Calculus Handbook

MathHandbook
ofFormulas,ProcessesandTricks
(www.mathguy.us)
Calculus
Preparedby:EarlL.Whitney,FSA,MAAA
Version2.9
November26,2016
Copyright200816,EarlWhitney,RenoNV.AllRightsReserved
NotetoStudents
ThisCalculusHandbookwasdevelopedprimarilythroughworkwithanumberofAPCalculus
classes,soitcontainswhatmoststudentsneedtopreparefortheAPCalculusExam(ABorBC)
orafirstyearcollegeCalculuscourse.Inaddition,anumberofmoreadvancedtopicshave
beenaddedtothehandbooktowhetthestudentsappetiteforhigherlevelstudy.
Itisimportanttonotethatsomeofthetipsandtricksnotedinthishandbook,whilegenerating
validsolutions,maynotbeacceptabletotheCollegeBoardortothestudentsinstructor.The
studentshouldalwayscheckwiththeirinstructortodetermineifaparticulartechniquethat
theyfindusefulisacceptable.
WhyMakethisHandbook?
Oneofmymainpurposesforwritingthishandbookistoencouragethestudenttowonder,to
askwhatabout?orwhatif?Ifindthatstudentsaresobusytodaythattheydont
havethetime,ordonttakethetime,tofindthebeautyandmajestythatexistswithin
Mathematics.And,itisthere,justbelowthesurface.Sobecuriousandseekitout.
Theanswerstoallofthequestionsbelowareinsidethishandbook,butareseldomtaught.
Whatisoscillatingbehaviorandhowdoesitaffectalimit?
Isthereageneralizedruleforthederivativeofaproductofmultiplefunctions?
Whatsthepartialderivativeshortcuttoimplicitdifferentiation?
Whatarethehyperbolicfunctionsandhowdotheyrelatetothetrigonometric
functions?
WhencanIsimplifyadifficultdefiniteintegralbybreakingitintoitsevenandodd
components?
WhatisVectorCalculus?
Additionally,askyourself:
Why?Alwaysaskwhy?
CanIcomeupwithasimplermethodofdoingthingsthanIambeingtaught?
WhatproblemscanIcomeupwithtostumpmyfriends?
Thosewhoapproachmathinthismannerwillbetomorrowsleaders.Areyouoneofthem?
Pleasefeelfreetocontactmeatearl@mathguy.comifyouhaveanyquestionsorcomments.
Thankyouandbestwishes!
Earl
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Calculus Handbook
Table of Contents
Page
Description
8
10
11
12
14
16
Chapter1:FunctionsandLimits
Functions
ContinuityExamples
Limits
TechniquesforFindingLimits
IndeterminateForms
WhenLimitsFailtoExist
17
18
19
20
22
23
24
27
Chapter2:Differentiation
Definition,BasicRules,ProductRule
Quotient,ChainandPowerRules;ExponentialandLogarithmicFunctions
TrigonometricandInverseTrigonometricFunctions
GeneralizedProductRule
InverseFunctionRule
PartialDifferentiation
ImplicitDifferentiation
LogarithmicDifferentiation
28
30
31
32
34
39
40
43
45
46
47
Chapter3:ApplicationsofDerivatives
MaximaandMinima(i.e.,Extrema)
InflectionPoints
SpecialCase:ExtremaandInflectionPointsofPolynomials
KeyPointsonf(x),f'(x)andf''(x)
CurveSketching
DeterminingtheShapeofaCurveBasedOnItsDerivatives
RelatedRates
Kinematics(ParticleMotion)
Differentials
Curvature
Newton'sMethod
49
50
50
53
54
Chapter4:Integration
IndefiniteIntegration(Antiderivatives)
ExponentialandLogarithmicFunctions
TrigonometricFunctions
InverseTrigonometricFunctions
SelectingtheRightFunctionforanIntergral
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Calculus Handbook
Table of Contents
Page
Description
54
56
59
63
Chapter5:TechniquesofIntegration
u Substitution
IntegrationbyPartialFractions
IntegrationbyParts
IntegrationbyTrigonometricSubstitution
64
65
66
67
68
69
70
Chapter6:HyperbolicFunctions
Definitions
Identities
RelationshiptoTrigonometricFunctions
InverseHyperbolicFunctions
GraphsofHyperbolicFunctionsandTheirInverses
Derivatives
Integrals
72
75
75
76
77
78
80
82
Chapter7:DefiniteIntegrals
RiemannSums
RulesofDefiniteIntegration
FundamentalTheoremsofCalculus
PropertiesofDefiniteIntegrals
SolvingDefiniteIntegralswithDirectedLineSegments
u Subsitution
SpecialTechniquesforEvaluation
DerivativeofanIntegral
83
84
85
91
93
96
97
Chapter8:ApplicationsofIntegration
AreaUnderaCurve
AreaBetweenCurves
VolumesofSolidsofRevolution
AreainPolarForm
ArcLength
AreaofaSurfaceofRevolution
PolarandParametricFormsSummary
98
99
Chapter9:ImproperIntegrals
DefiniteIntegralswithInfiniteLimitsofIntegration
DefiniteIntegralswithDiscontinuousIntegrands
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Calculus Handbook
Table of Contents
Page
Description
100
101
103
104
105
Chapter10:DifferentialEquations
Definitions
SeparableFirstOrderDifferentialEquations
SlopeFields
LogisticFunction
NumericalMethods
109
109
109
110
111
112
114
115
116
117
118
Chapter11:VectorCalculus
Introduction
SpecialUnitVectors
VectorComponents
PropertiesofVectors
DotProduct
CrossProduct
TripleProducts
Gradient
Divergence
Curl
Laplacian
119
119
120
121
Chapter12:Sequences
Definitions
TypesofSequences
TheoremsaboutSequences
ConvergenceandDivergence
122
123
123
123
124
125
126
129
130
133
136
Chapter13:Series
Introduction
KeyProperties
nthTermConvergenceTheorems
PowerSeries
TelescopingSeries
GeometricSeries
RiemannZetaFunction(p Series)
AlternatingSeries
ConvergenceTests
RadiusandIntervalofConvergenceofPowerSeries
SummaryofConvergence/DivergenceTests
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Calculus Handbook
Table of Contents
Page
Description
137
137
139
Chapter14:TaylorandMacLaurinSeries
TaylorSeries
MacLaurinSeries
LaGrangeRemainder
140
141
143
144
145
146
147
148
149
150
Chapter15:MiscellaneousCoolStuff
e
DerivationofEuler'sFormula
LogarithmsofNegativeRealNumbersandComplexNumbers
i
WhatIsi
z
DerivativeofetoaComplexPower(e )
DerivativesofaCircle
DerivativesofaEllipse
DerivativesofaHyperbola
Derivativeof:(x+y)3=x3+y3
InflectionPointsofthePDFoftheNormalDistribution
151
171
175
182
186
191
Appendices
AppendixA:KeyDefinitions
AppendixB:KeyTheorems
AppendixC:ListofKeyDerivativesandIntegrals
AppendixD:KeyFunctionsandTheirDerivatives
AppendixE:GeometryandTrigonometryFormulas
AppendixF:InterestingSeries
192
Index
UsefulWebsites
Mathguy.usDevelopedspecificallyformathstudentsfromMiddleSchooltoCollege,based
ontheauthor'sextensiveexperienceinprofessionalmathematicsinabusinesssettingandin
mathtutoring.Containsfreedownloadablehandbooks,PCApps,sampletests,andmore.
www.mathguy.us
WolframMathWorldApremiersiteformathematicsontheWeb.Thissitecontains
definitions,explanationsandexamplesforelementaryandadvancedmathtopics.
mathworld.wolfram.com
Version 2.9
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Calculus Handbook
Table of Contents
SchaumsOutlines
AnimportantstudentresourceforanyhighschoolmathstudentisaSchaumsOutline.Each
bookinthisseriesprovidesexplanationsofthevarioustopicsinthecourseandasubstantial
numberofproblemsforthestudenttotry.Manyoftheproblemsareworkedoutinthe
book,sothestudentcanseehowtheycanbesolved.
SchaumsOutlinesareavailableatAmazon.com,Barnes&Nobleandotherbooksellers.
OtherUsefulBooks
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Chapter1
FunctionsandLimits
Functions
Definitions
Expression:Ameaningfularrangementofmathematicalvalues,variablesand
operations.
Relation:Anexpressionthatdefinesaconnectionbetweenasetofinputsandasetof
outputs.ThesetofinputsiscalledtheDomainoftherelation.Thesetofoutputsis
calledtheRangeoftherelation.
Function:Arelationinwhicheachelementinthedomaincorrespondstoexactlyone
elementintherange.
OnetoOneFunction:Afunctioninwhicheachelementintherangeisproducedby
exactlyoneelementinthedomain.
Continuity:Afunction, ,iscontinuousat
iff:
o
isdefined,
Note: lim
existsifandonlyif:
o lim
exists,and

o lim

lim
lim
ContinuityRules
If
and
arecontinuousfunctionsatapoint
followingarealsotrueat ,
:
,andif isaconstant,thenthe
iscontinuous.
Addition
iscontinuous.
Subtraction
ScalarMultiplication
Multiplication
Division
exists.
Exponents
Roots
iscontinuous.
iscontinuousif
iscontinuous.
iscontinuousif
iscontinuousif
0.
exists.
Note:Allpolynomialfunctionsarecontinuousontheinterval
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Chapter1
FunctionsandLimits
TypesofDiscontinuities
ADiscontinuityoccursatalocationwherethegraphofarelationorfunctionisnotconnected.
RemovableDiscontinuity.Adiscontinuitythatcanbe
repairedbyaddingasinglepointtothegraph.
Typically,thiswillshowupasaholeinagraph.Inthe
function
existsat
1.
,aremovablediscontinuity
Mathematically,aremovablediscontinuityisapointat
whichthelimitof
at existsbutdoesnotequal
.Thatis,

lim

lim

Note:aremovablediscontinuityexistsat
whetherornot
exists.
EssentialDiscontinuity.Adiscontinuitythatisnotremovable.Mathematically,a
removablediscontinuityisapointatwhichthelimitof
at doesnotexist.This
includes:
o JumpDiscontinuity.Adiscontinuityat
whichthelimitfromtheleftdoesnotequal
thelimitfromtheright.Thatis,
lim

Inthefunction
lim

,ajump
discontinuityexistsat
1.
o InfiniteDiscontinuity.Theseoccuratvertical
asymptotes.
Inthefunction
discontinuitiesexistat
,infinite
3, 2 .
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Chapter1
FunctionsandLimits
Continuity Examples
Case1
JumpDiscontinuity
Notcontinuous
Limitdoesnotexist
5 mayormaynotexist(itdoesnotexistinthe
graphshown)
Case2
RemovableDiscontinuity
Notcontinuous
Limitexists
5 doesnotexist
Case3
Notcontinuous
Limitexists
5 existsbutdoesnotequalthelimit
Case4
NoDiscontinuity
Continuous
Limitexists
5 existsandisequalthelimit
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Chapter1
FunctionsandLimits
Limits
Definitions
FormalDefinition:Let beafunctiondefinedonanopenintervalcontaining ,exceptpossiblyat
,andlet bearealnumber.Then,thestatement:
lim

0,thereexistsa
meansthatforeach
0
0suchthat:
implies|
Writtenusingmathsymbols:
00
InformalDefinition:Thelimitisthevalue thatafunctionapproachesasthevalueofthe
inputvariable approachesthedesiredvalue .
fromeithertheleft lim

Limitsmayexistapproaching
ortheright lim

Ifthelimitsfromtheleftandrightarethesame(e.g.,theyarebothequalto ),thenthelimit
.
existsat
andwesaylim

LimitRules
Assumingthateachoftherequisitelimitsexist,thefollowingrulesapply:
lim

lim

lim

AdditionofLimits
lim

lim

lim

SubtractionofLimits
lim

lim

lim

lim

lim

lim

MultiplicationofLimits
lim

lim

DivisionofLimits
Powers
Roots
lim

lim

Also,assumingthateachoftherequisitelimitsexists,thetypicalpropertiesofadditionand
multiplication(e.g.,commutativeproperty,associativeproperty,distributiveproperty,inverse
property,etc.)applytolimits.
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Chapter1
FunctionsandLimits
Techniques for Finding Limits

Substitution
Theeasiestmethod,whenitworks,fordeterminingalimitissubstitution.Usingthismethod,
simplysubstitutethevalueof intothelimitexpressiontoseeifitcanbecalculateddirectly.
Example:
2
2
lim

3
3
2
2
Simplification
Whensubstitutionfails,othermethodsmustbeconsidered.Withrationalfunctions(andsome
others),simplificationmayproduceasatisfactorysolution.
Example:
25
5
lim

lim

5
5
Rationalization
Rationalizingaportionofthelimitexpressionisoftenusefulinsituationswherealimitis
indeterminate.Intheexamplebelowthelimitexpressionhastheindeterminateform
.Otherindeterminateformsarediscussedlaterinthischapter.
Example:
lim

First,noticethatthislimitistakento ,whichcanoftencauseconfusion.So,lets
modifyitsothatwearetakingthelimitto .Wedothisusingthesubstitution
lim

lim

Next,letsrationalizetheexpressioninthelimitbymultiplyingbyanameforone,usingits
conjugate.
(contd)
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Chapter1
lim

lim

lim

lim

lim

8
lim

FunctionsandLimits
8
8
LHospitalsRule
0near andif:
If and aredifferentiablefunctionsand
lim
0 and lim
Then,
lim
and lim
Note:LHospitalsrulecanberepeatedasmanytimesasnecessaryaslongastheresultofeach
stepisanindeterminateform.Ifastepproducesaformthatisnotindeterminate,thelimit
shouldbecalculatedatthatpoint.
Example1:
sin
lim

d
sin
dx
lim

lim

cos

1
1

1
Example2:
lim

d
dx
lim

d
dx
1
1
1
31
Example3:(involvingsuccessiveapplicationsofLHospitalsRule)
lim

Version 2.9
3
4
2
5
1

2
9
lim

12
2

10
18
lim

24
10
18

24
lim

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Chapter1
FunctionsandLimits
Indeterminate Forms of Limits

Thefollowingtablepresentssometypesofindeterminateformsthatmaybeencounteredand
suggestedmethodsforevaluatinglimitsinthoseforms.
Form
StepstoDeterminetheLimit
or
UseLHospitalsRule
Foreitheroftheseforms:
1. Convertto or
2. UseLHospitalsRule
Foranyoftheseforms:
1. Take ofthetermorwritetheterminexponentialform*
2. Convertto or
3. UseLHospitalsRule
*For
,convertto:
or

Example 1: Form
LHospitals Rule
lim
lim
lim

Example 2: Form
1
cos
lim
sin
cos
LHospitals Rule
lim
Version 2.9
sin
cos
lim
cos
sin
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Chapter1
Example 3: Form
FunctionsandLimits

let:
lim
LHospitals Rule

ln
lim ln
lim
ln
lim
lim
Then, since ln
0, we get
Example 4: Form
/
let:
lim
LHospitals Rule
ln
lim
ln
lim
Then, since ln
lim
0, we get

Example 5: Form
ln
cot
lim
let:
lim 1
ln 1
lim
sin 4
ln 1
sin 4
sin 4

tan

LHospitals Rule
4 cos 4
1
sin 4
lim
sec

Version 2.9
41
1 0
1

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Chapter1
FunctionsandLimits
When Limits Fail to Exist

Thereareseveralcircumstanceswhenlimitsfailtoexist:
Whentakenseparately,limitsfromthe
leftandrightaredifferent.This
generallyoccursatajumpdiscontinuity.
Inthegraphof
| |
discontinuityexistsat
lim

| |
,ajump
0,so
doesnotexist.
Oscillatingbehavioratthelimitpoint.Considerthefunction
,as 0.In
anyneighborhoodaround
0,
thevalueofthefunctionvariesfrom
1to 1.Therefore,
1
lim
cos doesnotexist.

