11/7 /77

HOW TO DESCRIBE AND SAMPLE A SOIL PROFILE

by
Donald Lee Johnson
INTRODUCTION
A soil profile may be described in the field or in the lab. A soil
profile descripti.on in the field is accomplished by digging a soil pit or,
less desirably, using a roadcut, stream-cut, or other natural exposure. A
soil profHe description" in the lab is accomplished by pulling a large diameter [7.6 cm (3 in)] undisturbed cylindrical core in the field with a
truck-mounted or foot operated hydraulic coring device; the cores are extruded into metal trays and wrapped in saran, labelled with felt-tip markers,
and transported to the lab (Johnson and Alexander, 1976a, 1976b). The
following discussion focuses on field description and sampling of profiles.
Profile Description:

A.

Equipment needed:
Tape (preferably metric, 5-10 m long, 3/ 4 " wide).
16 penny box nails (about 20 or 30)
A plastic water bottle
Munsell soil color chart
Shovel
Knife (hunting-type)
PH kit
Sample bags (if sampling is to be done).
Felt tip marker
Field note book & record sheet
Hand lens (at least xlO)
Camera

B.

Procedure
Depth of soil pit depends on goals of investigator. Dig pit so that the
wal 1 to be described wi 11 be 1 i ghted by sunJ i ght (for J?hotographi c and viewi ng purposes). If a nat~ral exposure is used, clean off surface to make
sure all slopewashed material is removed (the . farther into the ~liff and
away from the exposed cut wall, the better). Make your cut vertical if
possible, or as close to vertical as is feasible.
Identify horizons and drive 16 penny nails into borizon boundaries (i.e.,
the interfaces between horizons). Drop tape from top of exposure to bottom and secure. Photograph profile when light conditions permit (or use
flash). Describe each horizon using description sheets (first color, then
texture, structure, consistence, PH, cementation (if any)~ carbonates,
cutans-silans-mangans, concretions, roots, boundary - see attached examples). Information on how to describe and delimit each of these elements
is given below. When you have completely described the profile, fill in
as many of the categories as you can at the top of the description sheet
(see p 10 for details).

Sampling

zon Sampling:
Take at least a heaping double handfull of soil
kg) that is
sentative of the entire horizon & place into pre- abeled (locality,
depth, horizon) bags. Repeat for each horizon.
B.

Equal depth-increment sampling:

Take nails and drive into profile at lOcm depth intervals. Then
sample as in A above, except stay within the 10 cm levels defined by
the nails.

Ideally you would sample both ways. (You may think this is sampling overkill, but believe me it is very well worth it).
The following instructions, abbreviations an~ definitions are intended as
guides for field workers in the preparation of soil profile descriptions.
This material alone, however, is insufficient for a complete description of
the great variety and complexity of soil profiles and a full understanding
of the techniques of profile description. For such understanding, the Soil
Survey Manual should be consulted regularly and thoroughly. Page refe
below re r to specific material in the Manual.
DESCRIPTIONS OF HORIZONS
HORIZON:

Use the standard horizon nomenclature (see pp. 173-188 of Manual

DEPTH:

The top of the uppermost mineral horizon (A or E) is taken as

zero depth. The 0-horizon thickness and character is measured
up from that point (e.g., 2 to 0 cm), and all other horizons
down from th at point (e. g. , 0 to 8 cm) . (See p. 185. )

THICKNESS:

Average thickness and range,

BOUNDARY:

Horizon lower boundaries are described as to:

abrupt (< 2.5 cm) .. a

gradual (6crn - 13cm) ... g

ear (2.5cm - Gem) ... c

(2)

diffuse (> 13cm thick) ... d

of boundary:
smooth

(nearly a plane)

wavy

(pockets with width >

irregular

(pockets with depth > width)

broken

(discontinuous)

Th us an ab
p. 187.

, i r

ar bounda

s
)

is noted as a i

COLOR:

( 1)

(2)

(3)

List
nant soil color
ue, value, chroma, e.g. 10YR
1m;
10YR 2/1 - 2/2 m), and color variation of prominent mottles
using Munsell Soil Color
rt. A
cription of mottling requires
a notation of the colors and of the
tern. Colors may be noted
by Munsell symbols for the matrix and color names for the mottles.
Pattern may be noted in terms of:

Abundance:

...

few

(mottles < 2% of surface)

common

(mottles 2 - 20% of surface)

many

(mottles > 20% of surface)

...

...

Size:
fine

( < Smm)

wed i um

(5

coa r:se

(> 15mm)

...

15mm)

....

...

Contrast:
int
distinct
p

nent

(Hue and chroma of matrix and rrottles

closely related)

... f

(Matrix and mottles vary 1-2 hues and

seve ra 1 uni ts in chroma and va 1 ue)

(Matrix and mottles vary several

units in hue,
ue, and chroma)

Thus a medium-gray horizon mottled with yellow and reddish brown

is noted as: 10YR 5/1, c3d, yellow and reddish brown (see
pp. 191-193).

3
TEXTURE:

gravel

gravelly sandy loam

very coarse sand

vcos

loam

coarse sand

cos

gravelly loam

gl

sand

stony loam

stl

fine sand

fs

s i 1t

si

very fine sand

vfs

loamy coarse sand

1 cos

clay loam

loamy sand

ls

silty

loamy fine sand

lfs

sandy clay loam

sandy loam

sl

clay loam

st cl

sil

clay

sic

fine sandy loam

very fine sandy loam

vfs 1

i1 t loam

clay

ay loam

gs 1

sil
cl
s i cl
scl

STRUCTURE:
( 1)

(2)

pp. 225-230)
Grade:
structureless . 0

(No observable agg

ion or no orderly
arrangement of natural lines of
)

weak

(Poorly fo
indistinct peds, barely
observable in place)

moderate

(Well-formed distinct peds, moderately

durabl and evident, but not distinct
i n un di s r bed soi 1)

st rang

. 3

(Durable peds that are quite evident in

undisplaced soi 1, adhere weakly to one
another, withstand displacement, and
become separated when soil is disturbed).

Size: (see accompanying chart for size limits)

very fine

vf

medium

fine

coarse

very coarse

vc

(Read
(3)

11

th i n11 and

11

th i ck 11 for pl

instead of

11

fine 11 and

rse 11 )

Form or
aty
p ri smat i c

columnar

pl

granular

gr

pr

crumb

er

cpr

(sin

i ve

bk

bl

angular blocky

...

subangular blocky
Thus weak medium bl
thin pl

e grain

sg)
m)

abk
sbk
structure is noted lmbk, moderate

as 2vfp1, etc.

ry

STRUCTURES
Fine
than 1 mm.

STRUCTURES

uuH'~ .. ~

Fine

(1-2 mm. diameter)

Medium
(2-5 mm. diameter)

0
0

Fine
(1-2 mm. thick)

0
Medium
(2-5 mm. thick)

Coarse
(5-10 mm. thick)
Coarse
(5-10 mm. diameter)

Coarse
than 10 mm. ammeter;

PRISMATIC AND COLUMNAR

Fine
(10-20
mm.)

Very Fine
than 5 mm. diameter)

Fine
(5-10 mm. diameter)

Medium
(10-20 mm. aiamererJ
:Medium
(20-50 mm.)

Coarse
(20-50 mm.
diameter)

Coarse
(50-100 mm.)

7
CONSISTENCE:

(1)

(2)

(The notation of consistence varies with moisture

content - see pp. 231-234).
soil:

(3)

soi 1 :

nonsticky

wso

loose

dl

s 1 i gh t 1y s t i ck y

wss

soft

ds

sticky

ws

s 1 i gh t 1y hard

dsh

very sticky

wvs

hard

dh

nonplastic

wpo

very hard

dvh

s 1 i gh t 1y p 1as t i c

wps

extremely hard

deh

plastic

wp

ve ry p 1as t i c

wvp

Moist soi 1 :
loose
very f

REACTION:

ml
ab 1e

mvf r

friable

mfr

firm

mfi

very firm

mvfi

extremely firm

mefi

Use pH figures. Reaction testing may be done in field (use

Truog pH kit), or in the lab with a pH rr,eter.
Indicate effervescence with HCl as:
s 1 i ght

strong

es

violent

ev

CEMENTATION:

Record
kind of
i g agent,
r it is continuous
or discontinuous, es imate the volume percent it occupies
chart below), and estimate how strongly the horizon is
cemented: weak, material is brittle and can be broken with the
hands; strong, material is brittle and b
easily with a
hammer; ind'LJ:Pated, material is brittle and broken only with a
sharp hamrrer blow.

CARBONATES:

Note distribution of carbonate, estimate the volume per cent,

and classify on stage of development (Fig. A-1); see following
table.
II
III
IV

Sketch of carbonate buildup stages (I, ll, I II, and IV) for
gravelly (top) and nongravelly (bottom) parent materials.
(Taken from Gile and
rs, 1966, The Williams & Wilkins Co.
Ba 1t i mo re )

Grave 11

rent material

Non

rent material

Thin discontinuous pebble

coatings

Few fl 1amen ts of
int
coatings on sand grains

11

Continuous pebble coating;

matrix is calcareous but
loose

Few to common nodules of

varying hardness; matrix
is commonly calcareous

111

All grains are coated with

carbonate; best developed
re voids are filled
with carbonate

lnternodular matrix grains

are coated with carbonate;
voids can be filled with
carbonate

IV

Laminar horizon of nearly pure carbonate overlies

horizon of stage I II development

10

Continui
Continuity of pores is a very important feature, for it indicates
whether continuous spaces are available for 1 iquid gas to move. The
terms used follow.
- Most individual pores and their connecting voids are
interrupted or constricted so that continuous passages larger than 0. 1
mm at the smallest constriction are few or absent.

Constricted - The individual pores and their connecting voids provide

routes for movement of liquids and gases through spaces larger than
0. l mm and common constrictions are at least two size classes smaller
than the pores described. This term would be used only with medium
and coarse pore sizes.

