minimize heat gain. Light colored and rough surfaces therefore, are preferable.