Thisfunctionisalsodiscontinuousat
0,thoughitisdifficulttosee
thisonthegraph.
Unboundedbehavioratthelimitpoint.Typically,thiswillhappenatavertical
asymptote.
| |,aninfinitediscontinuity
Inthegraphof
existsat
0becausethelogarithmsofpositivereal
numbersthatapproachzerobecomelargenegative
numberswithoutbound.Therefore,
lim
ln| | doesnotexist.
Note:inthiscase,wemaywrite: lim ln| |
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Chapter2
Differentiation
Basic Rules of Differentiation

Definition of a Derivative

lim

lim

Note:Intheserules, isaconstant,and and arefunctionsdifferentiablein .
Basic Derivative Rules

TheProduct,QuotientandChainRulesareshowninLeibnitz,Lagrange,anddifferentialforms.
Product Rule (two terms)

Product Rule (three terms)

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Chapter2
Differentiation
Quotient Rule

Chain Rule

where:

Power Rule
Exponential and Logarithmic Functions
ln
log
Version 2.9
0,
ln
ln
ln
1

ln
log

1
ln
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Chapter2
Differentiation
Derivatives of Special Functions

Trigonometric and Inverse Trigonometric Functions
Trigonometric Functions (repeated from prior page)
sin
cos
cos
tan
cot
sec
csc
sin
sin
sec
cos
cos
sec
csc
csc
sec
csc cot
sec
cot
sec tan
sin
tan
csc
tan
csc cot
Inverse Trigonometric Functions

sin
1
1
1
cos
tan
cot
1
1
1
1
sec
csc
Version 2.9
sin
cos
tan
cot
1
| |
sec
csc
1
1
| |
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
Angle in
Q I or Q IV
Angle in
Q I or Q II
Angle in
Q I or Q IV
Angle in
Q I or Q IV
1
| |
1
1
| |
Angle in
Q I or Q II
Angle in
Q I or Q IV
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Chapter2
Differentiation
Generalized Product Rule

Product Rule (three terms)

Product Rule (four terms)

Generalized Product Rule (n terms)
Inwords:
1. Takethederivativeofeach
functionintheproduct.
2. Multiplyitbyalloftheother
functionsintheproduct.
3. Addalloftheresultingterms.
Example: Product Rule (six terms) (from Generalized Product Rule)

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Chapter2
Differentiation
Generalized Product Rule

Example

Inwords:
Generalized Product Rule (n terms)
1. Takethederivativeofeach
functionintheproduct.
2. Multiplyitbyalloftheother
functionsintheproduct.
3. Addalloftheresultingterms.

Example: Findthederivativeof:
Let:
Then, build the derivative based on the four components of the function:
Original
Function Term
Derivative of Original
Function Term
Remaining Functions
Theresultingderivativeis:
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Chapter2
Differentiation
Inverse Function Rule

TheInverseFunctionRulestatesthefollowing:
If
areinversefunctionsand
and
0,then
Tounderstandwhatthismeans,itmaybebesttolookatwhatitsaysgraphicallyandcreatean
InverseFunctionDiagram.
3.Findtheslopeof
Example:Let
Tosolvethis,letslookatthegraphof
.
anditsinverse
atthepoint 7, 2 .
Thefigureatrightshowsthesetwoplots,alongwiththe
axisofreflectionandthelinestangenttothetwocurves
atthedesiredpoints.
Noticethefollowing:
,so
,so
(theanswer)
AnInverseFunctionDiagram(IFD)organizesthisinformationasfollows:
IFDfortheExample

GeneralIFD
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Chapter2
Differentiation
Partial Differentiation
Partialdifferentiationisdifferentiationwithrespecttoasinglevariable,withallothervariables
beingtreatedasconstants.Forexample,considerthefunction
,
2
3 .
Fullderivative:
Partialderivative:
2
Partialderivative:
2
Noticeinthepartialderivativepanelsabove,thattheoffvariableistreatedasaconstant.
Inthelefthandpanel,thederivativeistakeninitsnormalmanner,includingusingthe
productruleonthe term.
Inthemiddlepanel,whichtakesthepartialderivativewithrespectto , isconsidered
tobethecoefficientof inthe term.Inthesamepanel,the3 termisconsidered
tobeaconstant,soitspartialderivativewithrespectto is 0.
Intherighthandpanel,whichtakesthepartialderivativewithrespectto , is
consideredtobethecoefficientof inthe term.Inthesamepanel,the2 termis
consideredtobeaconstant,soitspartialderivativewithrespectto is 0.
Partialderivativesprovidemeasuresofratesofchangeinthedirectionofthevariable.So,for
example,fora3dimensionalcurve, provides the rate of change in the direction and
provides the rate of change in the direction. Partial derivatives are very useful in physics
and engineering.
Another Example:
. Then,
Let

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Chapter2
Differentiation
Implicit Differentiation
Implicitdifferentiationistypicallyusedwhenitistoodifficulttodifferentiateafunction
directly.Theentireexpressionisdifferentiatedwithrespecttooneofthevariablesinthe
expression,andalgebraisusedtosimplifytheexpressionforthedesiredderivative.
Example 1: Find
fortheellipse
36.
Wecouldbeginbymanipulatingtheequationtoobtainavaluefor :
.
However,thisisafairlyuglyexpressionfor ,andtheprocessofdeveloping
isalso
ugly.Itismanytimeseasiertodifferentiateimplicitlyasfollows:
1. Startwiththegivenequation:
2. Multiplybothsidesby36to
getridofthedenominators:
3. Differentiatewithrespectto :
18
4. Subtract18 :
5. Divideby8 :
6. Sometimesyouwillwantto
substituteinthevalueof
togettheexpressionsolelyin
termsof :
36
1296
0
18
12)
Theresultisstilluglyand,infact,itmustbeugly.However,thealgebrarequiredtoget
theresultmaybecleanerandeasierusingimplicitdifferentiation.Insomecases,itis
eitherextremelydifficultorimpossibletodevelopanexpressionfor intermsof
becausethevariablesaresointertwined;seeExample2.
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Chapter2
Differentiation
Implicit Differentiation (contd)

Example 2: Find
fortheequation: sin
cos
0.
Manipulatingthisequationtofind asafunctionof isoutofthequestion.So,weuse

implicitdifferentiationasfollows:
1. Startwiththegivenequation:
2. Differentiatewithrespectto usingtheproductruleandthechainrule:
3. Simplify:
4. Combineliketermsandsimplify:
cos
cos
sin
cos
cos
sin
sin
sin
(aslongas: cos
cos
Thatsasgoodaswecando.Noticethatthederivativeisafunctionofboth and .
Eventhoughwecannotdevelopanexpressionfor asafunctionof ,wecanstill
calculateaderivativeofthefunctionintermsof and .Vivaimplicitdifferentiation!
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Chapter2
Differentiation
Implicit Differentiation (contd)

Implicit Differentiation Using Partial Derivatives
,
Let
.Then,thefollowingformulaisoftenashortcuttocalculating

Letsredotheexamplesfromthepreviouspagesusingthepartialderivativemethod.
Example 1: Find
Let:
fortheellipse
36.
.Then,
Example 2: Find
fortheequation: sin
Let:
cos
0.
.Then,

Contrasttheworkrequiredherewiththelengthyeffortsrequiredtocalculatetheseresultson
thetwopriorpages.
So,implicitdifferentiationusingpartialderivativescanbefastand,becausefewerstepsare
involved,improveaccuracy.Justbecarefulhowyouhandleeachvariable.Thismethodis
differentandtakessomegettingusedto.
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Chapter2
Differentiation
Logarithmic Differentiation
Logarithmicdifferentiationistypicallyusedwhenfunctionsexistinboththebaseandthe
exponentofanexponentialexpression.Withoutthisapproach,thedifferentiationofthe
functionwouldbemuchmoredifficult.Theprocessinvolvesseveralsteps,asfollows:
1. Ifpossible,putthefunctionintheform:
2. Takenaturallogarithmsofbothsidesoftheexpression.
3. Takethederivativesofbothsidesoftheexpression.
4. Solvefor .
Example:Calculatethederivativeofthegeneralcase
,andaredifferentiableat .
,where and arefunctionsof
1. Originalequation
2. Takenaturallogarithmsofbothsides
3. Simplifyrightside
4. Takederivativesofbothsides
5. ApplyProductRuleandChainRuleto
rightside
6. Multiplybothsidesby
7. Substitutevalueof
8. Simplify
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Chapter3
ApplicationsofDifferentiation
Maxima and Minima

RelativeExtrema
Relativemaximaandminima(alsocalledrelativeextrema)mayexistwhereverthederivativeof
afunctioniseitherequaltozeroorundefined.However,theseconditionsarenotsufficientto
establishthatanextremeexists;wemustalsohaveachangeinthedirectionofthecurve,i.e.,
fromincreasingtodecreasingorfromdecreasingtoincreasing.
Note:relativeextremacannotexistattheendpointsofaclosedinterval.
FirstDerivativeTest
If
afunction, ,iscontinuousontheopeninterval , ,and
isacriticalnumber , (i.e.,
iseitherzeroordoesnotexist),
isdifferentiableontheopeninterval , ,exceptpossiblyatc,
Then
If
changesfrompositivetonegativeat ,then
isarelativemaximum.
If
changesfromnegativetopositiveat ,then
isarelativeminimum.
Theconclusionsofthistheoremaresummarizedinthetablebelow:
Case1
First
Signof
Signof left
Derivative
of
rightof
Typeof
Extreme
None
Case2
or
Minimum
Case3
does
notexist.
None
Maximum
Case4
Illustrationof
FirstDerivativeTest
forCases1to4:
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Chapter3
SecondDerivativeTest
If
afunction, ,iscontinuousontheopeninterval ,
, ,and
0and
exists,
Then
If
0,then
isarelativemaximum.
If
0,then
isarelativeminimum.
,and
Theconclusionsofthetheoremaresummarizedinthetablebelow:
First
Derivative
Case1
Case2
or
Case3
does
notexist.
Second
Derivative
Typeof
Extreme
Maximum
Minimum
0or
doesnotexist
TestFails
Intheeventthatthesecond
derivativeiszeroordoesnotexist
(Case3),wecannotconclude
whetherornotanextremeexists.
Inthiscase,itmaybeagoodidea
tousetheFirstDerivativeTestat
thepointinquestion.
AbsoluteExtrema
Absoluteextrema(alsocalledglobalextremaorsimplyextrema)existatthelocationsof
eitherrelativeextremaortheendpointsofaninterval.
Notethatifanintervalisopen,theendpointdoesnotexistandsoitcannotbeanabsolute
extreme.Thismeansthatinsomecases,afunctionwillnothaveanabsolutemaximumorwill
nothaveanabsoluteminimum(orwillnothaveeither)ontheintervalinquestion.
Afunctionmayhave0, 1ormoreabsolutemaxima
and/orabsoluteminimaonaninterval.Inthe
illustrationtotheright,thefunctionhas:
Twoabsoluteminima,at 1, 1 and 2, 1 .
Noabsolutemaximum.
Onerelativemaximum,at 0, 3 .
OnerelativeminimumThepointlocatedat
2, 1 isbotharelativeminimumandan
absoluteminimum.
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Chapter3
Inflection Points
Definition
Aninflectionpointisalocationonacurvewhereconcavitychangesfromupwardtodownward
orfromdownwardtoupward.
0or
Ataninflectionpoint,
doesnotexist.
However,itisnotnecessarilytruethatif
0,thenthereisaninflectionpointat
TestingforanInflectionPoint
Tofindtheinflectionpointsofacurveinaspecifiedinterval,
Determineall values(
)forwhich
0or
doesnotexist.
Consideronly valueswherethefunctionhasatangentline.
Testthesignof
totheleftandtotherightof
.
Ifthesignof
changesfrompositivetonegativeorfromnegativetopositiveat
,then ,
isaninflectionpointofthefunction.
Case1
Second
Derivative
0
Signof
leftof
Signof
rightof
Inflection
Point?
No
Case2
or
Yes
Case3
does
notexist
No
Yes
Case4
Note:inflectionpointscannotexistattheendpointsofaclosedinterval.
Concavity
Afunction, ,isconcaveupwardonanintervalif
ontheinterval,i.e.,if
0.
Afunction, ,isconcavedownwardonanintervalif
0.
decreasingontheinterval,i.e.,if
isincreasing
is
Concavitychangesatinflectionpoints,fromupwardtodownwardor
fromdownwardtoupward.Intheillustrationatright,aninflection
pointexistsatthepoint 2, 3 .
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Chapter3
Special Case: Extrema and Inflection Points of Polynomials

Forapolynomial,
,criticalvaluesofexistatall valuesforwhich
0.However,
criticalvaluesdonotnecessarilyproduceextrema.Possibleinflectionpointsexistatall
0.However,notallofthese valuesproduceinflectionpoints.
valuesforwhich
Tofindtheextremaandinflectionpointsofapolynomialwecanlookatthefactoredformsof
and
,respectively.Everypolynomialcanbefactoredintolineartermswithreal
rootsandquadratictermswithcomplexrootsasfollows:
where,kisascalar(constant),each isarealrootof
each isaquadratictermwithcomplexroots.
,eachexponent isaninteger,and
Extrema
Theexponents( )ofthelinearfactorsof
determinetheexistenceofextrema.
Anoddexponentonalineartermof
indicatesthat
crossesthe axisatthe
rootoftheterm,so
hasanextremeatthatroot.Furtheranalysisisrequiredto
determinewhethertheextremeisamaximumoraminimum.
Anevenexponentonalineartermof
indicatesthat
bouncesoffthe axis
attherootoftheterm,so
doesnothaveanextremeatthatroot.
Example1:Consider
Theoriginalpolynomial,
7 .
3, 2, 3, 3, 4, 7 .
,hascriticalvaluesforeachterm:
3, 3, 3, 7 .
However,extremaexistonlyforthetermswithoddexponents:
InflectionPoints(PI)
Theexponents( )ofthelinearfactorsof
determinetheexistenceofinflectionpoints.
Anoddexponentonalineartermof
therootofthatterm.
Anevenexponentonalineartermof
inflectionpointattherootofthatterm.
Example2:Consider
indicatesthat
indicatesthat
Inflectionpointsexistonlyforthetermswithoddexponents:
Version 2.9
hasaninflectionpointat
Page 31 of 199
doesnothavean
7 .
3, 3, 3, 7 .
November 26, 2016
Chapter3
Key Points on
and
Alauria Diagram
AnAlauriaDiagramshowsasinglecurveas
,
or
onasinglepage.The
purposeofthediagramistoanswerthequestion:Ifthegivencurveis
,
or
wherearethekeypointsonthegraph.
Ifthecurverepresents
Thecurves intercepts(greenandoneyellow)
existwherethecurvetouchesthexaxis.
Relativemaximaandminima(yellow)existatthe
topsandbottomsofhumps.
Inflectionpoints(orange)existwhereconcavity
changesfromuptodownorfromdowntoup.
(1stderivative):
Thecurves interceptscannotbeseen.
Relativemaximaandminimaof
(yellow)
existwherethecurvecrossesthe axis.Ifthe
curvebouncesoffthe axis,thereisnoextreme
atthatlocation.
Inflectionpointsof
(orange)existatthe
topsandbottomsofhumps.
Version 2.9
(2ndderivative):
Thecurves interceptscannotbeseen.
Relativemaximaandminimaof
cannot
beseen.
Inflectionpointsof
(orange)existwhere
thecurvecrossesthe axis.Ifthecurve
bouncesoffthe axis,thereisnoinflection
pointatthatlocation.
Page 32 of 199
November 26, 2016
Chapter3
Key Points on
and
Thegraphsbelowshow
,
or
forthesame5thdegreepolynomialfunction.The
dottedblueverticallineidentifiesonelocationofanextreme(therearefour,butonlyoneis
illustrated)Thedasheddarkredverticallineidentifiesonelocationofapointofinflection
(therearethree,butonlyoneisillustrated).
Inagraphof
Relativeextremaexistatthetopsand
bottomofhumps.
Inflectionpointsexistatlocationswhere
concavitychangesfromuptodownorfrom
downtoup.
Inagraphof
Relativeextremaof
existwherethe
curvecrossesthe axis.Ifthecurve
bouncesoffthe axis,thereisnoextreme
atthatlocation.
Inflectionpointsof
existatthetops
andbottomsofhumps.
Inagraphof
Relativeextremaof
Inflectionpointsof
existwherethe
curvecrossesthe axis.Ifthecurve
bouncesoffthe axis,thereisno
inflectionpointatthatlocation.
cannotbeseen.
Version 2.9
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Chapter3
Curve Sketching
CurveSketchingismucheasierwiththetoolsofCalculus.Inparticular,thecalculationof
derivativesallowsthestudenttoidentifycriticalvalues(relativemaximaandminima)and
inflectionpointsforacurve.Acurvecanthenbebrokenintointervalsforwhichthevarious
characteristics(e.g.,increasingordecreasing,concaveupordown)canbedetermined.
TheacronymDIACIDEmayhelpthestudentrecallthethingsthatshouldbeconsideredin
sketchingcurves.
DIACIDE:
Derivatives:generally,thestudentshoulddevelopthefirstandsecondderivativesof
thecurve,andevaluatethosederivativesateachkeyvalue(e.g.,criticalpoints,
inflectionpoints)of .
Intercepts:totheextentpossible,thestudentshoulddevelopboth and intercepts