Continuous.- The individual pores and their connecting voids provide

continuous passages vertically through the horizon with few constrictions
more than one class smarler than the pores described'!.
The continuity of pore spaces is described for the vertical direction
unless another direction is specified. If possible, continuity should
be described for the wet soil.
Orientation
Orientation of pores applies only to tubular pores, which are described
under shape. Three principal classes are used.
- Most tubular pores are oriented within 45 of the vertical.
l - Most tubular pores are oriented within

45 of the horizontal.

Random - Neither vertical nor horizontal orientation clearly predominates.

Oblique - If it is useful, an oblique orientation can be described for
pores that are predominantly oriented near a 45 angle to the vertical
or horlzontal dimension.
Shape
The shape of pores is described by three primary types, with or without
modifiers as appropriate.

Vesicular - The pores are approximately spherical or elliptical in

shape. Pores of this type are commonly enclosed by the matrix of
unaggregated soil or of peds and are not continuous.

(interstitial) - The pores are irregular in shape and are

bounded by curved or angular surfaces of mineral grains or peds, or
both. Irregular pores include "packing voids, 11 and their presence is
commonly implied by the description of the solid part of the soil.

11
They are difficult to describe in terms of numbers per unit area
unless they are larger than 1 mm.

Tubular - The pores are more or less cylindrical in shape, roughly

circular in cross section, and greatly elongated along the third
axis. The description of tubular pores can be elaborated by using
modifiers, including (a) simple-predominantly single unbranched tubes
or (b) dendritic~the pores branch like plant roots.
Location
The location of pores is described for each horizon. The pores may
be entirely within peds (imped), between peds (exped), or in material
that interfingers between peds.
When describing pores in detail, a definite sequence of terms should
be consistently followed. For many purposes a convenient sequence is
number, size, continuity, orientation, shape, and location. For example,
one might write "many, very fine, continuous, vertical, simple, tubular
pores within prisms. 11 The investigator must use judgment about the
attributes important enough to include and those that would merely
complicate the description without adding useful information. Some
descriptions may need to emphasize only number, size, and continuity,
as for 11 ma.ny, fine continuous pores. 11 (Information on pores taken
from Soil Ta,xonomy pp. 479-480.)
Roots are described in terms of their nwnber., size., and location.

ROOTS:

Number~

and size:
TABLE

Class

Few
Common
Many

2.-Abundance of roots by number and size

Very fine
(1 mm)

Fine
(1-2 mm)

Medium
(2-5 mm)

Coarse
(5-10 mm)

Average number per sq1lare decimeter

<1
<10
<1
<10
1 to5
1to10
10to100
10to100
~100

~100

~10

~5

Location
The location of roots within horizo~s is described in relation to
morphological features of the horizons. Relationship to horizon
boundaries, to animal traces, pores, or to other features of the
horizon is described as appropriate. The description should indicate
for example, whether roots are inside peds or only follow voids
between peds for soils that have them.

12

Descri ive terms

roots should be listed in some consistent
order. Some have found number, size and location a convenient order,
as in the examples that follow:
a. Many very fine and common fine roots. This would
imply that roots are uniformly distributed as location
is not given.
b. Common very fine and fine roots concentrated along
vertical faces of peds.
c. Common very fine roots inside peds; many medium roots
between peds.
d.

Common medium and coarse roots, collectively.

Example b is subject to two interpretations unless special conventions

are established. It is not clear whether the very fine and fine roots,
collectively, aggregate 10 to 100 per 100 cm 2 or whether each falls
within that class. It is assumed that the term for numbers applies
to each of two or more size classes 1 isted unless the term, 11 collectively 11
is used to specify otherwise, as irr example d.
(Data on roots taken
from Soil Ta;x;onomy~ 1975, pp. 480-481.)

SPECIAL FEATURES:

Concretions~

for

as:

1i me

. conca

iron

. conir

siliceous
krotovinas .

. . . consi
. k

13
OTHER SPECIAL FEATURES:

Soil type:

(those catagories hot included at the top of the SOIL

11
11
I
SHEET,
be included under remarks. )

is silt

Name, as

Classification:

1 us f

1d

ing number, if any.

Especially great soil group, if known.

Native vegetation (or crop):

Such as: oak-hickory; short grass; wheat;

app 1e orchard.

Climate:

Such as:

humid

rate; warm semiarid.

Parent material:

Such as:
residuum from basalt; mixed silty alluvium;
calcareous clay loam till.

Physiography:

Such as: high terrace; till plain; alluvial fan, mountain

foot slope. Add names of formations, where known.

Relief:

Give letter designation or name of soil slope class and indicate

concave or convex, single or complex slopes.
(Seep. 161).

Slope:

Give approximate gradient of soil slope.

Erosion:

Use appropriate class name and number.

(Seep. 261 et seq.)

Drainage: Use appropriate class name for soi 1 drainage.

et ,seq.)
Ground water:
Pe1WteahiZ.ity:

Give depth to ground water or indicate

Use appropriate class name.

11

(See p. 170

deep 11

(Seep. 168.)

Moisture:

Indicate present soil moisture as (1) wet; (2) moist; (3)

Moderately dry; (4) dry.

Salt or alkali:

Indicate concentration of either or both as slight, moderate,

or st rang.

Stoniness:

Use appropriate class name and number.

(Seep. 217.)

Root distribution:

1
Indicate depth of penetration as 1
or to a certain
11
11
11
depth or horizon; and abundance as abundant , plentiful 11 , or 11

Remarks:

Include additional detail on listed items or include additional

items, such as relative content of organic matter, evidence of worms,
insects, or rodents, special mottling, and stone lines.

REFERENCES
Birkeland, P.W., 1974., Pedology, weathering and geomorphological research
(New York: Oxford Uni ve rs i ty Press).
Gile, L.H., Peterson, F.F., and Grossman, R.B., 1966, Morphological and genetic
sequences of carbonate accumulation in desert soils: Soil Sci., v. 101,
p. 347-360.
Johnson, D.L. and Alexander, C.S., 1975, A portable coring device for
Plains Anthropologist, V.20, pp.

14
Soi 1 Survey S

1, Soi 1 survey manual:

U.S.

ri. Han

no.

18, 503 p.
1960, Soil classification, a comprehensive system (7th app
U.S.
. Agri., Soil Cons. Service, 265 p.
Yaalon, D.H., 1966, Chart for the quantitative estimation of mottling and
of nodules in soi 1 profiles: Soil Sci., v. 102, p. 212-213.

Organic hori

01 ,

s of

rai

i 1s. 02

01.

Accumulation
fraction.

Al
A2

r E)

A3, AB, AC, A and

B, Band A, B1

ic

ter

Loss of clay, iron, or aluminum, wi

concen
tion
resistant minerals, such as quartz. ComrrQn]y 1i
in color
horizons above and below, reflecting
color of uncoated pri ry mineral grains.
Transitional from A to B or C.

Several kinds: (1) illuvial concentration of clay,

iron, aluminum, or humus, alone or in combination,
(2) illuvial concentrations of clays or sesqui
ides,
alone or mixed, formed
means other than solution
and removal of carbonates or more soluble salts; (3)
coating of sesquioxides to give darker, stronger, or
redder colors than overlying and underlyi
horizons
and which do not
the
ts
1
).
This is a color B,
) any a
s not
i
a
that obliterates original rocks ructure,
clays, 1 iberates oxi
, or
, and that
rms
structure if necessary texture is present. So, can
a structural B.

B2

i
ression
relative to the

horizons in the

Transitional to C or R.
or is
It lacks properties
the
(1) weathering outside zone
activi
cementation
)

no
material;
gest

rl

or
i 1e.

1c i
rial
g

Strong gl

ing.

cs

An accumulation

gypsum
concretions or hard
in sesqui

en

sa

An accumulation
sul

salts

sol

le

1cium

te.

111UVia1 clay.

soi 1.

f
h

111UVia1 humus.

ir

111UVia1 iron.

Strong irreversible

ti on

si

Cementation

terial.

s i1 i ceous

uration.

I l 1uv i a 1 c l a y

ipan character.

x
p

Plowing.

Indicates horizon
at

ox, (1

In many
con so 1 i
horizon consists

uml\/eathe red C.
requirements of the
\1\/0

an e xh u med so i l .

te r

Notation pre-

ri
a

its, the C

zed C overlying a
dized C does not meet the
ic

it is

two kinds
used

C horizons.
r

es 1n

ric

3
Li

ogic Discontinuities

Many soil p
iles are made up
layers of di
t geologic
as loes
lacial till, 1oess/grave11y outwash, colluvi
rock, etc., and the
from the
e. Each di
geologic unit is
to bottom wi
Roman numerals, increasing
in value downwa
re, the uppermost unit is
igna
I, the
next I I,
so
numerals
the
esignation.
1e in:
terial~

Soil Horizon

Geologic Unit

A
Bl
B21

Loess (I)
and

11

111

ted

is understood
convention.

B22

Cl

C2

Cf

Fl

Bou l

lain silt (11)

grave 1 ( I I I )

OIL

z
Control
Section

y
Cl.
Q.)

SOIL
PROFILE
1.5. A soil individual is a natural unit in the landscape,
characterized by
size,
and other
features.
FIG.

SOILSCAPE

SOIL PROFILE
----y----

___ j

SOIL PEDON
~~~~Im-~~---.

FIG.

2.L

Soil
Iurn

Thick
which
dominant cation.
of Brunizem,
ric epi

Thick da

s
is dam i nan

t
ri c ep i

i1 A

t in co 1or, 1ow in organic carbon

t is 1 i

and too thin to meet the requirements

horizons.

dry.

massive

izon.

izon

Su

, or is

It

Common in desert soils.

Subsurface Horizons

bic

Horizon in which clay and free iron oxides have

(or latter segregated) such that color of horizon is
by primary minerals rather than coatings on
Corresponds to

ic

ned

grains.

ic soils.

- llluvial accumulation of free sesquioxides accompanied

appreciable amounts

organic carbon C>0.29%) and with

C/N ratio >14 {virgin soil).

S i mi l a r to Bh i r

izon.

No clay skins or structure.

Usually associa

wi

an albic horizon.
i 11 i c

An illuvial horizon in which clays have accumulated to a

ized

significant extent.
clays.

Group II

do not.

iles

clay

oriented

ins

argi11ic horizons, Group

to

Does not necessarily

more

ay than the

C horizon.
tric

- A, spec i a 1 kind

argillic horizon which has prismatic

more commonly columnar structure

saturation

>1

le Na.

Common in

in which

ing

al

or

Solodi

izon

solonetz.
Oxic

iron

part of the silica that is

quartz or

not necessarily
a res dua 1

and 1 : 1 clays ..

ration
in

a large

or

istant
ropics.

:1

ays.
ls

al

num

It's

dest

- I

l i es in

it ion

the B

rs
i c hori

iles that lack argi11ic or

not

be in soils with textures coarser than loamy

rser materials are excl
or the

r in

not seen in

field.

oxidi
to

great extent.
i zon

clays

not

I t i s now cons i

Accumulation of Caco

ay s ins

general purposes,

with a textural B.
Ca 1ci c

c.

is is,
It was

and

Chroma commonly is st
ic than in

horizon in

ry f i

or accumul

rmerly incl

1d not

structure.

or of calcium

3
Has to be more than 611 thick, have a Caco

in

a color B
It can

an

iurn ca

te ..

equivalent

the C horizon.
Pet roca 1ci c
ic

- An extremely indurated and cemented variant of

the calcic horizon.
- Secondary

Caso 4

enrichment that is 76" thick, has at least

5% more Caso 4 than the underlying horizon, and in whi

product of thickness times % Caso is =
4
Sa 1 i c

- A horizon)6 11 thick with enrichment of salts more

than gypsum in cold water.

product of % X

Contains at least

is 24 or more.

the
le

salt and

SOIL SERIES OF THE UNITED STATES, PUERTO RICO, AND THE

VIRGIN ISLANDS: THEIR TAXONOMIC CLASSIFICATION
Soll Survey Staff, Soll Conservation Service, U.S. Department of Agriculture

This publication gives the present classification of all soil

series that either have been mapped and described in published
soil surveys in the United States, Puerto Rico, and the Virgin
Islands, or that are currently in use and may later be described
in published soil surveys.
The classification is given in two lists (computer printout).
One is an alphabetical list of soil series that shows their classification or gives the reason why they are not classified.
Conventional alphabetizing has been modified to facilitate
computer programming. For example, the names St. Clair and
Snake River are treated as single words and abbreviations are
listed as they are written rather than as the words for which they
stand. Thus, Snake River precedes St. Clair. ln addition, a
period or a space is equivalent to a character (a letter) and
precedes the letter a. As a consequence, Snake River precedes
Snakelum because Snakelum has no space or period before the
letter 1 (see page 1-189).
Th~ letters that precede some soil series names in this
alpf
etical listing have the following meanings:
1, an inactive series not currently used
P, a provisional classification
T, a tentative series
The series name is followed by the name of the state that
contains the present type location of the series even though the
name may have come originally from a different state.
Terms in parentheses immediately following or beneath
some subgroup and family names indicate an alternate
classification for the series. All such series are also identified
with ..p .. for provisional classification, but not all series with
provisional classification have an alternate classification.
The second list is of soil families and their included series.
The families are arranged alphabetically by orders, suborders,
and great groups. Subgroups are arranged alphabetically
within each great group except that the typic subgroup is
always listed first. Families within a subgroup are listed in
approximate order of decreasing particle size. If several
families have the same particle-size class, they are arranged
alphabetically by mineralogy class, reaction class, temperature
class, and so on. The letter uxn preceding a series name
indicates that it is also a short name for the family. Two short
names are indicated for a few families having series that are
widely separated geographically. Short names are not given for

families having only one series nor for families having only
tentative series or series with provisional classifications.

The Soil Series

Soil surveys in the United States, which started in 1899,
began describing and mapping soil series in 1903. The number
of soil series grew rapidly during the first few years, but at that
time the concept of what constitutes a series was different from
the concept now accepted. For example, the initial concept of
the Miami series included all soils developed in glacial drift,
including those formed in loess. Under that concept, soils in the
Miami series could have any texture and any drainage. They
were identified from Kentucky to North Dakota and in all
glaciated areas to the north and east. They included the
Alfisols, lnceptisols, Mollisols, and Spodosols formed in loess,
outwash, and till. Soil surveys published about 1903 reflect that
concept, but it was soon changed.
By 1909, 1 Whitney wrote that color and structure determine a
series and that texture determines the place of a soil within the
series, namely, the type. New series were set apart on the basis
of soil properties as rapidly as the significance of a property to
the use of a soil was understood. Soils in the Marshall series
were cut out of the Miami series because of their thick, dark
surface horizon. The Marshall series at first also included soils
formed in loess, till, and outwash. lt was soon subdivided. The
Carrington series as soils formed in till was one of the early
series cut out of the Marshall. But the Carrington series was
soon divided and redivided in turn. Soil maps published
between 1910 and 1920 show soils in the Carrington series in
places where now soils in more than a dozen series are mapped.
For the first three decades of soil surveys, series were defined
partly by the ..soil provincen in which they occurred. The soil
provinces were large areas in which the geologic history was
reasonably similar. Examples are the Atlantic and Gulf Coastal
Plain and the Glacial and Loessial Province. The first publication in which the soils of the United States were described was
issued in 1909. About 230 series and 700 types were listed. The

1 Whitney, Milton. Soils of the United States. U.S. Dep. Agr.

Bur. Soils Bull. 55. 1909.

Order
name
Alfi sols

Formative
element

.................

Principal diagnostic property(ies)

(simplified definitions)

alf ............. Mineral soils; relatively low in organic matter; relatively high base saturation; an
illuvial horizon of silicate clays; moisture available to mature a crop.

Aridisols ............... id . . . . . . . . . . . . Mineral soils; relatively low in organic matter; inadequate moisture to mature a crop
without irrigation in most years; some pedogenic horizons.
Entisols ............... ent . . . . . . . . . . . . Mineral soils; weak or no pedogenic horizons; no deep wide cracks in most years.
Histosols ............... ist ............. Organic in more than half of upper 80 cm.
_tp_,,.-r.{;;jC'..-

Inceptisols .............. ept. ............ Mineral soils; some pedogenic horizons?nd some weatherable mmerals; m01sture
available to mature a crop in most years; no horizon of illuvial days}relatively low
in either organic matter or base saturation, or in both.
Mollisols ............... oil ............. Mineral soils; thick dark surface horizon, relatively rich in organic matter; high base
saturation throughout; no deep wide cracks in most years.
Oxisols ................ ox . . . . . . . . . . . . . Mineral soils; no weatherable minerals; inactive clays; no illuvial horizon of silicate
clays.
Spodosols .............. od ............. Mineral soils; an illuvial horizon of amorphous aluminum and organic matter, with
or without amorphous iron.
Ultisols ................ ult . . . . . . . . . . . . . Mineral soils; an illuvial horizon of silicate clays; low base saturation; moisture
available to mature a crop in most years.
Vertisols ............... ert ............. Clayey soils; deep wide cracks at some time in most years.

next publication,2 issued in 1913, listed about 550 series that

were divided into one or two thousand types and phases.
By the l 930's, Marbut3 developed the first hierarchal
cla'ssification of soils, but only a few series were related to the
great soil groups. At that time there were about 1,500 series
divided into approximately 5,000 types.
,
In 1938 another system of classification was published, 4 and
again most of the series were not related to the great soil groups.
At this time there were about 2,000 series divided into about
6,000 types. By 1964, about 8,000 series had been recognized.
In 1965, after about 15 years of study, the National
Cooperative Soil Survey began using the present taxonomy.
Some l 0,466 series are listed in this publication, nearly 1,000 of
which are inactive. Some of the older series that were broadly
defined are not classified. The classification for some series is
marked as provisional, but most classifications are not. The
reader who uses this book as a reference must understand that:
2
Marbut,
C.F., Bennett, H.H., Lapham, J.E. and
Lapham, M~H. Soils of the United States. U.S. Dep. Agr. Bur.
Soils Bull. 96. 1913.
3
Marbut, C.F. Soils of the United States. In Atlas of American
Agriculture, pt. 3. U.S. Dep. Agr. 1935.
4
Baldwin, M., Kellogg, Charles E., and Thorp, James. Soil
Classification. In 1938 Yearbook of Agriculture, p. 979-1001.
U.S. Dep. Agr. 1938.

I. The cl~ssification of all series is provisional to som

extent and changes can be expected as we learn more about th
soils. And, as we learn, the taxonomy itself will change. This
the first publication of the classification of the soil series in th
United States, and some misunderstandings and mistakes a1
unavoidable among a large staff that is widely scattered. An
series classification subsequent to the date of this publicatio
should take precedence if it differs from the classification give
here.
2. The classification reflects the current concept of a serie
which is not necessarily the same concept that was held i
previous years. Series names in earlier publications do nc
necessarily reflect the present concepts. Generally, the older tt