forthecurve. interceptsoccurwhere
0. interceptsoccurat
0.
Asymptotes:verticalasymptotesshouldbeidentifiedsothatthecurvecanbesplitinto
continuoussubsegments.Verticalasymptotesoccuratvaluesof wherethecurve
approaches or ;
doesnotexistatthesevaluesof .Horizontal
asymptotesarecoveredbelowunderthecategoryEndBehavior.
CriticalValues:relativemaximaandminimaarelocationswherethecurvechanges
fromincreasingtodecreasingorfromdecreasingtoincreasing.Theyoccuratcritical
values,where
0orwhere
doesnotexist.
Concavity:concavityisdeterminedbythevalueofthesecondderivative:
0impliesdownwardconcavity
0impliesupwardconcavity
InflectionPoints:aninflectionpointisalocationonthecurvewhereconcavitychanges
fromupwardtodownwardorfromdownwardtoupward.Ataninflectionpoint,
0orwhere
doesnotexist.
Domain:thedomainofafunctionisthesetofallxvaluesforwhichayvalueexists.If
thedomainofafunctionisotherthanallrealnumbers,careshouldbetakentograph
onlythosevaluesofthefunctionincludedinthedomain.
EndBehavior:endbehavioristhebehaviorofacurveontheleftandtheright,i.e.,as
tendstoward and .Thecurvemayincreaseordecreaseunboundedatitsends,
oritmaytendtowardahorizontalasymptote.
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November 26, 2016
Chapter3
Example3:Sketchthegraphoff(x)=x35x2+3x+6.
DIACIDE: Derivatives, Intercepts, Asymptotes, Critical Values, Concavity, Inflection Points,
Domain, End Behavior
Derivatives:
5
3
6
Intercepts:
3
10
10
NotethetwoCs.
Usesyntheticdivisiontofind:
2,so:
Then,usethequadraticformulatofind:
0.791, 3.791
0.791, 2, 3.791
intercepts,then,are:
intercepts: 0
6
Asymptotes: Noneforapolynomial
CriticalValues:
10
Critical Pointsare:
. 333
maximum
Concavity:
InflectionPoints:
Domain:
0at
,3
. 333, 6.481 , 3,
0, so . 333, 6.481 isarelative
0, so 3,
3 isarelativeminimum
0for
1.667(concavedownward)
0for
1.667(concaveupward)
10
0at
~ 1.667
Inflection Pointis: 1.667, 1.741

Allrealvaluesof forapolynomial
EndBehavior:Positiveleadcoefficientonacubicequationimpliesthat:
lim
, and

lim

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Chapter3
Example4:Sketchthegraphof
DIACIDE:

Derivatives:
Intercepts:
interceptwheresin
interceptat 0
0
0,so,
,with beinganyinteger
Asymptotes: Noverticalasymptotes.Horizontalasymptoteat
CriticalValues:
0wherecos
0.
sin .Critical Pointsexistat
. 707, 3.224 isarelativemaximum; 3.927, 0.139 isarelativeminimum

Thereareaninfinitenumberofrelativemaximaandminima,alternatingat
valuesthatare apart.
Concavity:
Thefunctionisconcaveupwherecos
0,i.e.,QuadrantsIIandIII
andisconcavedownwherecos
0,i.e.,QuadrantsIandIV.
InflectionPoints:
0wherecos
Inflection Pointsexistat:
Domain:
Allrealvaluesof
EndBehavior: lim

period
lim

doesnotexist,asthefunctionoscillatesupanddownwitheach
0
Version 2.9
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Chapter3
Example5:Sketch the graph of
DIACIDE:

Derivatives:
Intercepts:
interceptwhere
interceptat
0,so,
Plottheseintercepts
onthegraph.
Asymptotes: Verticalasymptoteswhere:
0,so
.
Plottheasymptotes
onthegraph.
Horizontalasymptoteat:

CriticalValues:
0where
0
Since
Concavity:
lim

4

9
0;so
0,
lim

4

9
isarelativemaximum
0where
Therefore,therearenorealinflectionpoints
EndBehavior: lim

Version 2.9
Ifthereareinflectionpoints,
plotthemonthegraph.
Allrealvaluesof ,exceptattheverticalasymptotes
So,thedomainis:AllReal
Plotthecritical
valuesonthegraph.
Theconcavityofthevariousintervalsareshowninthetableonthenextpage
InflectionPoints:
Domain:
lim

2
2
4

9
4

9
3, 3
1
1
Theseimplytheexistenceofa
horizontalasymptoteat
1.
Page 37 of 199
November 26, 2016
Chapter3
Example5(contd)
Insomecases,itisusefultosetupatableofintervalswhicharedefinedbythekeyvalues
identifiedingreenabove:
, , .Thekeyvaluesaremadeupof:
Verticalasymptotes
Relativemaximaandminima
InflectionPoints
values
, 3
undefined
3, 0
. 444
0, 3
undefined
3,
undefined
undefined
GraphCharacteristics
curveincreasing,concaveup
verticalasymptote
curveincreasing,concavedown
relativemaximum
curvedecreasing,concavedown
undefined
undefined
verticalasymptote
curvedecreasing,concaveup
Version 2.9
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Chapter3
Determining the Shape of a Curve Based On Its Derivatives
Thepossibleshapesofacurve,basedonitsfirstandsecondderivativesare:
Increasingfunction
0
Concaveup
Concavedown
Concaveup
0
DecreasingfunctionIncreasingfunction
Decreasingfunction
Concavedown
So,givenadifferentiablefunctionwithfirstandsecondderivativesidentified,weneedonly
matchtheshapesabovetotheintervalsofthefunctionandthenjointhemtogether.Ifweare
givenpointsonthecurve,wemustalsofittheshapethroughthegivenpoints.
Example6:Supposewewanttodeterminetheapproximateshapeofthecurveofthe
differentiablefunctiondefinedbythefollowingtable.
1
f '( x )
Positive
Negative
Negative
Negative
f "( x )
Negative
Negative
Negative
Positive
Flat
Relative
Maximum
Pointof
Inflection
Curve
Shape
Togettheshapeofthefunctionoverthegiveninterval,jointheshapesforeachsubinterval
togetherasshownatright.
Note:Ifwearegivenpointsonthecurve,wemustalso
stretchorcompressthevariouspartsoftheresulting
shapetofitthroughthegivenpoints.
3
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5
November 26, 2016
Chapter3
Related Rates
RelatedRatesProblems
Tosolveproblemsthatinvolveratesofchangeoftwoormorerelatedvariables,eachwith
respecttoathirdvariable,wemusttakederivativeswithrespecttothethirdvariable(often,
time)andremembertousethechainruleateachstep.Therearenumerousmethodsthatcan
beusedtosolvetheseproblems;onethatstudentshavefoundparticularlyhelpfulisdescribed
andillustratedbelow.
TheGeneralSpecificMethod
ThismethodbreaksupthesolutionintotheGeneralandSpecificCasesdescribedinthe
problem,asfollows:
TheGeneralCase
Dealwithallvariablesintheabstract,withoutanynumberssubstitutedforthe
variables.
Setupanyformulasrequiredtosolvetheproblem(e.g.,volumeofacone).
Takeanyderivatives(basedontheaboveformulas)requiredtosolvetheproblem.
TheSpecificCase
Recordanyvaluesofvariablesforthespecificsituationdescribedintheproblem.
Calculateanyadditionalvaluesrequiredbasedonthoseprovidedintheproblem(e.g.,
thelengthofthethirdsideofarighttriangle).
AfteranyderivativesaredevelopedintheGeneralCase,substitutevaluesforthe
variablesinthederivativeequation.
Derivethesolutiontotheproblembysolvingtheresultingequation.
Notes:
Forsomeproblems,youmayneedtodrawapictureofthesituationdescribedinthe
problem.Intheseproblems,youshoulddrawapicturefortheGeneralCaseanda
secondpicturefortheSpecificCase.SeeExample9,below.
Intheexamplesthatfollow,theGeneralCaseisshownontheleftandtheSpecificCase
isshownontheright.
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Chapter3
Example7:Thevolumeofacylinderischangingby48cm3persecondwhentheradiusofthe
cylinderis2cm.Iftheheightistwicetheradius,findtherateofchangeoftheradiuswhenr=
2cm.Note:
.
SpecificCase
GeneralCase
Weareaskedtofind
Informationgiven:
2
2
Takethederivativesof
bothsideswithrespecttot:
6
48
SpecificCase.
Substitutevaluesintotheequation
derivedintheGeneralCase:
Afterthispartisdone,movetothe
48
6 2
Dosomealgebratocalculate:
cm/sec
Example8:TheSAofasphereischangingby36cm2persecondwhentheradiusofthe
cylinderis3cm.Findtherateofchangeoftheradiuswhenr=3cm.Note:
4
.
GeneralCase
SpecificCase
Weareaskedtofind
Informationgiven:
36
Version 2.9
8 3
SpecificCase.
36
cm/sec
Page 41 of 199
November 26, 2016
Chapter3
Example9:Aladder25feetlongisleaningagainstthewallofahouse.Thebaseoftheladder
ispulledawayfromthewallatarateof2feetpersecond.Howfastisthetopoftheladder
movingdownthewallwhenitsbaseis7feetfromthewall?
GeneralCase
SpecificCase
Informationgiven:
Weareaskedtofind
7

25

25
Basedonthedrawing:
Calculate:
24
625
2

2 2 0
SpecificCase.
2 7 2 2 24
.
Example10:Theradiusrofacircleisincreasingatarateof3cm/minute.Findtherateof
changeoftheareawhenthecircumference
12 cm.
GeneralCase
Weareaskedtofind
SpecificCase
Informationgiven:
2
SpecificCase.
Version 2.9
12
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12 3
November 26, 2016
Chapter3
Kinematics (Particle Motion)

Position
Positionisthelocationofaparticleatapointintime.Itistypicallyrepresentedbythe
functions
or
.
Displacement
Displacementisameasureofthedifferencebetweenaparticlesstartingpointanditsending
point.Itmaybeeitherpositiveornegative.Aformulafordisplacementis:
,where isthepositionatanypointintime,and isthestartingposition.
Distance
Distanceisameasureofthetotalmovementofaparticle;itisalwaysapositivevalue.Total
distanceisthesumoftheabsolutevaluesofthedisplacementsofaparticleinitsvarious
directions.
Example11:Aparticlemovesfrom
0to
6to
2.
Displacement
Distance sumofabsolutevaluesofindividualdisplacements
|6
2
0|
|2
6|
2units
10units
Velocity
Velocitymeasurestherateofchangeinposition.Instantaneousvelocityisgenerallyshown
usingthevariable andaveragevelocityisgenerallyshownas .Velocitymayalsobeshown
asavector ,whichhasbothmagnitudeanddirection.Thefollowingformulasapplyto
velocity:
Instantaneousvelocity:
(i.e,thederivativeofthepositionfunction)
Velocityattime :
Averagevelocity:
(where, isinitialvelocityand isaconstantacceleration)

Velocitymaybeeitherpositiveornegative.
Version 2.9
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November 26, 2016
Chapter3
Speed
Speed,likevelocity,measurestherateofchangeinposition.However,unlikevelocity,speedis
alwayspositive(itdoesnothavedirection).Instantaneousspeedistheabsolutevalueof
velocity| |atapointintime.Averagespeedisbasedondistanceinsteadofdisplacement.The
followingformulasapplytospeed:
Instantaneousspeed:| |
Averagespeed:
(i.e,theabsolutevalueofthevelocityfunction)
Anoteaboutspeed:
Speedisincreasingwhenvelocityandaccelerationhavethesamesign(either or ).
Speedisdecreasingwhenvelocityandaccelerationhavedifferentsigns(one ,one ).
Acceleration
Accelerationmeasurestherateofchangeinvelocity.Instantaneousaccelerationisgenerally
shownusingthevariable andaverageaccelerationisgenerallyshownas .Accelerationmay
alsobeshownasavector ,whichhasbothmagnitudeanddirection.Thefollowingformulas
applytoacceleration:
Instantaneousacceleration:
Averageacceleration:
MovingAmongFunctions
Thefollowingdiagramdescribeshowtomovebackandforthamongtheposition,velocityand
accelerationfunctions.(Note:integrationishandledinasubsequentchapter.)