publication, the less likely is the concept to be the same.

The Meanings in the Names

The names in the alphabetical list, pages 1-l through 1-22
give the family classification of each soil series. The famili
that have been recognized and their included series are nam
in the second list, pages 2-1 through 2-133. A series name is;
abstract name, usually taken from the name of a town
landscape feature near the place where the series was fo
described, but the names of the families are descriptive if t

reader understands the

of the formative elements in
the names.
definitions are given in .. Soil Taxonomy:
of Soil Classification for Making and
A Basic
Interpreting Soi) Surveys" (in press). The user of these lists who
does '"'"t need precise definitions may still find it helpful to have
a gd J notion of some of the more important properties of a
soil series or family.
The names of the taxa have been coined by using, to the
extent possible, Greek and Latin roots that are familiar through
their use in many common words. Derivations are given in
.. Soil Taxonomy:' The family name identifies all the higher
categories of classification of the family, namely, subgroup,
great group, suborder, and order. For example, the Abac series
is in the loamy, mixed (calcareous), frigid, shallow family of
Typic Ustorthents (fig. 1). This name gives us the following
...
information about the Abac soils:

which is a
of the name~ of a suborder and great
group and which ends in a syllable that identifies the soil order.
For example, the Abac soils are in the subgroup of Typic
Ustorthents of the great group of Ustorthents. Ustorthents are
a great group of the suborder of Orthents. Orthents are a
suborder of the order of Entisols. The names of the suborder
great group, and subgroup all end in the syllable ent, which i~
the "formative e1emenf' in the name of the order (Entisol). In
the name of an order the syllable that is the formative element is
the last syllable beginning with a vowel and ending with the last
consonant preceding the vowel that connects the suffix sol. All
names of orders end in sol. The italicized syllables that follow
are examples of formative elements in the names of orders:
Inceptisols, Mo//isols, Spodosols, Vertisols, etc.

They have no significant pedogenic horizons and only

moderate to small amounts of organic matter (from ent).

There are ten soil orders. Their names can be recognized as

such because each ends, as stated, in sol (L. so/um, soil), which
is preceded by o as the connecting vowel in names coined from
Greek roots or by i in names coined from roots of other origin.
In table 1, the names of the ten soil orders ( columri I) and the
formative element in each of the names (column 2) are given.
Also listed are simplified definitions of the principal diagnostic
properties of the soils in each order (column 3).

Orders

They are on recent slopes, subject to erosion (from orth).

They are well drained and are dry for a significant part of
the year but are dry for less than half of the growing season
(from ust).
There is soft rock, probably calcareous, within 50 cm of the
surface (from shallow and calcareous).

Suborders

The soils are warm in summer and frozep in winter (a snow

cover is unlikely for soils in an ustic great group), and the
mean annual soil temperature is between0 and8 C(from
frigid).

The name of a suborder has exactly two syllables: Its last

syllable is the formative element from the name of the order.
The first syllable connotes additional diagnostic properties of
the soils in the suborders. Thus, an Entisol that has an aquic
moisture regime throughout is called an Aquent (L. aqua,
water, plus ent from Entisols); an Entisol that consists of very
young sediments is called a Fluvent (L.fluvius, river, plus ent
from Entisols).
Table 2 lists 24 first formative elements of suborder names
and the simplified explanations of their connotations.

The mineralogy is not dominated by any one mineral; it is a

:ure of several, including some CaC03 but less than 40
percent (from mixed, calcareous).
The clay percentage is less thari 35, and the texture is finer
than loamy sand (from loamy).
Abac soils, having such a combination of properties, are not
likely to be cultivated. They can produce a moderate amount of
forage for grazing in late spring and early summer.

Great groups

The name of a great group has three or four syllables. The last
two syllables are the name of the suborder. The first syllable in
the name of a great group connotes additional diagnostic
properties of the soils in that great group. The second syllable
generally is formed when a vowel is added to connect the first
syllable to the last two syllables (the name of the suborder). For
example, an Aridisol in the suborder of Argids and in which

The Nomenclature of the Soil Taxonomy

Names from all categories higher than the series are used in
constructing a complete family name. It is made up of
descriptive family modifiers followed by ..a subgroup name,
F~ 'i ~~c...
----~----~---Family modifiers

Loamy, mixed (calcareous), frig~d, shallow

Subgroup name
1

Typic Ustorthent~
L---1 Order, Entisols

... Suborder, Orthents

.. Great group, Ustorthents
Figure 1.-Construction of a complete family name.

Table
First
formative
element
alb

Connotation
(simplified
explanation)

A nearly white eluvial 'horizon near the surface,

reflecting wetness.

and. . . Presence of appreciable allophane.

aqu .... A soil that is very wet or that has been artificially
drained.
ar . . . . . A soil having only fragments of horizons due to mixing
by men.

elements and their connotations

Connotation
(simplified
explanation)

First
formative
element

orth . The most representative, true: Orthids have no illuvial

horizon of silicate clays; Orthents are on recentl
eroded slopes; Orthox have a short dry season or no dr
season: Orthods have a B horizon that contains irm

plagg .. A surface mantle> 50 cm thick of materials that ha'

been added by continued manuring.
psamm . Sandy texture, sand, or loamy sand, to a depth of l
or more or to rock.

arg . . . . A soil having an illuvial horizon of silicate clays.

bor ... A cool or cold soil, mean annual soil temperature< 8 C.

rend ... A shallow (<50 cm deep) dark soil on highly lirr

material (> 40% CaC03 equivalent).

ferr

Presence of appreciable free iron.

sapr ... Composed

materials.

fibr

Composed mostly of undecomposed plant fibers.

hem ... Composed of partly decomposed plant materials.

hum ... Presence of appreciable humus.

ochr ... A surface horizon that is either light in color or low in

org:-n... TJ1atter, or both.

plai

t>
a

Inadequate
irrigation.

fluv .. Composed of recent alluvium.

fol .. Composed of leaves, twigs, and branches; all in various
stages of decomposition.

decomposed

mostly

crop

with01

tropical.
ud ....

dry for short periods or not at all.

umbr ..
ust .... Dry for long periods but moist in a growing season f
90 days or more in most years; droughts common.
xer ....

that is reliably moist in wint

Mediterranean climate.

. . .........,..., ..,.UF,

there are significant amounts of exchangeable sodium (natr, see

table 3) is called a Natrargid (a three-syllable name containing
no connecting vowel); an Entisol in the suborder of Auvents
that has a cryic temperature regime is called a Cryofluvent, a
four-syllable name (Gr. kyros, icy cold, expressed by the
formative element cry; plus the vowel o preceding Fluvent). In
some four-syllable names, however, both the first and second
syllables are formative elements of names of great groups (see
table 3 for construction of the name of the great group
Nadurargids).
Subgroups

Great groups are separated into three kinds of subgroups:

Typic, intergrade, and extragrade. The name of a subgroup is
formed by placing one or more adjectives before the name of
the relevant great group.

'.tic

A
subgroup represents the central concept of its gn
group. A soil in a typic subgroup, however, is not necessai
more extensive than the other kinds of soil in the same gr1
group.
An intergrade subgroup has the definitive properties of 1
great group whose name it carries as a substantive. It also l
some of the properties of another tax on or more than one otl
taxon-an order, a suborder, or a great group. The adjective
adjectives in the intergrade subgroup name are formed from
names of the other tax on or taxa. Formative elements norm<:
are not repeated. Thus, if a soil is an intergrade between t
great groups in the same suborder, the first formative elem
of one great group is used in adjective form to modify the na
of the other great group. If a soil is an intergrade to a soil c
different suborder in the same order, the final format
element in the different suborder name is not used as
adjective in the intergrade subgroup name. Following are so
examples.

Table 3.-Great groups: First

Connotation
(simplified
explanation)

First
formative
element

elements and their connotations

First
formative
element -

acr . . . . . . . . Extremely low CEC in clay fraction.

Connotation
(simplified
explanation)

och;~. . . . . . . A surface horizon that is either light in color or

low in organic matter, or that is both.

agr . . . . . . . Having an illuvial horizon

formed under cultivation.

ltAIJfJ

pale

"II"

alb . . . A nearly white eluvial horizon near the surface,

reflecting wetness.

pell

A soil that has low chroma.

and . . . . . . . Presence of appreciable allophane.

plac

Presence of a thin (a few mm) pan, cemented by

iron or by iron and humus.

arg . . . . . . . . A soil having an illuvial horizon of silicate clays.

bor. . . . . . . . A cool or cold soil, mean annual soil temperature
<8C.
calc ....... A soil that is calcareous throughout and that has a
horizon with an appreciable accumulation of lime.

plagg ...... A surface mantle,> 50 cm thick, of materials that

have been added by continued manuring.
plinth. . . . . . Presence of large amounts of plinthite, an iron-rich
material that hardens irreversibly on exposure.

carob ..... A soil having an altered but not illuvial B horizon.

psamm . . . . . Sandy texture, a sand '"or loamy sand, to a depth of

1 m or more.

chrom . . . . . Brownish or reddish color.

quartz ...... More lhan 95 percent quartz.

cry ....... A soil that is relatively cold even in

summeJ;"~

dur ........ A soil having a hardpan cemented with silica.

dys, dystr.. . Low base saturation.
eu, eutr

rieri ..

rhod ...... Dark ,colors due to high iron content, generally

dark red.
sal . . . . . . . . Presence of

a horizon with> 2 _percent salt.

sider ....... Presence of appreciable free iron.

High base saturation.

sphagn ..... Mostly sphagnum.

Presence of appreciable free iron.

rrag ....... Presence of a fragipan.

sulf. . . . . . . . Presence of appreciable shallow

products of their oxidation.

sulfides

or

torr ....... Inadequate moisture to mature a crop without

irrigation.

fragloss . . . . (See frag and gloss.)

gibbs ...... Presence of gibbsite in sheets or nodules.
gloss ....... Presence of gray eluvial tongues in an illuvial
horizon of silicate clay.
hal . . . . . . . . Wet and somewhat salty.
hapl ....... The simplest set of horizons.
hum . . . . . . . Presence of appreciable amount of humus.

. ud ). . . . . . . . Moist but not wet, and dry for short periods or

not at all.
umbr

A thick, acid, dark-colored surface horizon.

ust ........ ' Dry for long periods but moist in a growing season
for 90 days or more in most years; droughts
common.

hydr. . . . . . . Presence of excess water.

verm ....... Intensively mixed by animals, chiefly worms and

their predators.

luv . . . . . . .

vitr ........ Large amounts of glass.

a horizon of

'"'

med . . . . . . A soil of midlatitudes.

nadur . . . . . . (See natr and dur.)

xer ........ A soil of midlatitudes that is reliably moist in

winter and dry in summer, reflecting Medite~a
nean climate.

natr ....... Presence of significant amounts of exchangeable

sodium or of magnesium and sodium.

Name of
great group

lS

Taxon to which
it intergrades

Haploxeroll .... Calcixeroll ....

Aquoll .......
Fluvaquent ....
Fluvent .......
Orthent .......

names from order

subgroup:
.
.
.
.
.

Calcic HaploxerolJ
Aquic Haploxeroll
Fluvaquentic Haploxeroll
Fluventic Haploxeroll
Entic Haploxeroll (not
orthentic)

Subgroup

Great group

Suborder

Typic Ustorthents . . . . . Ustorthents ..... Orthents ..

Aquic Fragiudalfs ..... Fragiudalfs ...... Udalfs ....
Typic Fragiaqualfs ..... Fragiaqualfs ..... Aqualfs ...
Terrie Borohemists ..... Borohemists ..... Hemists ...
Ustollic Calciorthids .... Calciorthids .... '. Orthids . . .

Order
Entisols
Alfisols
Alfisols
Histosols
Aridisols

Fammes of mineral soils

The name of any taxon, converted to an adjective, can be

used in the name of an intergrade subgroup.
An extragrade subgroup has aberrant properties that do not
represent intergrades to any known kind of so~l. Hard rock, for
example, is not considered to be soil. Consequently, a soil with
underlying hard rock at a depth of< 50 cm is placed in a lit hie
subgroup. A permanently frozen layer, permafrost, below the
soil is the basis for placing a soil in a pergelic subgroup. These
subgroups, in a sense, are made up of intergrades to "not soil."
A. soil at the base of a slope may accumulate sediments slowly,
producing in time only a very thick dark-colored Al horizon.
Such a soil is placed in a cumulic subgroup because there is no
known thick soil that consists of only an Al horizon. The
adjectives used in forming the names of extragrade subgroups
md their meanings are given in table 4.
Following are examples of how the nomenclature of the

'

A complete family name consists of a subgroup name

preceded by a few, usually three, modifiers that narrow the
range of properties enough to permit general statements about
use and management of the soils. Modifier~ in a family name of
mineral soils represent the following differentiae, listed
according to their sequence in the name.
Particle-size class
Mineralogy class
Calcareous and reaction classes
Soil temperature class
Soil depth class
Soil slope class
Soil consistence class
Coatings
Class of permanent cracks

Table 4.-Extragrade subgrou;}' Adjectives used in the names and their meanings.
Adjective

abruptif

Meaning

Adjective

Meaning

A large difference in percentage of clay between

an eluvial horizon and an illuvial horizon without
a significant transitional horizon.

lithic ....... Hard rock within 50 cm of the surface.

Browner and better aerated than typic.

petrocalcic ... An indurated horizon of lime accumulation.

A manmade dark-colored surface horizon.

petroferric . . . A shallow layer of ironstone.

rrenic. . . . . . Sandy eluvial horizons (sand or loamy sand),

mostly between 50 cm and l m thick.
An overthickened epipedon rich in humus.

pergelic .... Presence of permafrost.

pachic . . . . . . A thick dark surface horizon.

plinthic 1 Presence of small amounts of plinthite, an
iron-rich material that hardens irreversibly on
exposure.

Tongued eluvial and illuvial horizons.

ruptic. . . . . . . Intermittent horizons.
Sandy eluvial horizons (sand or loamy sand) >I m
thick.
Organic soil floating on water if used in name of a
Histosol.

superic ..... Very shallow plinthite.

Thin soil horizons.

terric .... A mineral substratum in an organic soil.

imnic ....... Organic soil with basal layer of marl, diatoms, or

sedimentary peat.
1 Not

sulfa; ...... Presence of deep sulfides or moderate amounts if

shallow, or products of sulfide oxidation.

thapto 1 A buried soil.

strictJy an extragrade. Name is used to indicate a special departure trom the typic subgroup.

., which excludes stones and boulders larger than

about 25 cm. The term "fine earth'" refers to particles smaller
size are used to describe material in the
Classes of
than 2 mm in diameter.
control section. The class named is that of the weighted average
There are three situations in which particle-size class names
of the control section unless two strongly contrasting classes are
are not used. In the first situation, the name is redundant.
>ent. Then both classes are named. In soils that do not have
Psamments and Psammaquents, by definition, are sandy, and
argiJlic horizon, the control section normally extends from a
no particle-size class name is needed or used in the family name.
depth of 25 cm to J00 cm. In soils that have an argillic horizon,
In the second situation, particle size is meaningless because,
the control section normally is the upper 50 cm of the argillic
presumably, the soil consists of a mixture of discrete mineral
horizon if the horizon is >50 cm thick or is the whole argillic
partides and of gels. The concept of either texture or particle
horizon if the horizon is < 50 cm thick. If there is rock or
size is not applicable to a gel, particularly if the gel cannot be
permafrost at a more shallow depth, the control section stops at
dispersed. Consequently, particle-size class names are not used
the rock or 25 cm below the top of the permafrost. The same
if the soil is mostly glass or if the exchange complex is
control section is used for classes of mineralogy, but strongly
dominated by amorphous materials, as is true of Andepts by
contrasting classes are not used. The mineralogy of the upper
definition. In families of Andepts and Andaquepts, in most
part of the control section is named.
_ andic subgroup_s of lnceptisols and in andeptic and
andaqueptic subgroups of other orders, and in cindery and ashy
families of Entisols and Aridisols, particle-size class names as
Particle-size classes
such are not used for the part of the soil that cannot be
Particle size refers to rain-size distribution of the whole soil
dispersed.
and is not the same as texture which refers to t e -e rt
In the third situation, the organic-matter content is high and
- raction.
e me-earth fraction consists of the particJes that
particle size has only limited relation to the physical and
have a diameter < 2 mm. Particle-size classes are a kind of
chemical properties of the soils. This seems to be normal in soils
compromise between engineering and pedologic classifications. - that have both a cryic temperature regime and a spodic horizon.
In engineering classifications, the limit between sand and silt is
Therefore, particle-size class names are not used for the spodic
a diameter of 74 microns; in pedologic classifications, the limit
horizons 5 of--Cryaquods, Cryohumods, Cryorthods, or Cryic
is a diameter of either 50 or 20 microns. Engineering
Placohumods.
classifications are based on percentages by weight in the
The terms in table 6 are substituted for particle-size class
fraction< 74 mm in diameter, and textural classes are based on
names for the taxa that have been listed under the second and
percentages by weight in the fraction < 2 mm in diameter.
third situations u~less the particle-size modifier is redundant.
The very fine sand separate (diameter between 0.05 mm and
They reflect a combination of particle size and mineralogy, and
0.1 mm) is split in engineering classifications. In defining
take the place of both.
p"rticle-size classes, much the sa.me split is made but in a
Mineralogy classes
erent manner. A soil that has a texture of fine sand or loamy
fine sand normally has an appreciable content of very fine sand,
Mineralogy classes are based on the approximate
but the very fine sand fraction is mostly coarser than 74
mineralogical composition of selected size fractions of the same
microns. A silty sediment, such as loess, may also have an
segment of the soil (control section) that is used for application
appreciable component of very fine sand, but most of the very
of particle-size classes.
fine sand is finer than 74 microns. So, in particle-size classes,
Contrasting mineralogy modifiers are not recognized except
the very fine sand is allowed to "float." It is treated as sand if the
where substitute modifiers have been used in place of particletexture is fine sand, loamy fine sand, or coarser. It is treated as
size class modifiers (table 6). ln those soils there is an overlay of
silt if the texture is very fine sand, loamy very fine sand, sandy
ash or cinders or an upper medial or thixotr9pic layer, and the
loam, silt loam, or finer.
ashy, cindery, medial, or thixotropic layer extends at least IO
No single set of particle-size classes seems appropriate as
cm into the upper part of the control section. ln identifying and
family differentiae for all kinds of soils. The classes listed in
naming the contrasting mineralogy modifiers in families of
table 5 provide for a choice of either 7 or 11 particle-size classes.
those soils, the seven particle-size classes are used to describe
This choice permits relatively fine distinctions in soils if particle
the lower part of the section. For example, a pair of contrasting
size is important and permits broader groupings if the particle
size is not susceptible to precise measurement or if using
narrowly defined classes produces undesirable groupings. Thus
in some families the term "clayey" indicates that there is 35
5 Particle-size class names are applied to other spodic horizons
percent or more clay in defined horizons, but in other families
but with reservations. Somewhat different classes probably
the term "fine" indicates that the clay fraction constitutes 35
should be used for most families of Spodosols, but data are too
through 59 percent of the fine earth of the horizons, and the
few to permit the testing of alternatives. Some series that otherterm "very-fine" indicates 60 percent or more clay. The term
wise would be reasonably homogeneous are split at the family
"rock fragments" refers to particles 2 mm in diameter or larger
level by the particle-size classes. Soils in these series have
and includes all sizes that have horizontal dimensions less than
appreciable but not very large amounts of organic matter in the
the size of a pedon. It is not the same as the term ..coarse
spodic horizon.
The control section

cla!.ses in names

Class

l.

Definition

11ental . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Stones, cobbles, gravel, and very coarse sand particles; too little fine earth to fill
interstices >1 mm in diameter.