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Chapter3
Differentials
FindingtheTangentLine
Mostproblemsthatusedifferentialtofindthetangentlinedealwiththreeissues:
Developingtheequationofatangentlineatapointonacurve
Estimatingthevalueofafunctionusingthetangentline.
Estimatingthechangeinthevaluesofafunctionbetweentwopoints,usingthe
tangentline.
Ineachcase,thetangentlineisinvolved,soletstakealookatit.Thekeyequationis:
Howdoesthisequationcomeabout?Letslookatacurveandfindtheequationofthetangent
linetothatcurve,inthegeneralcase.Seethediagrambelow:
Letourpointonthecurvebe ,
Theslopeofthetangentlineat ,
.
.
is
Usethepointslopeformofalinetocalculatethe
equationoftheline:

Add
tobothsidesoftheequationtoobtainthe
formshownabove
Letstakeacloserlookatthepiecesoftheequation:
First,defineyouranchor, ,andcalculate
and
.Substitutetheseintotheequation
andyouarewellonyourwaytoasolutionto
theproblem.
isalsoshownas .Itisthe
differencebetweenthexvalueyouare
evaluatingandyouranchortothecurve,
whichisthetangentpoint ,
.
Version 2.9
Thisisthechangepart.So,whenyouare
askedaboutthechangein
betweentwo
pointsorthepotentialerrorinmeasuring
something,thisistheparttofocuson.
Page 45 of 199
November 26, 2016
Chapter3
Curvature
Curvature is the rate of change of the direction of a curve at a
point, P (i.e., how fast the curve is turning at point P).
Direction is based on , the angle between the xaxis and the
tangent to the curve at P. The rate of change is taken with
respect to , the length of an arbitrary arc on the curve near
point P. We use the Greek letter kappa, , for the measure of
curvature.
This is illustrated for the function
ln
3 at right.
lim

This results in the following equations for :

or
Polar Form: Let

given by:
be a function in polar form. Then, the polar form of curvature is
where,
The Osculating Circle of a curve at Point P is the circle which is:

Tangent to the curve at point P.
Lies on the concave side of the curve at point P.
Has the same curvature as the curve at point P.
The Radius of Curvature of a curve at Point P is the
radius of the osculating circle at point P.
| |
The Center of Curvature of a curve at Point P is the

center of the osculating circle at Point P.
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Chapter3
Newtons Method
Sometimesitisdifficultorimpossibletofindtheexactrootsofan
equation.Insuchcases,approximatevaluesmaybefoundusing
numericalmethods.NewtonsMethodisapopularapproachfor
determiningrootsthisway,primarilybecauseitissimpleand
easilyprogrammedforusewithacomputer.
NewtonsMethod
Usethefollowingstepstoidentifyarootofafunction
usingNewtonsMethod.
1. Selectanestimateoftherootyouarelookingfor.Callthisestimate
usefultographthefunctionforthispurpose.
.Itmaybe
2. Usethedifferentialformula(seeabove)torefineyourestimateoftheroot:
Wewantanestimateof when
manipulatedalgebraicallytoget:

0.Setting
Letthisvalueof beournextestimate,

,ofthevalueoftherootweseek.Then,
3. Repeattheprocesstogetsubsequentvaluesof

0,thedifferentialformulacanbe
,i.e.,
converges;thatis,untilsuccessiveestimates
4. ContinueStep3untilthesequence
roundtothesamevaluebasedonapredeterminedlevelofaccuracy.
WhenNewtonsMethodDiverges
NewtonsMethoddivergesundercertainconditions.Thatis,forsomefunctionsand/or
starting values,successivevaluesof maynotexist,mayfluctuatebackandforthbetween
values,ormaygrowfurtherandfurtherawayfromtheinitialestimateoftheroot.Whenthis
occurs,youmaywanttoselectadifferentstartingvalueof andtryagain.However,the
studentshouldbeawarethattherearesituationswhereNewtonsMethodfailsaltogether.
Version 2.9
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Chapter3
Example12: Estimatetherootof
near
tosixdecimalplaces.
Letsgraphthefunction.Inthegraph,itis
clearthatthereisarootcloseto
.So,
wearehopefulthatNewtonsMethodwill
convergequickly.
Webeginwiththefollowing:
cos
cos
sin
.Note:MicrosoftExcelisusefulforthispurpose.
Now,letsdevelopsuccessivevaluesof

cos 5
cos 5
sin 5
0.099643

0.8502
5.1172
5.1172
5.123764
5.123787
cos 5.1172

cos 5.1172
sin 5.1172
5.123764
cos 5.123764

cos 5.123764
sin 5.123764
5.123787
cos 5.123787

cos 5.123787
sin 5.123787
Atthispoint,westoptheprocessbecause
whenroundedtosixdecimals.Thesequence
of{ }appearstohaveconvergedto5.123787,whichisoursolution.Ifyoulike,youcanuse
amoderngraphingcalculatortoverifythatthisisinfactagoodestimateofthedesiredrootof
.
Note:WhiletheuseofmodernhandheldgraphingcalculatorsmakesNewtonsMethod
unnecessaryintheCalculusclassroom,itsuseinmathematicalcomputerapplicationsis
essential.ItisveryusefulinMicrosoftExcel,VisualBasic,Python,Javaandotherapplicationsin
whichthedeterminationofarootisautomated.
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Chapter4
Integration
Rules of Indefinite Integration

Note:therulespresentedinthischapteromitthe C termthatmustbeaddedtoall
indefiniteintegralsinordertosavespaceandavoidclutter.Pleaseremembertoaddthe
C termonallworkyouperformwithindefiniteintegrals.
Basic Rules

Integration by Parts

Power Rule
1
ln| |

1

ln
0,

1
ln
ln ln

Version 2.9

Page 49 of 199
November 26, 2016
Chapter4
Integration
Integrals of Special Functions


ln
1
ln| |
ln
1
ln
ln
ln
ln ln
ln| |
ln
1
ln
ln
ln ln
Trigonometric Functions
sin
cos
cos
sin
tan
ln |sec |
cot
sec
csc
ln |csc |
ln |sec
ln |cos |
sec
ln |sin |
csc
tan |
ln |csc
sec tan
cot |
csc cot
tan
cot
sec
csc

Version 2.9

Page 50 of 199
November 26, 2016
Chapter4
Integration
Derivations of the Integrals of Trigonometric Functions

Let:
cos
so that:
1
tan
sin
tan
cos
sin
ln| |
Then,
ln| cos |

Let:
sin
so that:
1
cot
cos
cot
sin
cos
ln| |
Then,
ln| sin |

Multiply the numerator and denominator by: sec
tan

Then,
sec
Let:
sec
sec
sec
sec
tan
sec
tan
tan
sec
sec tan
tan
so that:
sec tan
sec
ln| sec
tan |
Then,
sec
ln| |
Version 2.9
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November 26, 2016
Chapter4
Integration
Derivations of the Integrals of Trig Functions (contd)

Multiply the numerator and denominator by: csc
cot

Then,
csc
Let:
csc
csc
cot
csc
csc

cot
cot
csc
csc
so that:
csc cot
cot
csc tan
csc
Then,
1
csc
Version 2.9
ln| |
ln| csc
cot |
Page 52 of 199
November 26, 2016
Chapter4
Integration
Indefinite Integrals of Inverse Trigonometric Functions

Inverse Trigonometric Functions
sin
sin
cos
cos
tan
tan
1
ln
2
cot
cot
1
ln
2
sec
sec
ln
sec
sec
ln
sec
csc
ln
csc
csc
ln
csc
csc
0,
2
0,
2
2

,0
Involving Inverse Trigonometric Functions

1
1
1
sin
tan
Version 2.9
sec
| |
sin
tan
1
sec
| |
Page 53 of 199
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Chapter4
Integration

Selecting the Right Function for an Integral
Form
Function
sin
tan
sec
sinh
cosh
sec
| |
ln
1
ln
2
coth
ln
tanh
tan
sin
Integral
sech
csch
ln
| |
ln
| |

*Thisisaninversehyperbolicfunction.Formoreinformation,seeChapter6.Notethatyoudo
notneedtoknowaboutinversehyperbolicfunctionstousetheformulasonthispage.
Version 2.9
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Chapter5
TechniquesofIntegration
Substitution
Often,anintegrandwillcontainafunctionwithinafunction.Forexample,intheintegral
,wehavethefunction withinthelnfunction.Whenthishappens,itisoften

usefultosubstituteanothervariablefortheinternalfunction.Typicallythevariableuisusedto
representtheinnerfunction,sotheprocessiscalled substitution.
Thetypicalprocessusedfor substitutionisdescribedinstepsbelow.Whentryingthis
approach,notethefollowing:
substitutionwillworkforallintegrals,evenonesthatlookripeforit,thoughitdoes
workoften.
Ifoneattemptedsubstitutiondoesnotwork,thestudentshouldtryanotherone.It
takespracticetotraintheeyetoidentifywhatfunctionsworkwellinthisprocess.
Itispossiblethatthestudentwillbefacedwithanintegralthansimplycannotbe
integratedbyanyelementarymethod(e.g.,
).
Process
Followingarethestepsforthegeneralsolutiontoanintegralusing substitution.
1. Setaportionoftheintegrandequaltoanewvariable,e.g., .Looktotherestofthe
integrandindecidingwhattosetequalto .Youwillneedtohave intheintegrand
aswell,ifthistechniqueistofindsuccess.
2. Find
intermsof
3. Rearrangetheintegrandsothattheintegralexistsintermsof insteadof .
4. Performtheintegration.
5. Substitutetheexpressionfor backintotheresultoftheintegration.
6. Ifyouareuncomfortablewiththeresult,integrateittoseeifyougettheintegrandasa
result.Ifso,youhaveachievedyourgoal.And,dontforgetthe foranindefinite
integration.
Example1:Find:
Version 2.9
1
ln
2

ln

1

2
1 1

2 2
1
2
ln
ln
1
Page 55 of 199
November 26, 2016
Chapter5
Example2:Find:
1
ln
ln
1

3
ln
1

Example 3: Find:
3 1
Recall:
3
1
1

3
sin
with
sin
tan
with
tan
1
3
sin
Example4:Find:
Recall:
1
1
tan
Version 2.9
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Chapter5
Partial Fractions
PartialFractions
Everyrationalfunctionoftheform
canbeexpressedasasumoffractionswith
linearandquadraticformsintheirdenominators.Forexample:
2
4
3
2
4
4
Ourtaskistodeterminetheappropriatefractions,includingthevaluesofthe s, sand s,
sowecanintegratethefunction.Theresultofintegrationtendstocontainanumberofnatural
logarithmtermsandinversetangentterms,aswellasothers.
Thefollowingprocesscanbeusedtodeterminethesetoffractions(includingthe s, sand
s)whosesumisequalto
.
Process
1. If
hasthesamedegreeorhigherdegreethan
,divide
by
toobtain
thenonfractional(polynomial)componentoftherationalfunction.Proceedinthenext
stepswiththefractionalcomponentoftherationalfunction.
Example:
Sinceitiseasytointegratethepolynomialportionofthisresult,(i.e.,
tointegratethefractionalportion(i.e.,
4),itremains
) .
2. Todeterminethedenominatorsofthefractionsontherightsideoftheequalsign,we
mustfirstfactorthedenominatorof
,i.e.,
.
Notethateverypolynomialcanbeexpressedastheproductoflineartermsand
quadraticterms,sothat:

Where istheleadcoefficient,the
.
arethequadratictermsof
Version 2.9
termsarethelinearfactorsandthe
Page 57 of 199
November 26, 2016
Chapter5
3. Everyrationalfunctioncanbeexpressedasthesumoffractionsofthefollowingtypes:
or
where and takevaluesfrom1tothemultiplicityofthefactorin
Examples:
2
5
2
3
2
6
7
2
3
3
4
4
Wemustsolveforthevaluesofthe s, sand s.Thisisaccomplishedbyobtaininga

commondenominatorandthenequatingthecoefficientsofeachterminthe
numerator.Thiswillgenerateanumberofequationswiththesamenumberof
unknownvaluesof , and .
Example(usingthefirstexpressionabove):
2
5
2
3
2
2
2
Equatingthenumerators,then,
2
Sothat:
2
Wesolvethese
equationstoobtain:
4
4
Finallyconcludingthat:
2
5
2
2
2
3
2
1
2
3
2
1
2
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Chapter5
4. Thefinalstepistointegratetheresultingfractions.
Example(continuingfromStep3):
2
ln|
5
2
2|
3
2
3
2
2
1
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Chapter5
Integration by Parts
General
Fromtheproductruleofderivativeswehave:

Rearrangingtermsweget:

Finally,integratingbothsidesgivesus:

Thislastformulaistheoneforintegrationbypartsandisextremelyusefulinsolvingintegrals.
Whenperforminganintegrationbyparts,firstdefine and
LIATE
Whenintegratingbyparts,studentsoftenstrugglewithhowtobreakuptheoriginalintegrand
into and .LIATEisanacronymthatisoftenusedtodeterminewhichpartoftheintegrand
shouldbecome .Hereshowitworks:let bethefunctionfromtheoriginalintegrandthat
showsupfirstonthelistbelow.
Logarithmicfunctions(e.g.,ln )
Inversetrigonometricfunctions(e.g.,tan
2)
Algebraicfunctions(e.g.,
Trigonometricfunctions(e.g.,cos )
Exponentialfunctions(e.g., )
Ingeneral,wewanttolet beafunctionwhosederivative isbothrelativelysimpleand

compatiblewith .Logarithmicandinversetrigonometricfunctionsappearfirstinthelist
becausetheirderivativesarealgebraic;soif isalgebraic, isalgebraicandanintegration
withweirdfunctionsistransformedintoonethatiscompletelyalgebraic.Notethatthe
LIATEapproachdoesnotalwayswork,butinmanycasesitcanbehelpful.
Version 2.9
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Chapter5
Example1:Find cos
cos
cos
2
(note:ignorethe
sin cos
untiltheend)
sin
sin cos
sin
sin cos
sin cos
cos
sin
cos
sin
cos
cos
cos
sin cos
Let:
sin cos
cos
cos
1
sin cos
2
Example1A:Find cos
withoutusingintegrationbyparts
LetsusetheTrigidentity:cos
1
cos
1
2
cos 2
2
1
2
cos 2
1
sin 2
2
Next,recallthatsin 2
cos
1
2
2 sin cos .So,

1
2 sin cos
2
1
sin cos
2
Version 2.9
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Chapter5
Example2:Find ln
ln
ln
Let:
ln
1
ln
ln
Example3:Find
Let:
Let:
Example4:Find tan
tan
tan
tan
1
2
tan
1
ln 1
2
Let:
tan
Version 2.9
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Chapter5
Example5:TheGammaFunctionisdefinedbythefollowingdefiniteintegral:
Inthiscontext, isaconstantand isthevariableintheintegrand.
Let:
lim

So,weobtainoneofthekeypropertiesoftheGammaFunction:
Next,letscompute: 1
1
Nowforsomethingespeciallycool.Basedonthesetworesults,wehavethefollowing:
1
2
3
4
5
Version 2.9
1
1
2
3
4
1
2
3
4
1 1
2 1
3 2
4 6
!
1 1!
2 2!
6 3!
24 4!
Page 63 of 199
November 26, 2016
Chapter5
Trigonometric Substitution
Certainintegrandsarebesthandledwithatrigonometricsubstitution.Threecommonforms
areshowninthetablebelow:
IntegralContainsthisForm

TrythisSubstitution
tan
sec
sin
cos
Whyarethesehelpful?Quitesimplybecausetheyeliminatewhatisoftenthemostdifficult
partoftheproblemthesquarerootsign.Letslookateachofthesubstitutionsinthetable.
tan ,wehave:
Usingthesubstitution
tan
tan
sec
tan
tan
sin
cos
cos
sin
sin
cos ,wehave:
cos
Example:
sec
sin ,wehave:
sin
sec
sec ,wehave:
sec
cos
16
4 sec
4 tan
16
4 tan
Let:
4 tan
4 sec
4 sec
4 tan 4 sec
1
4
sec
tan
1
ln|csc
4
Version 2.9
1
4
csc
cot |
ln
4
Page 64 of 199
16
November 26, 2016
Chapter6
HyperbolicFunctions
Hyperbolic Functions
Definitions

Geometric Representation
Theillustrationatrightprovidesageometric
representationofavalue"z"anditshyperbolic
functionvaluesrelativetotheunithyperbola.
Thehyperboliccosine"
cosh ",istheequation
oftheCatenary,theshapeofhangingchainthatis
supportedatbothends.
Manyofthepropertiesofhyperbolicfunctionsbeara
strikingresemblancetothecorrespondingproperties
oftrigonometricfunctions(seenextpage).
Graphs of Hyperbolic Functions

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Chapter6
HyperbolicFunctions
Hyperbolic Function Identities

Comparison of Trigonometric and Hyperbolic Identities
Hyperbolic Function Identity
sinh
sinh
cosh
sin
cosh
tanh
Trigonometric Function Identity

sin
cos
cos
tanh
tan
tan
sin
cos
sec
tan
csc
cot
cosh
sinh
sech
csch
coth
tanh
sinh
sinh cosh
cosh sinh
sin
sin cos
cos sin
sinh
sinh cosh
cosh sinh
sin
sin cos
cos sin
sinh 2
2 sinh cosh
sin 2
2 sin cos
cosh
cosh cosh
sinh sinh
cos
cos cos
sin sin
cosh
cosh cosh
sinh sinh
cos
cos cos
sin sin
cosh 2
cosh
sinh
cos 2
cos
sin
tanh
tanh
tanh
1 tanh tanh
tan
tan
tan
1 tan tan
tanh
tanh
tanh
1 tanh tanh
tan
tan
tan
1 tan tan
sinh
cosh
cosh 2
sin
cosh 2
cos
cos 2
cos 2
Version 2.9
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Chapter6
HyperbolicFunctions
Hyperbolic Function Identities

Relationship between Trigonometric and Hyperbolic Functions
sinh
sin

Fromthesetworelationships,theotherfourmaybedetermined.
cosh
cos
tanh
sinh
cosh
coth
cosh
sinh
sech
1
cosh
sec
csch
1
sinh
csc
tan
cot
Series Expansions
AppendixFprovidesseriesexpansionsforthetrigonometricfunctionssin andcos .Those
arerepeatedhere,alongwiththeseriesexpansionsforthecorrespondinghyperbolicfunctions
sinh andcosh .
sin
sinh
3!
5!
3!
5!
7!
7!
cos
cosh
2!
1
2!
4!
4!
6!
6!
Itispossibletodevelopseriesexpansionsfortheotherfourhyperbolicfunctions,butthey
involvethemoreesotericBernoullinumbersandEulernumbers.Instead,thestudentmaywish
todevelopvaluestheotherfourhyperbolicfunctionsfromtheexpansionsofsinh andcosh .

Example:tanh
Version 2.9
!
!
!
!
!
!
Page 67 of 199
November 26, 2016
Chapter6
HyperbolicFunctions
Inverse Hyperbolic Functions

Logarithmic Forms of Inverse Hyperbolic Functions
Principal Values
Function
Domain
Function
Range
sinh
ln
cosh
ln
1,
0,
tanh
1
1
ln
2
1
coth
tanh
sech
cosh
csch
sinh
1
1
1
ln
2
ln
ln
1
| |
1, 1
, 1 1,
0, 1
0,
Graphs of Inverse Hyperbolic Functions

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Chapter6
HyperbolicFunctions
Graphs of Hyperbolic Functions and Their Inverses

Version 2.9
Page 69 of 199
November 26, 2016
Chapter6
HyperbolicFunctions
Derivatives of Hyperbolic Functions and Their Inverses

sinh
cosh
sinh
cosh
cosh
sinh
cosh
sinh
tanh
sech
tanh
sech
coth
sech
csch
coth
csch
sech tanh
sech
sech
tanh
csch coth
csch
csch coth
csch

1
sinh
cosh
tanh
coth
sech
csch
Version 2.9
sinh
cosh
1
1
1
1
tanh
1
1
coth

sech

| | 1
csch
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
| | 1
Page 70 of 199
November 26, 2016
Chapter6
HyperbolicFunctions
Integrals of Hyperbolic Functions and Their Inverses

Becarefulwiththese integrals.Acoupleof
themhaveinversetrigonometricfunctionsin
theformulas.Thesearehighlightedinblue.
sinh
cosh
cosh
sinh
tanh
ln cosh
coth
ln|sinh |
sech
2 tan
csch
ln tanh
sech
csch

coth
sech tanh
sech
csch coth
coth
Note:theintegration
rulespresentedinthis
chapteromitthe
termthatmustbe
addedtoallindefinite
integralsinordertosave
spaceandavoidclutter.
Pleaseremembertoadd
the
termonall
workyouperformwith
indefiniteintegrals.
sinh
sinh
cosh
cosh
tanh
tanh
1
ln 1
2
coth
coth
1
ln
2
sech
sech
sin
csch
csch
sinh
if
csch
sinh
if
tanh
Version 2.9
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Chapter6
HyperbolicFunctions
Other Integrals Relating to Hyperbolic Functions

1
sinh
cosh
ln
ln
tanh
coth
1
ln
2
| |
sech
csch
| |
ln
| |
ln
| |
Note:Theresultsaboveareshownwithouttheirconstantterm( ).Whenmorethanone
resultisshown,theresultsmaydifferbyaconstant,meaningthattheconstantsintheformulas
maybedifferent.Forexample,fromthefirstrowabove:
1
sinh
and
ln
Fromearlierinthischapter,weknowthatthelogarithmicformofsinh
ln
sinh
is:
Then:
1
ln
Soweseethat
terms.
Version 2.9
sinh
ln
ln
ln
ln
andsotheformulasbothwork,buthavedifferentconstant
Page 72 of 199
November 26, 2016
Chapter7
DefiniteIntegrals
Definite Integrals as Riemann Sums

Riemann Sum
ARiemannSumisthesumoftheareasofasetofrectanglesthatcanbeusedtoapproximate
theareaunderacurveoveraclosedinterval.
Consideraclosedinterval , on thatispartitionedinto subintervalsoflengths
, , , .Let beanyvalueof onthe thsubinterval.Then,theRiemann
Sumisgivenby:
AgraphicalrepresentationofaRiemannsum
ontheinterval 2, 5 isprovidedatright.
Notethattheareaunderacurvefrom
to
is:
lim
Thelargest iscalledthemeshsizeofthepartition.AtypicalRiemannSumisdeveloped
withall thesame(i.e.,constantmeshsize),butthisisnotrequired.Theresultingdefinite
integral,
Version 2.9
iscalledtheRiemannIntegralof
ontheinterval ,
Page 73 of 199
November 26, 2016
Chapter7
DefiniteIntegrals
Methods for Calculating Riemann Sums

RiemannSumsareoftencalculatedusingequalsubintervalsovertheintervalspecified.Below
areexamplesof4commonlyusedapproaches.Althoughsomemethodsprovidebetter

answersthanothersundervariousconditions,thelimitsundereachmethodasmax 0
arethesame,andareequaltotheintegraltheyareintendedtoapproximate.
Example:Given:
8
2
x dx .Using n 3 ,approximatetheareaunderthecurve.
.Thethreeintervalsinquestionare: ,

.Then,

LeftEndpoint Rectangles (userectangleswithleftendpointsonthecurve)
12
30
units2
RightEndpoint Rectangles (userectangleswithrightendpointsonthecurve)
12
30
56
units2
Trapezoid Rule (usetrapezoidswithallendpointsonthecurve)

Note:theactualvalueof
theareaunderthecurveis:
units2
138
Midpoint Rule (userectangleswithmidpointsonthecurve)
20
42
units2
Version 2.9
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November 26, 2016
Chapter7
DefiniteIntegrals
Riemann Sums of Tables Using the TI84
Considerthefollowingproblem:
UsearightRiemannSumtoapproximatetheareaunderthecurveontheinterval 2, 13 .
5.5
9.2
10.3
11.8
13
11
13
Thereareeightcolumnsand,therefore,sevenintervalsinthetable.Theformulaforthe
requiredRiemannSum,then,is:

wherethe arethewidthsoftheintervalsandthe
arethevaluesofthefunctionat
therightsideofeachinterval(becausewearecalculatingarightRiemannSum).
Thestudentcancalculatethisdirectlyas:
1 4
2 5.5
1 8
.5.5
5 9.2
11 10.3
9.2
13 11.8
10.3
9 13
11.8
Alternatively,thestudentcanusetheTI84calculatorasfollows:
Step1:STATEDITL1enterthevaluesof inthecolumnforL1.
Step2:STATEDITL2entertheappropriatevaluesof
inthecolumnforL2.
Step3:2NDQUITthiswilltakeyoubacktotheTI84shomescreen.
Step3:L1xL2STO>L3thiswillputtheproductofcolumnsL1andL2incolumnL3.
NotethatL3willcontaintheareasofeachoftherectanglesintheRiemannSum.
Step4:2NDLISTMATHSUM(L3thiswilladdthevaluesincolumnL3,givingthe
valueof ,which,forthisproblem,matchesthesumof . shownabove.
Note:enteringL1,L2orL3requiresuseofthe2NDkey.
ThestudentcanreviewthecontentsofthelistsL1,L2,andL3using
STATEDIT.Forthisproblem,thedisplaywilllooksomethinglike
theimageatright.Theadvantagesofthisare:
Itallowsthestudenttochecktheirworkquickly.
IfthestudentisaskedforsomeotherkindofRiemannSum,a
portionoftherequiredinputisalreadyintheTI84.
EachstudentshouldusewhichevermethodofcalculatingRiemannSumsworksbestforthem.
Version 2.9
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Chapter7
DefiniteIntegrals
Rules of Definite Integration

First Fundamental Theorem of Calculus
isacontinuousfunctionon ,
If
,and
isanyantiderivativeof
,then
Second Fundamental Theorem of Calculus

If
,thenforevery
,thenforevery
Chain Rule of Definite Integration

If

Mean Value Theorem for Integrals

If
,thenthereisavalue
,suchthat
Version 2.9
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Chapter7
DefiniteIntegrals
Properties of Definite Integrals
SameUpperandLowerLimits

Iftheupperandlowerlimitsoftheintegral
arethesame,itsvalueiszero.
ReversedLimits

Reversingthelimitsofanintegralnegates
itsvalue.
MultiplicationbyaScalar

Theintegraloftheproductofascalar
andafunctionistheproductofthe
scalarandtheintegralofthefunction.
TelescopingLimits

Theintegralovertheinterval , isequalto
theintegralovertheinterval , ,plusthe
integralovertheinterval , .
SumorDifference
Theintegralofasum(ordifference)of
functionsisthesum(ordifference)of
theintegralsofthefunctions.
LinearCombination
Version 2.9
Theintegralofalinear
combinationoffunctionsis
thelinearcombinationofthe
integralsofthefunctions.
Page 77 of 199
November 26, 2016
Chapter7
DefiniteIntegrals
Solving Definite Integrals with Directed Line Segments

AcommonprobleminelementaryCalculusistousethevaluesofdefiniteintegralsofagiven
function
overtwoormoreintervalstoobtainthevalueofadefiniteintegralof
over
arelatedinterval.Theillustrationbelowshowshowdirectedlinesegmentscanbeusedto
simplifythecalculationsrequiredforthiskindofproblem.
Example:Giventhat
84and
75, find
Step1:Removeanyscalarmultipliersbydividingthevaluesgivenbythescalarmultipliers.
Divide:
Divide:
3
5
84by3toget

28.
75by5toget
15.
Step2:Drawdirectedlinesegmentsforeachofthedefiniteintegralsintheproblem.Label
eachsegmentwithitsmagnitude.Thestarting
andendingpointsofeachsegmentreflectthe
limitsintheintegral.Knownvaluesareshown
inblueandthetargetvalueisingreen.
Noticethatthefirstsegmentstretchesover
theinterval
3, 8 andhasmagnitude28,reflecting
28.Theothersegments
areconstructedsimilarly.Wewanttofindthemagnitudeofthethird(green)segment.
Wecouldsubtractthesecondsegmentfromthefirsttoobtainthesolutionsegment.Its
magnitudewouldbe:
28
15
4 .Ifwedothis,wearedone;wehave
oursolution.Alternatively,wecouldtakeamorefluidapproachtothisproblemasinStep3.
Step3(ifdesired):Reorientsegmentsas
neededsowecanfollowtheknowndirected
segmentsfromthebeginningtotheendofthe
intervalrequiredforthesolution(i.e.,from
3to
4).
Ifwereorientthemiddlesegmentsoitispointingtotheleft,themagnitudeofthenewsecond
segmentbecomes15,reflectingthefactthatwearemovingtotheleftinsteadoftotheright.
15.Wearenowableto
UsingCalculus,thisreflectsthefactthat
getto
4byfollowingtheknownsegmentsinthedirectionsshown.Then,wesimplyadd
themagnitudesoftheknownsegmentstogetoursolution:
Version 2.9
Page 78 of 199
28
15
4 .
November 26, 2016
Chapter7
DefiniteIntegrals
Definite Integrals Substitution
substitutionmaybeusedintheevaluationofdefiniteintegralsaswellasindefiniteintegrals
(note:using substitutionwithindefiniteintegralsiscoveredinChapter5).Theprocesswith
definiteintegralsisslightlydifferentandmayevenbeabiteasier.
Process
Followingarethestepsforthegeneralsolutiontoadefiniteintegralusing substitution.
1. Setaportionoftheintegrandequaltoanewvariable,e.g., .Looktotherestofthe
integrandindecidingwhattosetequalto .Youwillneedtohave intheintegrand
aswell,ifthistechniqueistofindsuccess.
2. Find
intermsof
3. Rearrangetheintegrandsothattheintegralexistsintermsof insteadof .
4. Performtheintegration.
5. Evaluatethevaluesofthelimitsofintegrationintermsofthenewvariableand
substitutetheseintothedefiniteintegralintermsofu.
6. Evaluatetheresult.
Notethatbycalculatingthelimitsofintegrationintermsofthenewvariable, ,weareableto
avoidthestepwherewemustsubstitutetheexpressionfor backintotheresultofthe
integration.Thissavestimeandreducesthelikelihoodoferrorinthecalculation.

Example1:Evaluate:
2
1
2

1
3
1

3
1
1
1
3
1
3
Version 2.9
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November 26, 2016
Chapter7
Example2:Evaluate:
sin 2
sin 2
DefiniteIntegrals
1
2
1
2
1
2
sin 2 2
sin
cos
1
cos
2
Example3:Evaluate:
tan sec
Fortrigfunctionsotherthansineandcosine,weneedtomakesurethedenominatorsofthe
functionsarenotzerowithinourinterval.Iftheyarezero,thefunctionisnotcontinuousonthe
intervalandsotheFundamentalTheoremofCalculusdoesnotapply.
Forthecurrentproblem,weneedtomakesurecos
theFundamentalTheoremofCalculus.Sincecos
areokaytoproceed.
0 at
,
tan
tan sec
1

2
1
0
sec
sec sec tan

1

2
sec tan

sec
4
0
tan sec
2
1
4
0
1
2
inordertouse
inthisneighborhood,we
sec
ALTERNATIVEAPPROACH:setting
Version 2.9
0overtheinterval 0,
2
1
12
Page 80 of 199
November 26, 2016
Chapter7
DefiniteIntegrals
Definite Integrals Special Techniques
Sometimesitisdifficultorimpossibletotakeanantiderivativeofanintegrand.Insuchcases,it
maystillbepossibletoevaluateadefiniteintegral,butspecialtechniquesandcreativitymaybe
required.Thissectionpresentsafewtechniquesthatthestudentmayfindhelpful.
EvenandOddFunctions
Thefollowingtechniquecansometimesbeusedtosolveadefiniteintegralthathaslimitsthatare
additiveinverses(i.e, and ).
Everyfunctioncanbesplitintoevenandoddcomponents.Theevenandoddcomponentsofagiven
function,
,are:
Noticethat:
,sothat
isanevenfunction.
,sothat
isanoddfunction.
Furtherrecallthat,foranoddfunctionwithlimitsthatareadditiveinverses,anynegativeareasunder
thecurveareexactlyoffsetbycorrespondingpositiveareasunderthecurve.Thatis:
0
Additionally,foranevenfunctionwithlimitsthatareadditiveinverses,theareaunderthecurvetothe
leftofthe axisisthesameastheareaunderthecurvetotherightofthe axis.Thatis:

Therefore,wehave:

And,finally,substitutingfromtheaboveequations:
Letslookatanexampleofhowthiscanbeusedtoevaluateadifficultdefiniteintegralonthenextpage.
Version 2.9
Page 81 of 199
November 26, 2016
Chapter7
DefiniteIntegrals
Example:Evaluate
First,define:
f(x) =
cos(x)
1 + ex
Noticethattherearenosingularitiesforthisintegral.Thatis,there
arenopointsbetweenthelimits(i.e.,
)atwhich
doesnotexist.Sowemayproceedinanormalfashion.
Next,letslookattheevenandoddcomponentsof
1 cos

2 1
cos
1
cos ,weget:
Notingthatcos
1 cos

2 1
cos
cos
1

2
1
cos
1

2
1
feven(x) =
cos(x)
2
cos
2

2
2
cos
Theoddcomponentof
is(note:thisworkisnotnecessarytoevaluatetheintegral):
1 cos