2. Sandy-skeletal ......................... Rock fragments 2mm or coarser make up 35 percent or more by volume; enough
fine earth to rm interstices >1 mm; the fraction < 2 mm is sandy as defined for
particle-size class 5.
3. Loamy-skeletal ........................ Rock fragments make up 35 percent or more by volume; enough fine earth to fill
interstices >I mm; the fraction < 2 mm is loamy as defined for particle-size
class 6.
4. Clayey-skeletal ........................ Rock fragments make up 35 percent or more by volume; enough fine earth to fill
interstices > 1 mm; the fraction finer than 2 mm is clayey as defined for
particle-size class 7.
5. Sandy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . The texture of the fine earth is sand or loamy sand but not loamy very fine sand or
very fine sand; rock fragments make up< 35 percent by volume.
6. Loamy............................... The texture of the fine earth is loamy very fine -sand, very fine sand, or finer, but
the amount of clay 1 is <35 percent; rock fragments are < 35 percent by volume.
a. Coarse loamy ....................... By weight, 15 percent or more of the particles are fine sand (diameter 0.25 to 0.1
mm) or coarser, including fragments up to 7.5 cm in diameter;< 18 percent clay in
the fine-earth fraction.
b. Fine-loamy ......................... By weight, 15 percent or more of the particles are fine sand (diameter 0.25 to 0.1
mm) or coarser, including fragments up to 7.5 cm in diameter; 18 through 34
percent clay in the fine-earth fraction ( < 30 percent in Vertisols).
c. Coarse-silty ......................... By weight,< 15 percent of the particles are fine sand (diameter 0.25 to 0.1 mm) or
coarser, including fragments up to 7.5 cm in diameter; < 18 percent clay in the
fine-earth fraction.
d. Fine-silty ........................... By weight, < 15 percent of the particles are fine sand (diameter 0.25 to 0.1 mm) or
coarser, including fragments up to 7.5 cm in diameter; 18 through 34 percent clay
in the fine-earth fraction ( < 30 percent in Vertisols).
7. Clayey ............................... The fine earth contains 35 percent or more clay by weight, and rock fragments are
<35 percent by volume.
a. Fine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A clayey particle-size class for soils having 35 through 59 percent clay in the
fine-earth fraction (30 through 59 percent for Vertisols).
b. Very-fine .......................... A clayey particle-size class for soils having
fraction.
1

60 percent or more clay in

the fine-earth

Carbonates of clay size are,not considered to be clay but are treated as silt in all particle-size classes. If the ratio of 15-bar water to
clay is 0.6 or more in half or more of the control section, for this purpose the percentage of clay is considered to be 2.5 times the
percentage of 1 S-bar water.

TabJe 6.-Families:

Owt substitute in some names for other

connote.particle-size and
classes

that

Meaning

Modifier

Sixty percent or more of the whole soil (by weight 1 ) is volcanic ash, cinders, and
pumice; 35 percent or more is cinders that have a diameter of 2 mm or more.
Ashy ................................. Sixty percent or more of the whole soil (by weight) is volcanic ash, cinders, and
pumice;< 35 percent (by volume).is 2 mm in diameter or larger.
Ashy-skeletal ............................ Thirty-five percent or more (by volume) is rock fragments other than cinders; the
fine-earth fraction is otherwise ashy.
Medial ................................. Less than 60 percent of the whole soil (by weight) is volcanic ash, cinders, and
pumice; < 35 percent (by volume) is 2 mm in diameter or larger; the fine-earth
fraction is not thixotropic; the exchange complex is dominated by. amorphous
materials.
Medial skeletal ........................... Thirty-five percent or more (by volume) 1s rock fragments other than cinders 2 mm
in diameter or larger; the fine-earth fract1on is oth~rwise medfal.
Thixotropic ............................. Less than 35 percent (by vol_ume) has diameter of 2 mm or larger; the fine-earth
fraction is thixotropic; the exchange complex is dominated by amorphous
materials.
Thixotropic-skeletal ....................... Thirty-five percent or more (by volume) is rock fragments other than cinders 2 mm
in diameter or larger; the fine earth fraction is otherwise tJiixotropic.
1

Percentages by weight in these definitions are estimated from grain counts; generally a count of one or two dominant size
fractions of the conventional mechanical analysis is enough for placement of soil.

layers is named "medial over loamy, mixed," not "medial over

coa1r 'oamy, mixed.'"
If\....:re are layers of contrasting particle size in the control
section, the mineralogy class of the upper part of the control
section is definitive of the family mineralogy. For example, if
there is fine-loamy material of mixed mineralogy over sandy
material that is siliceous, the proper modifiers describing the
family are "fine-loamy over sandy, mixed,'" not ufine-loamy,
mixed, over sandy, siliceous.'"
Table 7 is a key to mineralogy classes, not a set of complete
definitions. Mirieral soils are placed in the first mineralogy class
of the key that accommodates them although they also may
seem to meet the requirements for other mineralogy classes.
Substitute terms that connote both particle size and mineralogy
are based on combined texture, consistence, and mineralogy
classes and are used to indicate important variations in
Andaquepts; Andepts; andic, andaqueptic, and andeptic
subgroups; cryic great groups of Spodosols; and cindery and
ashy families of Aridisols and Entisols. Mineralogy classes are
not named for Calciaquolls because the effect of the carbonates overshadows other differences in mineralogy, and they are
not named for Quartzipsamments, which, by definition, are
siliceous.
It is recognized that normally it is impossible to be certain of
the percentages of .the various kinds of clay minerals.
Quantitative methods of identification are still subject to
change. Although much progress has been made in the past few

decades, an element of judgment enters into any estimation of

the percentages. All the evidence does not need to come from Xray, surface, and DTA determinations. Other physical and
chemical properties suggest the mineralogy of many clayey
soils. Changes in volume, cation-exchange capacity, and
consistence are useful in estimating the nature of clay.
The description of clay mineralogy in naming families of
clayey soils is based on the weighted average of the control
5e.ction.
Calcareous and reaction classes
The presence or absence of carbonates and the reaction are
discussed together because they are so intimately related. A
calcareous horizon cannot be strongly acid. Calcareous classes
are applied to the section between depths of 25 and 50 cm or
between a depth of 25 cm and a lithic or paralithic contact that
is below a depth of 25 cm but not as deep as 50 cm, or to some
part of the soil above a lithic .or paralithic contact that is
shallower than 25 cm. Two classes, calcareous and
noncalcareous, are used in selected taxa. The definitions
follow.
Calcareous.-The fine-earth fraction effervesces in all parts
with cold dilute HCI.
Noncalcareous.-The fine-earth fraction does not effervesce
in aU parts with cold dilute HCI. The term "noncalcareous" is
not used as a part of a family name.

Table
Class

to mineralogy classes

Determinant size fraction

Definition

CLASSES APPLIED TO SOILS OF ANY PARTICLE-SIZE CLASS

Carbonatic ........ More than 40 percent by weight carbonates (expressed as CaC03)

plus gypsum, and the carbonates are > 65 percent of the sum of
carbonates and gypsum.
Ferritic ........... More than 40 percent by weight iron oxide extractable by
citrate-dithionite, reported as Fe203 (or 28 percent reported as
Fe).
Gibbsitic . . . . . . . . . More than 40 percent by weight hydrated aluminum oxides,
reported as gibbsite and boehmite.
Oxidic . . . . . . . . . . . Less than 90 percent quartz; < 40 percent any other single mineral
listed subsequently; and the ratio, percent extractable iron oxide
plus percent gibbsite to percent clay 1 , is 0.20 or more. That is,

>

extractable Fe203 (pct.)+ gibbsite (pct.)

clay(pct.)1
-

0.20

Serpentinitic . . . . . . More than 40 percent by weight serpentine minerals (antigorite,

chrysotile, fibrolite, and talc).
Gypsic ........... More than 40 percent by weight of carbonates (expressed as CaC03)
plus gypsum, and the gypsum is > 35 percent of the sum of carbonates and gypsum.
Glauconitic . . . . . . . More than 40 percent glauconite by weight.

Whole soil, particles <2 'mm, in

diameter, or whole soil< 20 mm,
whichever has higher percentage
of carbonates plus gypsum.
Whole soil, particles < 2 mm in
diameter.
Whole soil, particles < 2 mm in
diameter.
For quartz and other minerals,
fraction 0.02 to 2 mm in
diameter; for ratio of iron oxide
and gibbsite to clay, w.hole soil
<2mm.
Whole soil, particles < 2 mm in
diameter.
Whole soil, particles < 2 mm in
diameter, or whole soil< 20 mm,
whichever has higher percentage
of carbonates plus gypsum.
Whole soil, particles < 2 mm in
diameter.

CLASSES APPLIED TO SOILS THAT HAVE A SANDY, SANDY-SKELETAL, LOAMY; OR LOAMY-SKELETAL PARTICLE-SIZE CLASS

Micaceous ........ More than 40 percent mica by weight. 2

Siliceq . . . . . . . . . More than 90 percent by weight2 of silica minerals (quartz,
chalcedony, or opal) and other extremely durable minerals that
are resistant to weathering.
Mixed .'. . . . . . . . . . All others that have < 40 percent of any one mineral other than
quartz or feldspars.

0.02 to 20 mm.
0.02 to 2 mm.

0.02 to2 mm.

CLASSES APPLIED TO SOILS THAT HAVE A CLAYEY PARTICLE-SIZE CLASS

Halloysitic . . . . . . . . More than half halloysite 3 by weight and smaller amounts of

allophane or kaolinite or both.
Kaolinitic. . . . . . . . . More than half kaolinite, tabular halloysite, dickite, and nacrite by
weight and smaller amounts of other 1: l or nonexpanding 2: l
layer minerals or gibbsite.
Montmorillonitic . . . More than half montmorillonite and nontronite by weight or a
mixture that has more montmorillonite than any other one clay
mineral.
Illitic . . . . . . . . . . . . More than half illite (hydrous mica) by weight and commonly > 4
percent K10.
Vermiculitic ....... More than half vermiculite by weight or more vermiculite than any
other one clay mineral.
Chloritic . . . . . . . . . More than half chlorite by weight or more chlorite than any other
clay mineral.
Mixed ............ Other soils. 4

< 0.002 mm.

<0.002mm.
<0.002 mm.
<0.002 mm.
<0.002 mm.
<0.002 mm.
<0.002mm.

Percentag~ of clay or percentage of 15-bar water times 2.5, whichever is greater, provided the ratio of 15-bar water to clay is 0.6
or more in half or more of the control section.
2
Percentages by weight are estimated from grain counts. Usually, a count of one or two of the dominant size fractions of a
conventional mechanical analysis is sufficient for placement of the soil.
3
Halloysite as used here includes only the tubular forms. What has been called tabular halloysite is grouped here with kaolinite.
4
Sepiolitic, defined as containing more than half by weight of sepiolite, attapulgite, and palygorskite, should be named if found.
1

IO

1t should be noted that a soil contammg dolomite is

calcareous and that effervescence of dolomite, when treated
with cold dilute H CJ. is slow.

Reaction classes are applied to the control section that is

defin{- -'Jr particle-size classes. Two classes, acid and nonacid,
are u\...... in selected taxa. The definitions follow.
Acid.-The pH is< 5.0 in O.oI M CaC1 2 (2:1) throughout
the control section (about 5.5 in H 2 0, 1:1).
Nonacid.-ThepH is5.0ormorein0.0l M CaC1 2 (2:l)inat
least some part of the control section. The term "nonacid" is not
used in family names of calcareous soils.
Reaction-class modifiers are used only in names of families
of Entisols and Aquepts; they are not used in names of sandy,
sandy-skeletal, and fragmental families of these taxa, nor are
they used in names of Sulfaquepts and Fragiaquepts and
families that have carbonatic or gypsic mineralogy.
Calcareous-class modifiers are used, if appropriate, in the
names of the same taxa as reaction classes and, in addition, are
used in families of Aquolls except for Calciaquolls and for
Aquolls that have an argillic horizon. Calcareous reaction-class
modifiers are not used in family names of soils that have
carbonatic or gypsic mineralogy. A calcareous soil is never
acid. Calcareous therefore implies nonacid, and both modifiers
are not used in the family name because nonacid would be
redundant. Similarly, noncalcareous would be redundant in
family names of acid soils.
Soil temperature classes
Soil temperature classes, as named and defined here, are used
as family differentiae in all orders. The class names are used as
family name modifiers unless the name of a higher taxon carries
the ( 'e limitation. Thus, frigid is implied in all boric
subm-~.:rs and cryic great groups and is redundant in the name
of a family.
The Celsius (centigrade) scale is the standard. Approximate
Fahrenheit equivalents are indicated parenthetically. It is
assumed that the temperature is that of a soil that is not being
irrigated.
For soils in which the difference is 5 C (9 F) or more
between mean summer (June, July, and August in the northern
hemisphere) and mean winter (December, January, and
February in the northern hemisphere) soil temperatures at a
deEth of 50 cm or at a lithic or paralithic contact, whichever is
shallower, the following classes, defined in terms of the mean
annual soil temperature are used.
Frigid.-Less than go C (47 F).
Mesic.-From go to 15 C (47 to 59 F).
Thermic.-From 15 to 22 C (59 to 72 F).
Hyperthermic.-More than 22 C (72 F).
For soils in which the difference is less than 5 C (9 F)
between mean summer and mean winter soil temperature at a
depth of 50 cm or at a lithic or paralithic contact, whichever is
shallower, the following classes, defined in terms of the mean
annual soil temperature are used.

lsofrigid.-Less than 8 C (47 F).

lsomesic.-From 8 to 15 C (47 to 59 F).
lsohyperthermic.-More than 22 C (72 F).
The appropriate limit between isofrigid and isomesic
cannot be tested in the United States and probably will need to
be revised.
Other characteristics
Several soil characteristics other than those already
discussed must be considered in particular taxa to provide
reasonable groupings of series into families. Some of these seem
to be logical family criteria. Others probably should have been
used in higher categories, but the lack of information about
them makes it much safer to use them as family differentiae at
this time. These characteristics include soil depth, soil slope,
soil consistence, moisture equivalent, and permanent cracks.
Soil depth ciasses.-Classes of shallow and deep soils may be
needed at the family level in all orders of mineral soils. Some
distinctions in depth are made in great groups and in arenic and
lithic subgroups, but some other soils should also be grouped in
families according to depth. Some soils have a paralithic
contact over soft rock such as clay shale that is too compact for
penetration by roots. The classes of soil depth follow.
Micro. Less than 18 cm through diagnostic horizons. Used in
cryic great groups but not in pergelic subgroups or in Entisols.
Shallow. Two depths are considered shallow.
l. Less than 50 cm to the upper boundary of a petrocalcic
horizon or to a paralithic or a petroferric contact. Used in all
great groups of Entisols, lnceptisols, Aridisols, Mollisols,
Spodosols, Alfisols, and Ultisols, except pergelic subgroups of
the cryic great groups (Cryaquepts, Cryumbrepts, Cryorthods,
and so on). Note that lithic subgroups are also shallow, but the
adjective "shallow" in a family name for them is redundant.
2. Less than l m to a lithic or paralithic or a petroferric
contact. Used in families of Oxisols.
Soil slope or shape.-Soils of aquic great groups normally
have level or concave surfaces. They are mainly in places where
ground water saturates the soil during some period ~f the _year.
A few however are on the sides of slopes where wat~r cannot
stand ~nd are k~pt wet by more or less continuous prCapi_tation '.'.
and by seepage of water from higher areas. A Vel)'
~quic
soils are kept wet by hydrostati~ pressure. No ~n11st~l
internal morphologic clues have yet been found that dast~llh
those sloping aquic soils if the dissolved oxygen content JI low,
but they generally arc easily ~gniz.cd in the field rrc:.-m thc!r
position in the landscape. It u proposed, therefore, tn aqmc
great groups, particularly in Aquolls and Aquults, to use the
shape of the soil as a family differentia. C:lasses of ~evcl and
sloping soils, as these classes are defined m the Sod Survey
Manual ( 1951 ). seem adequate. It may be necessary to use slope
classes as family differentiae in other orders, but they should
not be used as differentiae for families of Aquods or
Albaqualfs. H no slope modifier is used in the family name,
ulevel" is assumed in families of aquic soils.
Soil consistence.-Some cemented horizons, for example, a
duripan, are differentiae in the classification in categories

!cw

II

a hove the
such as a cemented spodic horizon
are not. but no single family should include both soils
that have a continuous, shallow cemented horizon and soils
that
""OL In Spodosols, in particular, a cemented spodic
eds to be used as a family differentia. The following
dasses of consistence are defined for Spodosols.
Ortstein. All or part of the spodic horizon is at least weakly
cemented, when moist, into a massive horizon that is present in
more than half of each pedon.
Noncemented. The spodic horizon, when moist, is not
cemented into a massive horizon in as much as half of each
pedon.
Cementation of a small volume into shot or concretions does
not constitute cementation that forms a massive horizon. The
name of a family of noncemented Spodosols normally does not
have a modifier that implies lack of cementation. The name of a
family of cemented Spodosols contains the modifier "ortstein.''
A cemented calcic or gypsic horizon is not identified in a
family name. Many calcic and some gypsic horizons are weakly
cemented and some are indurated. The recognition of a
petrocalcic or petrogypsic horizon is expected to meet most, if
not all, the needs for recognition of cementation in those
horizons. Taxa of these cemented soils are not named at the
family level.
Coatings.-Despite the emphasis given to particle-size
c1asses in the taxonomy, variability remains in the sandy
particle-size dass, which takes in sands and loamy sands. Some
sands are very clean, almost completely free of silt and clay.
Others are mixed with appreciable amounts of finer grains. A
moisture equivalent of 2 percent makes a reasonable division of
the sands at the family level. Two classes of Quartzipsamments
are def 'd in terms of their moisture equivalent.
Cod~
. The moisture equivalent is 2 percent or more.
Uncoated. The moisture equivalent is < 2 percent. The
moisture retained at tension of 0.5 bar may be substituted for
the moisture equivalent. Or, if moisture tension data are not
available, the silt plus clay is ~ 5 percent.
The moisture equivalent for this distinction is the weighted
average for the control section, weighted for the thickness of
each horizon or layer.
Permanent cracks.-Hydraquents consolidate0
after
drainage and become Fluvaquents. In the process, they form
polyhedrons, roughly 12 to 50 cm in diameter, depending on the
n-value and particle size. The polyhedrons are separated by
cracks that range in width from 2 mm to 1 cm or more. The
polyhedrons may shrink and swell with changes in moisture
content of the soil, bt the cracks are permanent and can persist
for some hundreds of years even though the soils are cultivated.
The cracks permit rnpid movement of water through the soil
either vertically or laterally. Yet the soils may have the same
particle size, mineralogy, and other family properties as soils
that are not cracked or that have cracks that open and close
with the seasons. The soils that have permanent cracks are so

The process is designated by a Dutch word that means "to

ripen" because the change resembles the change in consistence of
cheese as water is removed.

12

rare in the United States that

a
of
their
can be presented.
The modifier "cracked" is used only to designate families of
Fluvaqucnts. It means that there are continuous, permanent,
lateral and vertical cracks, at least 2 mm wide, spaced at average
lateral intervals of 50 cm or less. If this modifier is not in the
family name, permanent cracks are assumed to be absent..
Fammes of Hlsiosols

The order in which family modifiers are placed in the

technical family names of Histosols follows. The differentiae
chosen are those appropriate to the particular family.
Particle-size dass
Mineralogy class, including nature of limnic deposits
Reaction class
Soil temperature class
The control section
The control section in Histosols depends on the nature of the
upper part of the soil. The control section extends to any layer
of water present below 130 cm or 160 cm. lfa lithic or paralithic
contact is present at a depth of less than 130 cm, the control
section extends to the contact. The control section extends to a
depth of 160 cm if ( l) the upper 60 cm of the soil is three-fourths
or more fibers derived from Sphagnum or from Hypnum or
other mosses or if (2) the upper 60 cm has a bulk density < 0.1.
If none of the aforementioned conditions is present, the control
section extends to a depth of 130 cm.
Partide-size classes
Particle-size modifiers are used in family names of Histosols
only in terric sub.groups The terms used follow.
,
Fragmental
Loamy-skeletal or clayey-skeletal
Sandy or sandy-skeletal
Loamy
Clayey
The meaning of each of these terms is the same as that defined
for particle-size classes of mineral soils. The proper term is
selected to describe the weighted average particle size of the
upper 30 cm of the mineral layer or that part of the mineral
layer that is within the control section, whichever is thicker.
Mineralogy classes
Mineralogy classes of Histosols are of four kinds, based on
the nature of the subgroup or great group.