2 1
cos
1
1 cos

2 1
cos
cos
1

2
1
cos
1

2
1
fodd(x) =
cos(x)
2
ex ex
2 + ex + ex
cos

2
2
Sincethevalueoftheoddcomponentofthedefiniteintegraliszero,weneedonlyevaluatethe
evencomponentofthedefiniteintegralusingtheformulaonthepreviouspage:

Version 2.9
cos
2
sin
2
0
sin
sin 0
Page 82 of 199
November 26, 2016
Chapter7
DefiniteIntegrals
Derivative of an Integral
TheSecondFundamentalTheoremofCalculusstatesthatif
theinterval ,
,thenforevery
isacontinuousfunctionon
.Essentially,thisisa
statementthatintegrationanddifferentiationareinverses.But,thereismore.Iftheupper
limitisafunctionof ,say
,thenwemustapplythechainruletoget:

Notethat isaconstantand isafunctionin .Alsonotethatthevalueoftheconstant is

irrelevantinthisexpression,aslongas
iscontinuousontherequiredinterval.
Ifbothofthelimitsintheintegralarefunctionsof ,wecantakeadvantageofapropertyof
definiteintegralstodevelopasolution.Let and bothbefunctionsin ,andlet bean
arbitraryconstantintheintervalwhere
iscontinuous.Then,

So,
Example1:

3 sin 2
6 cos 2
Example2:

sec
Version 2.9
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November 26, 2016
Chapter8
ApplicationsofIntegration
Area Under a Curve

Theareaunderacurvecanbecalculateddirectlybyintegratingthecurveoverthedesired
interval.Notethefollowing:
Theareaunderacurveisactuallytheareabetweentheaxisandthecurve.Inthis
sense,thewordundermaybeabitofamisnomer.
Theareaunderacurvemaybepositive(ifabovethe axis)ornegative(ifbelowthe
axis).
Example1:Findtheareaunderthecurve
interval 1, 1 .
3
4
2
3
1
4
5
4
21
2 onthe
11
4
4 sec tan ontheinterval
Example2:Findtheareaunderthecurve
4 sec tan
4
cos
3
3
4 sec

4
1
2
4

1
2
3
3
Negative
Area
Positive
Area
Note:thisinterestingresultmeansthatthenegativearea
underthecurveof
4 sec tan ontheinterval
, 0 isexactlyoffsetexactlybythepositiveareaabove
thecurveontheinterval 0,
Version 2.9
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November 26, 2016
Chapter8
Area Between Curves

Theareabetweentwocurvesisthedifferenceoftheareasunderthecurves.Itisalways
positive,soifthecurvesswitchpositionintermsofwhichoneissuperior(ontoportothe
right),theintegrationmusttakethatintoaccount.
Example1:Findtheareaoftheregioninthefirstquadrantthatisboundedbythecurves
sin and
cos (i.e.,insidethegreenlinesintheillustration).
First,wemustfindthepointofintersectioninQuadrant1.
sin
cos at
,soourintervalofintegrationis 0,
Next,considerwhichcurveissuperiortotheother(i.e.,whichoneis
higheriftheformoftheequationsis
,ormoretotherightif
theformoftheequationsis
).Theothercurveisinferior.The
inferiorcurveissubtractedfromthesuperiorcurveintheintegrand.
Ontheinterval 0,
cos isthehigherofthetwocurves.
Finally,calculatetheareabyintegratingthedifferencebetweenthecurves.
cos
2
2
sin
2
2
sin
4
0
cos
sin
cos
sin 0
cos 0
and
Example2:Findtheareaoftheregionbetween
1ontheinterval 1, 1 (i.e.,insidethegreenlinesin
theillustration).
1, 1 ,thehighestcurveis
Ontheinterval
Calculatetheareabyintegratingthedifferencebetweenthecurves.
1
1
3
1
3
Version 2.9
1
1
1
3
2
3
Page 85 of 199
November 26, 2016
Chapter8
Volumes of Solids of Revolution
Solids of
Revolution
Rotation about:
xaxis
yaxis
Disk
Method
Washer
Method(1)
2
Cylindrical Shell
Method(2)
or
2
or

or
2
Area Cross Section
Method(4)
or
Difference of
Shells Method(2)(3)
Notes:
1. TheWasherMethodisanextensionoftheDiskMethod.
2.
istheradiusofthecylindricalshell.Incaseswherethereisagapbetweentheaxisof
revolutionandthefunctionsbeingrevolved, isthedistancebetweentheaxisof
revolutionandeither or ,asappropriate.
3. TheDifferenceofShellsMethodisanextensionoftheCylindricalShellMethod.
4. Thefunction istheareaofthecrosssectionbeingintegrated.
Version 2.9
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November 26, 2016
Chapter8
Disk and Washer Methods

TheformulasfortheDiskMethodandWasherMethodforcalculatingvolumesofrevolution
areprovidedabove.Below,wepresentanapproachthatcanbeusedtocalculatevolumesof
revolutionusingthesemethods.
UndertheDiskMethod,weintegratetheareaoftheregionbetweenacurveanditsaxisof
revolutiontoobtainvolume.Sinceeachcrosssectionoftheresultingobjectwillbeacircle,we
usetheformula
asourstartingpoint.Theresultingformulais:

or
TheWasherMethodissimplyadualapplicationoftheDiskMethod.Considerthe
illustrationatright.Ifwewanttheareaoftheshadedregion,wesubtractthe
areaofthesmallercirclefromtheareaofthelargercircle.Thesameoccurswith
theWasherMethod;sinceweintegratecrosssectionalareatofindvolume,soto
obtainthevolumeofrevolutionofaregionbetweenthetwocurvesweintegrate
thedifferenceintheareasbetweenthetwocurves.
Belowisasetofstepsthatcanbeusedtodeterminethevolumeofrevolutionofaregion
betweentwocurves.Theapproachisillustratedbasedonthefollowingexample:
Example:Findthevolumethatresultsfromrevolvingtheregionbetweenthecurves
and
abouttheline
6.
Steps
1. Graphtheequationsprovidedandanyotherinformationgiven
intheproblem(illustratedbelow).Then,isolatethesectionof
thegraphthatwewanttoworkwith(illustratedatright).The
diskswewilluseareshownasgreenandorangeverticallines.
Thedashedobjectsarereflectionsofthecurvesanddisksover
theaxisofrevolution;thesegiveusanideaofwhatthecentral
crosssectionofthe3 shapewilllooklikeafterrevolution.You
donotneedtodrawthese.
Integration
Interval
Version 2.9
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November 26, 2016
Chapter8
2. Identifywhetherthereisagapbetweentheregiontoberevolvedandtheaxisof
revolution.Intheexample,theaxisofrevolutionis
6,sothereisclearlyagap
betweena)theredandbluecurves,andb)theaxisofrevolution.Therefore,wewilluse
theWasherMethod.
3. Setuptheintegralformtobeused.
radius
a. DiskMethod:
radius
or
small radius
big radius
b. WasherMethod:
small radius
big radius
or
4. Identifythevariableofintegration(i.e.,areweusing
beperpendiculartotheaxisofrevolution.
or
?).Thedisksusedmust
a. Ifwearerevolvingaroundanaxis,usethevariableofthataxis.
b. Iftheaxisofrevolutionisalineoftheform,
or
,usetheopposite
variablefromtheonethatoccursintheequationoftheaxis.Intheexample,the
axisofrevolutionis
6,sowewillintegratewithrespectto .
Note:Theexpressionsusedintheintegrationmustbeintermsofthevariableof
integration.So,forexample,ifthevariableofintegrationis andtheequationofa
curveisgivenas
,wemustinvertthistotheform
before
integrating.
5. Identifythelimitsofintegration.Intheexample,thecurvesintersectat
4.Thisresultsinanequationforvolumeintheform:

big radius
small radius
0and
6. Substitutetheexpressionsforthebigandsmallradiiinsidetheintegral.Inthe
example,wehavethefollowing:
a. big radius
b. small radius
Thisresultsinthefollowing:

NotethatthismatchesthevaluecalculatedusingtheDifferenceofShellsMethod
below.
Version 2.9
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November 26, 2016
Chapter8
Cylindrical Shell Methods

TheformulasfortheCylindricalShellMethodandDifferenceofShellsMethodforcalculating
volumesofrevolutionareprovidedabove.Below,wepresentanapproachthatcanbeusedto
calculatevolumesofrevolutionusingthesemethods.
UndertheCylindricalShellMethod,weintegratethevolumeofashellacrosstheappropriate
valuesof or .Weusetheformulaforthevolumeofacylinderasourstartingpoint(i.e.,
2
,where istypicallythefunctionprovided).Theresultingformulais:
2
or
TheDifferenceofShellsMethodisessentiallyadualapplicationofthe
CylindricalShellMethod.Wewantthevolumeofthecylinderwhose
heightisthedifferencebetweentwofunctions(seeillustrationat
right).
Belowisasetofstepsthatcanbeusedtodeterminethevolumeofrevolutionofaregion
betweentwocurves.Theapproachisillustratedbasedonthefollowingexample:
Example:Findthevolumethatresultsfromrevolvingtheregionbetweenthecurves
and
abouttheline
6.
Steps
1. Graphtheequationsprovidedandanyotherinformationgivenintheproblem
(illustratedbelowleft).Then,isolatethesectionofthegraphthatwewanttoworkwith
(illustratedbelowright).Alsoshownarereflectionsofthecurvesovertheaxisof
revolution(dashedcurves);thisallowsustoseetheothersideofthecylindricalshells
wewilluse.Atypicalshellisshownasagreencylinder.
Integration
Interval
Version 2.9
Page 89 of 199
November 26, 2016
Chapter8
2. Identifywhethertheintegrationinvolvesoneortwocurves.
a. Onecurve:UsetheCylindricalShellMethod.
b. Twocurves:UsetheDifferenceofShellsMethod.Thisisthecaseintheexample.
3. Setuptheintegralformtobeused.Let betheradiusoftheshell.
2
a. CylindricalShellMethod:
b. DifferenceofShellsMethod:
2
or
difference of shell heights
or
4. Identifythevariableofintegration(i.e.,areweusing
beparalleltotheaxisofrevolution.
or
?).Theshellsusedmust
a. Ifwearerevolvingaroundanaxis,usetheoppositevariableofthataxis.
b. Iftheaxisofrevolutionisalineoftheform,
or
,usethesame
variableastheonethatoccursintheequationoftheaxis.Intheexample,the
axisofrevolutionis
6,sowewillintegratewithrespectto .
2
0and
5. Identifythelimitsofintegration.Intheexample,thecurvesintersectat
4.Thisresultsinanequationforvolumeintheform:
2
6. Substitutetheexpressionsfor andthedifferenceofshellheightsintotheintegral.In
theexample,weneedtoconverteachequationtotheform
because isthe
variableofintegration:
a.
so
2 so
Thedifferenceofshellheights,then,is 2
1
4
b. Theradiusofashellisthedifferencebetweentheline
intheinterval,sotheradiusis6
.
6andthevalueof
Thisresultsinthefollowing:

NotethatthismatchesthevaluecalculatedusingtheWasherMethodabove.
Version 2.9
Page 90 of 199
November 26, 2016
Chapter8
Volume by Area of a CrossSection

Someproblemsrequireustodeterminevolumeofasolidusingitsbaseandcrosssectional
areaacrossthatbase.Thesearenotproblemsbasedonrevolutionofashape,soweusea
morebasicformula(thatdoesnotinvolve):

or
Belowisasetofstepsthatcanbeusedtodeterminevolumeforthistypeofproblem.The
approachisillustratedusingthefollowingexample:
Example:Findthevolumeofasolidwithabaseof
2sin overtheinterval 0, ifthe
crosssectionsperpendiculartothe axisareequilateraltriangleswhosebasesstretchfrom
the axistothecurve.
Steps
1. Graphthecurveofthebaseovertheintervalspecified.
2. Determinethevariableofintegration.Thiswillalwaysbethe
variablewhoseaxisisperpendiculartothecrosssections
specified.Intheexample,thevariableofintegrationis .
3. Determinethelimitsofintegration.Thisistypicallytheinterval
providedintheproblem.Intheexample,thisistheinterval 0, .
4. Drawthecrosssectionyouareprovidedintheproblem.Intheexample,weare
workingwithequilateraltriangleswithbaseequalto
thefunction
2sin .
5. Determinetheareaofthecrosssectionintermsof
theappropriatevariable.Weneedtheareaofan
equilateraltriangleforthisexample.Thisareacanbe
developedfrombasicprinciplesusingtheillustration
atright,orfromtheformula:
Intheexample:
,where isthelengthofthebaseofthetriangle.
2sin
3 sin
6. IntegratetheareaofthecrosssectionusingthelimitsdeterminedinStep3.

Version 2.9
3 sin
3 cos
~ .
Page 91 of 199
November 26, 2016
Chapter8
Area in Polar Form

AreainPolarFormisgivenby:
Let:
1

2
Then,
Why?
Thediagramatrightillustratesthereasonthatweusetheaboveformula
forarea.Theintegraladdsalloftheslices(seethecolorslicesinthe
diagram)insidethecurveinquestion.Eachsliceisasectorofacircle
withradius andangle (aninfinitesimallysmallangle).Theareaofa
singleslice,then,is
timestheareaofthecirclecontainingit.Thatis:
1
2
Integratingthisoverthedesiredintervalof resultsintheaboveformulaforarea.
Example1:Findtheareainthefirstquadrantinsidethelemniscate
theabovediagram.
4 sin 2 shownin
First,weneedtodeterminethelimitsofintegration.ConsiderthattheloopinQuadrant1
beginsandendsatlocationswhere
0.So,weneedtofindtwovaluesofthevariable
thatmake
0.Wedothisbysetting
0intheequationofthelemniscate.
4 sin 2 ,whichoccurswhensin 2
0,whichoccursat
0, , ,
Forourlimitsofintegration,wewilluse0and becausethesetwovaluesdefinetheloopin
Quadrant1.Wecancheckthisbyevaluating foravalueintheinterval 0,
suretheresultingpointisinQuadrant1.Letsfind when

4 sin 2
41
andmaking
.
2(inQuadrant1)
TheareaofthelemniscateaboveinQuadrant1,then,iscalculatedas:

Version 2.9
1

2
1

2
4 sin 2
Page 92 of 199
2 sin 2
cos 2
2
0
November 26, 2016
Chapter8
sin 2 .
Example2:Calculatetheareaofthegenerallemniscateoftheform
NotethattheareaoftheentirelemniscateisdoublethatoftheloopinQuadrant1.Then,
1

2
sin 2
1
2
sin 2
2
0
cos 2
Example3:Findtheareawithintheinnerloopofthelimaon
2 cos .
First,weneedtodeterminethelimitsofintegration.Considerthat
theloopbeginsandendsatlocationswhere
0.So,weneed
tofindthevaluesofthevariable thatmake
0anddefine
theinnerloop.Wedothisbysetting
0intheequationofthe
lemniscate.
0
2 cos ,whichoccurswhencos
,
occursat
,which
Next,weneedtomakesurethattheinnerloopisdefinedas progressesfrom to .We

,
candothisbyevaluating foravalueof intheinterval

pointisontheinnerloop.Letsfind when

Wecheckthepolarpoint
2 cos
1,
onthecurveandnotethatitisontheinnerloop.
,
Therefore,ourlimitsofintegrationarethevalues
1
Theareaoftheinnerloopofthelimaon
1

2
1

2
3
2
Version 2.9
2 sin
1

2
4 cos
1
sin 2
2
andmakingsuretheresulting
2 cos ,then,iscalculatedas:
2 cos
4
2
1

2
cos 2
2

1
3
2
4 cos
2 cos
4 cos
cos 2
Page 93 of 199
November 26, 2016
Chapter8
Arc Length
Thearclength, ,ofacurve,initsvariousforms,isdiscussedbelow:
RectangularForm:
Forafunctionoftheform:
.
to
,from
to
.

,from
cosh
Example:Findthelengthofthearconthehyperboliccurve
interval 0, 2 .
sinh :
Usingtheaboveformula,andnotingthat
1
4
1
4
Version 2.9
2

0
2
1
onthe
1
2
Page 94 of 199
November 26, 2016
Chapter8
PolarForm:

Example:Findthelengthofthearcofonepetalontherose
0.
Tofindtheintervalwhichdefinesonepetal,weset
0
2 cos 3 ,whichoccurswhencos 3
occursat
, ,
0,which
.Alittleinvestigationreveals
wecandefineafullpetalovertheinterval
Nextfind:
2 cos 3 .
6 sin 3 .
Then,thearclengthofasinglepetalis:
4 cos 3
cos 3
cos 3
2 cos 3
36 sin 3
9 sin 3
sin 3
6 sin 3
8 sin 3
Thisexpressionisquiteuglybutcanbehandledbyamoderncalculator.Itsvalueis
approximately .
ascalculatedonboththeTI84PlusandtheTInSpire.
Version 2.9
Page 95 of 199
November 26, 2016
Chapter8
ParametricForm:
,
Example:Findthelengthofthearcofonepetalontherosedefinedbytheparametric
equations
2 cos 3 cos and
2 cos 3 sin .
Thisisthesamecurvedefinedintheexampleabove.Sowewill
integrateoverthesameinterval:
Tointegrateinparametricform,weneed
and
.Lets
calculatethem:
2 cos 3
sin
2 cos 3
cos
cos
3 sin 3
sin
3 sin 3
Then,

cos 3
cos 3
cos 3
sin
cos
sin
cos
4 cos 3
3 sin 3
6 cos
6 cos
cos 3 sin
cos 3 sin
sin 3
sin 3
cos
sin
9 cos
9 sin
3 sin 3
sin 3
sin 3
Noticeinthisexpressionthattermsaboveandbeloweachothercanbecombinedtoget:
2
cos 3
cos 3
sin
cos
9 sin 3
9 sin
cos
sin 3
Thisisexactlythesameexpressionthatwasderivedonthepreviouspageinpolarform.
Version 2.9
Page 96 of 199
November 26, 2016
Chapter8
Area of a Surface of Revolution
Rotationaboutthe Axis
Rotationofacurve
2
from

to
2
.
1
isthearclengthofthecurveon ,
.
,
Ifthecurveisdefinedbyparametricequations,

Rotationaboutthe Axis
Rotationofacurve
2
from

to
2
.
1
isthearclengthofthecurveon ,
Ifthecurveisdefinedbyparametricequations,
2
Version 2.9
Page 97 of 199
November 26, 2016
Chapter8
Polar and Parametric Forms Summary

ConversionBetweenForms
CartesiantoPolar
tan
PolartoCartesian
cos
sin
AreaFormula
Let:
1

2
Then,
Speed(Velocity)in2Dimensions
ArcLength

Curvature
2
where,
ConicSections

cos
or
1 ellipse;
sin
1 parabola;
1 hyperbola
ParametricDerivatives

Version 2.9
where,
Page 98 of 199
November 26, 2016
Chapter9
ImproperIntegrals
Improper Integration
Improperintegrationreferstointegrationwheretheintervalofintegrationcontainsoneor
morepointswheretheintegrandisnotdefined.
InfiniteLimits
Wheneitherorbothofthelimitsofintegrationareinfinite,wereplacetheinfinitelimitbya
variableandtakethelimitoftheintegralasthevariableapproachesinfinity.
lim

lim

lim

lim

Note:inthisthirdformula,youcanselectthevalueof tobeanyconvenientvalue
thatproducesconvergentintervals.
Example1:
1
lim

lim

lim

lim

lim

1
1
1

3
Example2:
1
lim

1
lim

3
Version 2.9
1
lim

3
tan
1
lim

3
tan
0
3
0
tan
1
0
3
Page 99 of 199
November 26, 2016
Chapter9
ImproperIntegrals
DiscontinuousIntegrand
Limitsarealsorequiredincaseswherethefunctioninanintegrandisdiscontinuousoverthe
intervalofitslimits.
Ifthereisadiscontinuityat
lim

where
lim

lim

lim

Example1:
1
lim

lim
ln 4

lim
ln 4

ln 4
ln 4
lim
ln 4

Example2:
1
lim

lim
2

lim
2

21
lim

sec tan
Example3:
sec tan
lim
lim
sec

1
Version 2.9
sec
lim

sec

Page 100 of 199
November 26, 2016
Chapter10
DifferentialEquations
Differential Equations
Definitions
ADifferentialEquationisanequationthatcontainsanindependentvariable,oneormore
dependentvariables,andfullorpartialderivativesofthedependentvariables.
AnOrdinaryDifferentialEquation(ODE)isadifferentialequationthatcontainsordinary(not
partial)derivatives.Generally,anODEisexpressedinoneofthefollowingforms:
, ,
, ,
0or
, ,
, ,
APartialDifferentialEquation(PDE)isadifferentialequationthatcontainspartialderivatives.
TheOrderofadifferentialequationisthehighestderivativeofadependentvariableinthe
equation.
ALinearODEofOrder isanequationoftheform:
whereeachofthe
isafunctionin only,(i.e.,notin oranyofitsderivatives).The
neednotbelinearfunctions.ThelabelLinearrefersto anditsderivatives;that
is,therearenopowersof anditsderivativesandnoproductsof and/oranyofits
derivatives.Forexample,therearenotermslike
,etc.
ASeparablefirstorderODEisonethatcanbewrittenintheform:
ASolutiontoadifferentialequationisanyfunctionthatsatisfiesthedifferentialequationinthe
intervalspecified.
InitialConditionsarethosethatallowustodeterminewhichofapossiblesetofsolutionstoa
differentialequationweseek.Inessence,theseallowustodeterminethevalueofany
constantsthatturnupintheintegrationsrequiredtosolvethedifferentialequations.
AnInitialValueProblemisadifferentialequationwhosesolutiondependsontheinitial
conditionsprovided.
TheActualSolutiontoadifferentialequationisthespecificsolutionthatsatisfiesboththe
differentialequationandtheinitialconditions.
AnExplicitSolutionisasolutionthatcanbeexpressedintheform
AnImplicitSolutionisasolutionthatcannotbeexpressedintheform
Version 2.9
.
.
Page 101 of 199
November 26, 2016
Chapter10
SeparableFirstOrderODEs
MostofthedifferentiableequationsthatwillbeencounteredinfirstyearCalculuswillbe
separablefirstorderdifferentialequations.Typically,wewilluseAlgebratoidentify
and
togettheequationintotheform
Next,wetreat
and

asseparateentities,andconverttheequationtotheform:
Finally,weintegratebothsidestoobtainasolution:

Thefinalresultwillhavea term.Typically,youneedonlyone termsincethe

constantsfromeachintegralcanbesubtractedtogetasingleconstantterm.Often,thereisan
initialconditionprovidedwhichallowsustocalculatethevalueof .
Example1:Findtheexplicitactualsolutionto
Anexplicitsolutionisoneoftheform
solvedforanyconstantsthatpopup.
if 1, 0 isapointonthecurve.
.Anactualsolutionisoneinwhichwehave
Letsbeginbyseparatingthevariables.
Substituting 1, 0 for ,
gives 1
so,
2
2
ln 2
Notetheresultingdomainrestriction:
Version 2.9
2.
Page 102 of 199
November 26, 2016
Chapter10
Anexplicitsolutionisoneoftheform
solvedforanyconstantsthatpopup.
.Anactualsolutionisoneinwhichwehave
Letsbeginbyseparatingthevariables.Notethatsincethereisan inthenumerator,wedonot
needtouseinversetrigfunctions.
1
2
25and
1
2
2
1
2
Then,substituting 25, 5 for
gives:5
25
so,
Analternativewaytodevelopasolution,involving moredirectly,wouldbetoreplacethe
threelinesimmediatelyabovewiththese:
Then,substituting 4, 5 for ,
gives:5
25
so,
Version 2.9
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November 26, 2016
Chapter10
SlopeFields
ASlopeField(alsocalledaDirectionField)isagraphicalrepresentationoftheslopesofacurve
atvariouspointsthataredefinedbyadifferentialequation.Eachpositioninthegraph(i.e.,
eachpoint , )isrepresentedbyalinesegmentindicatingtheslopeofthecurveatthat
point.
Example3:
Example4:
Ifyouknowapointonacurveandifyouhaveitscorrespondingslopefielddiagram,youcan
plotyourpointandthenfollowtheslopelinestodeterminethecurve.
SlopeFieldfor:
1
2
1
2
SlopeFieldgenerator
availableat:
http://www.mathscoop.com
/calculus/differential
equations/slopefield
generator.php
Substituting 1, 2 for ,
gives:
Finally,notingthat 1, 2 isasolution,wecannarrowthesolutiondownto:

Version 2.9
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November 26, 2016
Chapter10
Logistic Function
ALogisticFunctiondescribesthegrowthofa
populationovertime.Earlyinitsgrowthphase,the
modeldescribesnearexponentialpopulationgrowth.
Asthepopulationgrowslarger,iteventuallyfaces
limitsthatreduceitsgrowthrate.Lateinitsgrowth
phase,apopulationapproachesamaximumvalue,
calledthecarryingcapacity.
TwoformsoftheLogisticFunctionforapopulation
,overtime,arecommon:

or
or
Thesymbolsintheseequationshavethefollowingmeanings:
isthepopulationattime .
isthecarryingcapacityofthepopulation.Itisthemaximumpopulationsustainable
inthesystem
0 istheinitialpopulation.
istherateofgrowthofthepopulation,andiscalledthegrowthparameter.
isthevariablefortime.
ThedifferentialequationthatleadstotheLogisticFunctionis:
1
CharacteristicsoftheLogisticFunction
0forall
lim

hasaninflectionpointat
ln
1 ,when
maximumrateofgrowthforthepopulationoccurswhen
Version 2.9
.Therefore,the
.
Page 105 of 199
November 26, 2016
Chapter10
Numerical Methods
Ifweknowapointonacurveandtheslopeofthecurveateachpoint,butdonotknowthe
equationofthecurve,itispossibletoestimatethevalueofanotherpointonthesamecurve
usingnumericalmethods.Severalofthesenumericalmethodsarepresentedbelow.
EulersMethod
EulersMethodestimatesthelocationofthenewpointbasedonthepositionofthefirstpoint
andtheslopeofthecurveatintervalsbetweenthetwopoints.Anynumberofintervals, ,can
beused.Eachintervaliscalledatimestep.Theformulasinvolvedareasfollows.
Let:
betheinitial(known)point.
betheintermediatepoints,for
bethedesiredpoint.Notethat isthenumberoftimestepsand
1, 2, .
bethedistancebetweensuccessive values.Thatis,
Then,EulersMethodestimateseach
,
,usingtheformulas:
basedon

Example:Let
isknown.
andtheslopeofthefunctionat

.Estimate 2 using4timestepsifweknow 1, 2 isa
pointonthecurve.
Westartatpoint
1,2 ,usingatimestepof
0.25.Thefollowingtable
showstheiterationsrequiredtoestimate 2 .Valuesinthetableareroundedto2decimals
fordisplay,buttheexactvaluesareusedinallcalculations.
0
1
2
3
4
1.00
1.25
1.50
1.75
2.00
2.00
2.75
3.81
5.34
7.58
2
2
2
2
2.00
2.75
3.81
5.34
1.00
1.25
1.50
1.75
3.00
4.25
6.13
8.94
2.00
2.75
3.81
5.34
3.00
4.25
6.13
8.94
0.25
0.25
0.25
0.25
2.75
3.81
5.34
7.58
SinceitisnaturaltodevelopEulersMethodintableform,itis
relativelyeasytoadaptittoaspreadsheetprogramsuchas
MicrosoftExcel.
Aplotofsuccessivevaluesof
Version 2.9
isshowninthegraphatright.
Page 106 of 199
November 26, 2016
Chapter10
ModifiedEulersMethod
TheModifiedEulersMethodislikeEulersMethod,butdevelopstheslopeateachpointasthe
averageoftheslopesatthebeginningandendofeachinterval.Usingthesamenotationason
thepreviouspage,theModifiedEulersMethodusesatwostepformula:

Predictorstep:
Correctorstep:
Inthecorrectorstep,theestimateof
predictorstep.
2
Example:Let
isbasedonthevalueof
generatedinthe
pointonthecurve.
Westartatpoint
1,2 ,usingatimestepof
0.25.Thefollowingtable
showstheiterationsrequiredtoestimate 2 .Valuesinthetableareroundedto2decimals
fordisplay,buttheexactvaluesareusedinallcalculations.
0
1
2
3
4
or
1.00 2.00
2 2.00
1.00
Corrector 2 2.75
1.25
1.25 2.91
2 2.91
1.25
Corrector 2 4.05
1.50
1.50 4.30
2 4.30
1.50
Corrector 2 6.08
1.75
1.75 6.49
2 6.49
1.75
Corrector 2 9.30
2.00
2.00 9.97
Aplotofsuccessivevaluesof
3.00
4.25
4.56
6.59
7.10
10.40
11.23
16.59
2.00
2.00
3.00
2.91
2.91
4.56
4.30
4.30
7.10
6.49
6.49
11.23
3.00 0.25
2.75
4.25 /2 0.25
2.91
4.56 0.25
4.05
6.59 /2 0.25
4.30
7.10 0.25
6.08
10.40 /2 0.25
6.49
11.23 0.25
9.30
16.59 /2 0.25
9.97
isshowninthegraphatright.
TheModifiedEulersMethodismorecomplexthanEulersMethod,butit
tendstobemoreaccuratebecauseitusesabetterestimateoftheslope
ineachinterval.Thoughcomplex,thismethodisalsorelativelyeasyto
adapttoaspreadsheetprogramsuchasMicrosoftExcel.
Order:Anumericalmethodissaidtobeof order ifitproducesexactresultsforpolynomialsof
degree orless.Eulersmethodisoforder1.ModifiedEulersMethodisoforder2.The
RungeKuttaMethod,describedonthenextpage,isoforder4.
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Chapter10
RungeKuttaMethod
RungeKuttaMethodanorder4numericalmethodforestimatingpointsonacurveusingan
initialpointandslopesofthecurveatvariouslocations.Usingsimilarnotationtothatonthe
previouspages,theRungeKuttaMethodusesthefollowingformulas:
1
6
wherethefollowing valuesareweightedtogethertoobtainincremental
valuesof .
isthederivativeofthefunctionat ,i.e.,
Note:Since
valueshavea
specificmeaning
inthismethod,
wehave
switchedour
indexvariable
from to .
Notethattheslope,
, ,usedindefiningeachsuccessive valuebuildsontheslope
determinedintheprevious value.
2
Example:Let
pointonthecurve.
,
TimeStep1:Onceagain,westartatpoint
showthecalculationof 1.25 :
1, 2
,
0.25
1
,
2
1
2
1
,
2
1
2
1,2 ,and
1, 2
0.25 2 2
0.25
0.25
2
Version 2.9
1.125
0.25 2 2.453125
0.25
0.90625
1.125, 2.453125
1.125
0.9453125
1.25, 2.9453125
0.25 2 2.9453125
1.25
0.75
1.125, 2.375
0.25 2 2.375

0.25.Thefollowingsteps
1
2
2
6
1
0.75 2 0.90625
6
1.25
1.16015625
2 0.9453125
Page 108 of 199
1.16015625
November 26, 2016
Chapter10
TimeSteps2to4:Performingthesamesetofcalculationsforthreemorestepsgivesthe
followingvalues,allroundedtotwodecimals:
1.50
4.40
1.75
6.72
2.00
10.48
Toninedecimalplaces,with4timesteps,ourcalculatedvalueof 2.00 is10.479962905.