Ferrihumic.-Containing ferrihumic materials within the
control section (applied to Fibrists, Hemists, and Saprists,
except Sphagnofibrists and sphagnic subgroups of other great
groups). Bog iron is present in some Histosols or in organic soil
materials. It is called ferrihumic material. It consists of
~uthigenic deposits (formed in place) of hydrated iron oxides

mixed with varying kinds or amounts

materials. The
iron in some places is present in large cemented aggregates. ln
other places it may be mostly dispersed and soft. Colors
~'lrmally are shades of dark reddish brown, commonly mixed
.h black, and the colors change little on drying. The content
of iron oxide ranges from 10 percent to > 20 percent.
Ferrihumic material either is saturated with water for long
periods ( > 6 months)or is in an artificially drained soil. The
content of free iron oxide should exceed J0 percent (7 percent
Fe), but the horizon may be either organic or mineral provided
there is at least I percent organic matter. The material should
have > 2 percent (by weight) concretions of iron, which may
range in size from fine (<5 mm) to 1 m or more in the largest
lateral dimension. Colors _should be dark reddish brown or
reddish brown or should be close to these colors. The presence
of ferrihumic material within the control section is one of the
family differentiae.
If ferrihumic is used as a modifier in the technical family
name, no other mineralogy modifier is used because the
presence of the iron is considered to be, by far, the most
important characteristic.
Modifiers applied only to terric subgroups.-The
mineralogy modifiers used for mineral soils are applied to the
mineral parts of the soil for which a particle-size modifier has
been used if the mineralogy is not ferrihumic.
Clastic.-More than 55 percent mineral matter (total ash
after ignition) as a weighted average of the organic materials
within the control section (applied to all subgroups, except
hydric and terric, that do not have ferrihumic mineralogy).
Modifiers applied to limnic subgroups.-lf limnic materials
are present in the control section, if they are 5 cm or more thick,
d if the materials do not have ferrihumic mineralogy, the
ilowing modifiers are used.
Coprogenous. Limnic materials that consist of coprogenous
earth are present.

Diatomaceous.
Limnic materials that consist of
diatomaceous earth are present.
Marly. Limnic materials that consist of marl are present.
Reaction classes
Modifiers to indicate reaction are used in all subgroups. The
meanings follow.
Euic.-The pH of undried samples is 4.5 or more (0.01 M
CaC1 2 ) in at least some part of the organic materials in the
control section.
Dysic.-The pH is < 4.5 (in 0.0 l M Ca CI 2 ) in all parts of
the organic materials in the control section.
Soil temperature classes
Names and definitions of classes follow the rules given for
soil temperature classes of mineral soils. Frigid, however, is
redundant in boric anp cryic great groups and is not used. No
temperature modifier is used in pergelic subgroups.
Soil depth classes
Soil depth modifiers are used in all 1ithic subgroups of
Histosols except in the suborder of Folists. It is assumed that
lithic Folists have a shallow lithic contact. Other lithic
Histosols have a lithic contact within the control section but it
may be as much as 160 cm deep.
Shallow.-Used in lithic subgroups to indicate a lithic
contact between a depth o( 18 cm and 50 cm.
Micro.-Used to indicate a lithic contact shallower that
18 cm without regard to soil temperature. (In mineral soils,
micro families are restricted to cryic great groups.)

*...

140

ti)

>-

'-~c

120

140ca

u:::J

"O
0

n.

100

...

~
D

::!:

80

100

130

160

Leaching Intensity"
*Relative estimates based on quantity (g/100 cm2 ) of gonic
carbon presently in upper 75cm. of soil
"Relative intensities based on depth of leaching (cm)

FIG. 4. Generalized scheme for development of Mollie Albaqualfs (Smeck and Runge
1971b).

%<2p (CaC03 free basis)

20
40
30
10

' ... ....

.......

Saybrook

so

..........
\
I

Kane Co.

Depth
in cm

,-"

100

Soil becomes
calcareous

'...'>
, t.
''
)

,,,."

s
3

Beta horizon--position
due to flocculation of clay
by Caco3 Clay moved
by infrequent cool season
moisture fronts.

150

Fm. 1. Distribution of clay in Saybrook, Typic Argiudoll (Hinkley, Runge, and Pederson 1970).

20

10

40

30

30

20

10

50

------------- ....

50

Depth
in cm

Clime

Fayette Co.

,,

100

, , ...'
,,

,8'

Tama

,
I

Warren Co.

,,
,,,

.I
I

100

150

150

Frn. 6. Distribution of clay in Cisne (Mollie Albaqualf) and Tama (Typic Argiudoll).
%<2)-4
0

10

20

30

40

I
I

'"'----------- ,

50

...

Depth
in cm

Cisne

Fayette Co.

100

150

,,

,
,,

, ,,-"'

I
I

FIG. 7. Water movement (schematic) in Cisne (Mollie Albaqualf).

%< 2,.
0

10

20

30

40

----~~---~--soil

Penetration
of warm :season

50
Depth
in cm

'I

Tama

'f

100

150

rainfall

I
I

Warren Co.

surface

No interference
between capillaryrise and rainfall

~Fluctuating

H2 0
fable >150 cm

Water regime (schematic)

Fro. 8. Water movement (schematic) in Tama

Argiudoll).

GEOMORPHOLOGY LABORATORY
Exercise II
Surficial Sediments, Soils, and Soil Profiles
This lab exercise is intended to give you some experience in the
description of surficial sediments and soils. It would best be done
in the field but that is not practical in a lab period at this time of
the year. The emphasis will be on field description of both sediments
and soils. Bring Ruhe to lab and reread p. 10-15 and p. 37-40.
In most places the earth's surface is composed of unconsolidated
materials. These materials have developed either through the insitu
weathering of rock (residual soil~ regolith, mantle) or through deposition by surface processes (sediments, transported soil). The term soil
means different things to different people. The engineer includes all
unconsolidated material under the term soil; the more common usage (at
least by pedologists,
, and most geologists) is to restrict
the term to the material at and near the surface which has been altered
by physical, chemical, and biological processes. This is how the term
will generally be used in this class.
The following table lists many of the general geologic terms that
are used to
Unfortunately, most of the
terms have a
not
obvious in the field.
General textures and characteristics are listed for the various
of sediment; more
will be described as we discuss
various processes and environments
the semester.

Terminology and General Charactertistics of Surficial Sediments

Alluvial sediments
Alluvium
Channel
Overbank
Debris (mud) flows

Eolian sediments
Dune sand
Loess
Glacial sediments (drift)
Till (inc. debris flows)
Outwash

variable
sorted, stratifieJ
usually course
(gravel,
usually fine (sand
silt, and clay)
variable, all sizes poorly sorted massive
to weakly stra

sand
silt

well sorted
well sorted

all sizes, propor- unsorted, massive

tions of each vary
sand and/or gravel sorted, stratified

Exercise II

Page 2

Genetic Types and

Texture

Nam~~

Lacustrine sediments
Lake deposits

sand,

Beach

silt~

or

we 11 sorted

clay
sand

well sorted

variable

poorly sorted

silt or clay

organic ... rich

Slope sediments

Colluvium

Depressional sediments
Carbonaceous silt or clay
Peat

plant debris

The following
shows the characteristics and zones (horizons)
of a soil profile. The soil may have developed in either surficial
sediments or in in situ weathered rock.

01

Horizons of maximum biological I - activity, eluviation, or both

matter visible to eye

Original form of most vegetative
matter not recognized by eye

02

Dark-colored horizon with high

content of organic matter mixed
with mineral matter

A1

Light colored horizon of maximum

eluviation typified by loss of Fe, Al,
or clay residual resistant minerals

A2

Transitional to 8 but more like A

than B; may be absent
The Solum: genetic soil formed
by soil processes

11-----f::
Horizons of illuviation, residual
concentration, coloring, and
structure

Tramitional to B but more like

8 than A; may be absent

82

Accumulation of clay, Fe, Al,

humus, or combination; residual
concentration of sesquioxides,
clay, or mixture; Fe coatings give
darker, stronger, redder colors;
granular, blocky, or prismatic
structure

83

Transitional to C
Gleyed layer with base color
near neutral

Unconsolidated material from

which
presumably
formed; lacks properties of
solum; weathered

Accumulation of alkaline-earth
carbonates
Accumulation of calcium sulfate

Any consolidated
the soil

11v1ootneuca1 soil profile showing all of the'"''"'''"''""'

Modi fled

Surve')'

Bedrock

contains all of them. but

Exercise II

Page 3

Pedologists have develoed procedures and terminology to

describe the physical characteristics of a soil and most of them are
also useful in describing surficial sediments. The characteristics
are color, texture, structure, consistence, reaction, and other
features (see Ruhe, p. 10-15}. For surficial sediments, any sedimentary
structures (bedding, etc.) would be included under features. The following diagrams are for use in lab.

100%, CLAY

. /.

oo
"
w

Peicent Sand

The corners of this texture triangle represent 100 percent sand, clay, or
si1t, as indicated. (Gravel and organic soils are not included.) The triangle is divided into 10-percent portions of clay, silt, and sand. Heavy
line:.:; show the divisions between 12 basic soil textural classes. The triangle can be used oniy when the percentages of clay, silt, and sand have
been determined in the laboratory. If you know that a soil is 20 percent
clay and 40 percent silt, you can follov,1 the 20-percent line from the lefthand (clay) side of the triangle to the point \vhere it meets the 40-percent line from the right-hand (siit) side of the triangle. You will see,
then, that the soil is a loam.
(Fig. 11)

Page 4

Exercise II

Kind of structure

Description of aggregates {ch..1sfers)

Horizon

Crumb

Aggregates are small,

porous, and weakly held
together

X early spherical,
with many irregular surfaces

Usually found
in surface
soil or
A horizon

Granular

Aggregates are larger,

harder, and strongly
held togetber
Aggn:g;:ttcs arc Hat or plate-like, with horizontal dimensions greater than the vertical.
Plates overlap, usually causing slow permeability

Usually found
in subsurface
or A2 horizon
of timber and
claypan soil

ll

Platy

Angular blocky
or cube-like

---------1----------------1
Subangular blocky
or nut-like

Prismatic

Columnar

Structure lacking
Single grain

Nearly block-like,
with 6 or more
sides. All 3 dimensions about the
s~une

have sides
:tmJTnnri: obtusr:
cornt~r:s nrc rounded.
l\Iorc
\_
Usually found
than blocky type
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - in subsoil or
Without rounded
Prism-like with
B horizon
caps
the vertical axis
greater than the
horizontal
!Tffl'llfT<lfnc

With rounded
caps

Soil particles exist as individuals such as sand

and do not form aggrcgatt:~s

~~~~~~~~~1~~~~~~~--~~~~~~~~~~~~ 1

Massive

Soil material clings together in

masses, as in loess

uniform

Usually found
in parent
Jnaterial or
C horizon