Changingthenumberoftimestepsproducestheresultsinthefollowingtable.
Numberof
TimeSteps
4
10
20
50
100
200
500
Actual
Valueof
2.00
10.479962905
10.486111552
10.486305959
10.486319742
10.486320099
10.486320122
10.486320124
10.486320124
Noticehowtheincreasingthenumber
oftimestepsinthecalculation
improvestheaccuracyoftheresults.
With500timestepstheresultis
accurateto9decimalplaces.
Insummary,letscomparetheresultsunderthethreemethodsabovetothetruevaluesforthe
functiondefinedbyourconditions:
Estimatesof atEachTimeStepUnderFourNumericalMethods
Time
Step
value
Eulers
Method
1
2
3
4
1.25
1.50
1.75
2.00
2.75
3.8125
5.34375
7.578125
Modified
Eulers
Method
2.90625
4.30078125
6.488769531
9.966125488
Runge
Kutta
(4steps)
2.935546875
4.396682739
6.724219203
10.479962905
Actual
Value
2.935901588
4.397852286
6.727111338
10.486320124
Clearly,thehighertheorder,themoreaccuratetheestimateswereforthefunctiondefinedinthe
example.Thiswilltendtobetrue,butwillnotbetrueineverycase.Increasingthenumberofsteps,
andcorrespondinglydecreasingthevalueof ,willalsotendtoincreasetheaccuracyoftheestimates.
EventhoughthereareasignificantnumberofstepsandcalculationsinvolvedindevelopingRungeKutta
estimates,theiraccuracymaywarranttheeffort,especiallyifaspreadsheetproramisreadilyavailable
tothestudent.
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Chapter11
VectorCalculus
Vectors
Avectorisaquantitythathasbothmagnitudeanddirection.Anexamplewouldbewind
blowingtowardtheeastat30milesperhour.Anotherexamplewouldbetheforceof10kg
weightbeingpulledtowardtheearth(aforceyoucanfeelifyouareholdingtheweight).
SpecialUnitVectors
Wedefineunitvectorstobevectorsoflength1.Unitvectorshavingthedirectionofthe
positiveaxeswillbequiteusefultous.Theyaredescribedinthechartandgraphicbelow.
UnitVector
Direction
positive axis
positive axis
positive axis
Graphical
representationof
unitvectors andj
intwodimensions.
VectorComponents
Thelengthofavector, ,iscalleditsmagnitudeandisrepresentedbythesymbol .Ifa
vectorsinitialpoint(startingposition)is , , ,anditsterminalpoint(endingposition)is
, , ,thenthevectordisplaces
inthe direction,
inthe
direction,and
inthe direction.Wecan,then,representthevectorasfollows:
Themagnitudeofthevector, ,iscalculatedas:

Ifthislooksfamiliar,itshould.Themagnitudeofavectorinthree
dimesnsionsisdeterminedasthelengthofthespacediagonalofa
rectangularprismwithsides , and .
Intwodimensions,theseconceptscontracttothefollowing:

Intwodimensions,themagnitudeofthevectoristhelengthofthehypotenuseofaright
trianglewithsides and .
Version 2.9
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Chapter11
VectorCalculus
Vector Properties
Vectorshaveanumberofnicepropertiesthatmakeworkingwiththembothusefuland
relativelysimple.Let and bescalars,andletu,v andwbevectors.Then,
If
cos
Then,
inForcecalculations)
If
and
If
,then
Define tobethezerovector(i.e.,ithaszerolength,sothat
zerovectorisalsocalledthenullvector.
cos and
,then
sin
sin
(note:thisformulaisused
,then
0).Note:the
, .Thisnotationis
Note:
canalsobeshownwiththefollowingnotation:
usefulincalculatingdotproductsandperformingoperationswithvectors.
PropertiesofVectors
AssociativeProperty
DistributiveProperty
MultiplicativeIdentity
MagnitudeProperty
Unitvectorinthedirectionof
CommutativeProperty
AdditiveInverse
AssociativeProperty
AdditiveIdentity
Also,notethat:
Version 2.9
| |
Page 111 of 199
November 26, 2016
Chapter11
VectorCalculus
Vector Dot Product

TheDotProductoftwovectors,
follows:
and
,isdefinedas
Itisimportanttonotethatthedotproductisascalar,notavector.Itdescribessomething
abouttherelationshipbetweentwovectors,butisnotavectoritself.Ausefulapproachto
calculatingthedotproductoftwovectorsisillustratedhere:
,
alternative
vector
notation
Intheexampleatrightthevectorsarelinedupvertically.
Thenumbersintheeachcolumnaremultipliedandthe
resultsareaddedtogetthedotproduct.Intheexample,
4, 3, 2 2, 2, 5 8 6 10 24.
General
,

Example
4, 3, 2
2, 2, 5
10
24
PropertiesoftheDotProduct
Let beascalar,andletu,v andwbevectors.Then,
CommutativeProperty
MagnitudeSquareProperty
Moreproperties:
ZeroProperty
, and areorthogonaltoeachother.
MultiplicationbyaScalarProperty
If
Ifthereisascalar suchthat
If istheanglebetween and ,thencos
Version 2.9
0and
and
,then and areorthogonal(perpendicular).

,then and areparallel.
Page 112 of 199
November 26, 2016
Chapter11
VectorCalculus
Vector Cross Product

CrossProduct
Inthreedimensions,
u
Let:
and
Then,theCrossProductisgivenby:
x
u
v
sin
u
v
u
v
u v
u v
u v
u v
u v
u v
Thecrossproductoftwononzerovectorsinthreedimensionsproducesathirdvectorthatis
orthogonaltoeachofthefirsttwo.Thisresultingvector x is,therefore,normaltothe
planecontainingthefirsttwovectors(assuming and arenotparallel).Inthesecond
formulaabove, istheunitvectornormaltotheplanecontainingthefirsttwovectors.Its
orientation(direction)isdeterminedusingtherighthandrule.
RightHandRule
x
Usingyourrighthand:
Pointyourforefingerinthedirectionof ,and
Pointyourmiddlefingerinthedirectionof .
Then:
Yourthumbwillpointinthedirectionof x .
Intwodimensions,
Let:
Then, x
u and
u
v
u
v
v
u v
v
u v whichisascalar(intwodimensions).
Thecrossproductoftwononzerovectorsintwodimensionsiszeroifthevectorsareparallel.
Thatis,vectors and areparallelif x 0.
Theareaofaparallelogramhaving and asadjacentsidesandanglebetweenthem:
x
Version 2.9
sin .
Page 113 of 199
November 26, 2016
Chapter11
VectorCalculus
PropertiesoftheCrossProduct
Let beascalar,andletu,v andwbevectors.Then,
, x
, x
, x
, x
Reverseorientationorthogonality
Everynonzerovectorisparalleltoitself
AnticommutativeProperty
x m
If x
If istheanglebetween and ,then
,then and areparallel.
o x
o sin
Version 2.9
, and areorthogonaltoeachother
Moreproperties:
ZeroProperty
sin
Page 114 of 199
November 26, 2016
Chapter11
VectorCalculus
Vector Triple Products

ScalarTripleProduct
Let:
u u u .Thenthetripleproduct x
thevolumeofaparallelepipedwith , ,and asedges:
u
v
w
u
v
w
givesascalarrepresenting
u
v
w
OtherTripleProducts

x x
Duplicatingavectorresultsinaproductof
x x
Note:vectors , ,and arecoplanarifandonlyif
0.
NoAssociativeProperty
Theassociativepropertyofrealnumbersdoesnottranslatetotripleproducts.Inparticular,
x x
Noassociativepropertyofdotproducts/multiplication
x x Noassociativepropertyofcrossproducts
Version 2.9
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Chapter11
VectorCalculus
Gradient
ScalarFieldsandVectorFields
AScalarFieldinthreedimensionsprovidesavalueateachpointinspace.Forexample,wecan
measurethetemperatureateachpointwithinanobject.Thetemperaturecanbeexpressedas
, , .(note: istheGreekletterphi,correspondingtotheEnglishletter .)
AVectorFieldinthreedimensionsprovidesavectorateachpointinspace.Forexample,we
canmeasureamagneticfield(magnitudeanddirectionofthemagneticforce)ateachpointin
, , .Note
spacearoundachargedparticle.Themagneticfieldcanbeexpressedas
thatthehalfarrowsovertheletters and indicatethatthefunctiongeneratesavector
field.
DelOperator
Whenlookingascalarfielditisoftenusefultoknowtheratesofchange(i.e.,slopes)ateach
pointinthe , and directions.Toobtainthisinformation,weusetheDelOperator:

Gradient
TheGradientofascalarfield describestheratesofchangeinthe , and directionsat
eachpointinthefieldinvectorform.Therefore,thegradientgeneratesavectorfieldfromthe
pointsinthescalarfield.Thegradientisobtainedbyapplyingthedeloperatorto .

,
and
arecalleddirectionalderivativesofthescalarfield .
Example:
Suppose:
Then:
So,
, ,
sin
cos ,
cos
ln
and

;providingallthreedirectionalderivativesinasinglevector.
Overasetofpointsinspace,thisresultsinavectorfield.
Atpoint
Version 2.9
2, 0.5, 1 ,
cos 2
Page 116 of 199
0.416
2.718
November 26, 2016
Chapter11
VectorCalculus
Divergence
Divergence
TheDivergenceofavectorfielddescribestheflowofmaterial,likewaterorelectricalcharge,
awayfrom(ifpositive)orinto(ifnegative)eachpointinspace.Thedivergencemapsthevector
ateachpointinthematerialtoascalaratthatsamepoint(i.e.,thedotproductofthevectorin
anditsassociatedratesofchangeinthe , and directions),therebyproducingascalar
field.
Let
V whereV , V , V areeachfunctionsin , and .Then,
V
V
Pointsofpositivedivergencearereferredtoassources,whilepointsofnegativedivergenceare
referredtoassinks.Thedivergenceateachpointisthenetoutflowofmaterialatthatpoint,
sothatifthereisbothinflowandoutflowatapoint,theseflowsarenettedindeterminingthe
divergence(netoutflow)atthepoint.
Example:
Letsstartwiththevectorfieldcreatedbytakingthegradientof onthepriorpage.Let:
cos
Inthisexpression,noticethat:V

cos , V
V
,andV
sin
.Then:
1
Letsfindthevalueofthedivergenceatacoupleofpoints,andseewhatittellsus.
At
1, 1, 0 ,wehave:
sin
0.841.Thisvalueisgreater
thanzero,indicatingthat isasource,andthatthevector at producesanoutflow.

At
3, 1, 2 ,wehave:
sin 3
1.006.Thisvalueisless
thanzero,indicatingthat isasink,andthatthevector at producesaninflow.
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Chapter11
VectorCalculus
Curl
Curl
TheCurlofavectorfielddescribesthecirculationofmaterial,likewaterorelectricalcharge,
abouteachpointinthematerial.Thecurlmapsthevectorateachpointintheoriginalvector
fieldtoanothervector(i.e.,thecrossproductoftheoriginalvectoranditsassociatedratesof
changeinthe , and directions)atthatsamepoint,therebyproducinganewvectorfield.

x V
Thecurlgivesthedirectionoftheaxisofcirculationofmaterialatapoint .
Themagnitudeofthecurlgivesthestrengthofthecirculation.Ifthecurlata
pointisequaltothezerovector(i.e., ),itsmagnitudeiszeroandthematerial
issaidtobeirrotationalatthatpoint.
Example:
Weneedtouseamorecomplexvectorfieldforthecurltoproducemeaningfulresults.Let:

cos
Inthisexpression,noticethat:V

cos , V
,andV
.Then:

cos
Letsfindthevalueofthecurlatapoint,andseewhatittellsus.Let

0.25
cos
0.5
2 cos
1 ~
cos
1, 1, 2 .Then,
15.0
14.2
0.6
Thecirculation,then,atPointPisaroundanaxisinthedirectionof: 15.0
14.2
0.6
Thestrengthofthecirculationisgivenbythemagnitudeofthecurl:
Version 2.9
15.0
14.2
0.6
Page 118 of 199
20.7
November 26, 2016
Chapter11
VectorCalculus
Laplacian
Laplacian
TheLaplacianOperatorissimilartotheDelOperator,butinvolvessecondpartialderivatives.

TheLaplacianofascalarfield isthedivergenceofthegradientofthefield.Itisused
extensivelyinthesciences.

Example:
Forthescalarfield
, ,
sin
ln
,wealreadycalculatedtheLaplacianinthe
examplefordivergenceabove(butwedidnotcallitthat).ItisrepeatedherewithLaplacian
notationforeaseofreference.
Gradient:

Forthescalarfielddefinedabove:
So,
cos
cos ,
and
Laplacian(DivergenceoftheGradient):

sin
LetsthenfindthevalueoftheLaplacianatacoupleofpoints.
At
1, 1, 0 ,wehave:
sin
At
3, 1, 2 ,wehave:
sin 3
0.841.
1.006.
Version 2.9
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Chapter12
Sequences
Sequences
Definitions
ASequenceisanorderedsetofnumbers.
ATermisanelementinthesetoforderednumbers.
AnInfiniteSequencehasnoend.AFiniteSequencehasafinalterm.
AnExplicitSequenceisonethatspecificallydefinesthetermsofthesequencebasedonthe
numberoftheterm.Byconvention,thenumberofthetermisusuallyexpressedinterms
ofthevariables or .Wetalkofthenthtermorthekthtermofthesequenceorseries.
ARecursiveSequencedefinesatermbasedononeormorepreviousterms.
TypesofSequences
Atermofasequenceisdenoted andanentiresequenceofterms
.Generally(unless
otherwisespecified),
1 forthefirsttermofasequence,
2forthesecondterm,etc.
ExplicitSequence:termsofthesequence
aredefinedbyaformula.
Examples:
2
2 4 6 8
, , , ,
1
2 3 4 5
1
1 1 1
1, , , ,
2 3 4
3 3 3 3
1
, , , ,
3
2 4 8 16
2
1 1, 1, 1, 1,
1 1
1
1
1,
, , 0,
, 0, , note: the first term of this sequence is
2 6
30 42
RecursiveSequence:eachtermisdefinedintermsofpreviousterms.
Examples:

1
3,
1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13,
3, 1, 2, 1, 3, 4, 7,
Version 2.9
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Chapter12
Sequences
More Definitions for Sequences

MonotonicSequence:Asequenceismonotonicifitstermsare:
Nonincreasing(i.e.,
),or
Nondecreasing(i.e.,
).
Notethatsuccessivetermsmaybeequal,aslongastheydonotturnaroundandhead
backinthedirectionfromwhencetheycame.
Often,youcandeterminewhetherasequenceismonotonicbygraphingitsterms.
BoundedSequence:Asequenceisboundedifitisboundedfromaboveandbelow.
Asequenceisboundedfromaboveifthereisanumber suchthat
leastupperboundiscalledtheSupremum.
.The
Asequenceisboundedfrombelowifthereisanumber suchthat
greatestlowerboundiscalledtheInfimum.
.The
Theorems about Sequences

Considerthesequences
and
.Thefollowingtheoremsapply:
SqueezeTheorem:

If
some and lim
lim
, then lim
AbsoluteValueTheorem:
|
If lim

0 , then lim

0.
BoundedMonotonicSequenceTheorem:
Ifasequenceisboundedandmonotonic,thenitconverges.
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Chapter12
Sequences
LimitofaSequence
: lim
.Thelimit existsifwecanmake
making sufficientlylarge.
Convergence:Ifthelimitoftheterms
convergent.
Divergence:Ifthelimitoftheterms
divergent.
Limitsaredeterminedintheusualmanner.
Usualpropertiesoflimitsarepreservedinsequences(e.g.,addition,scalar
multiplication,multiplication,divisionoflimits).
ascloseto aswelikeby
exists,thesequenceissaidtobe
doesnotexist,thesequenceissaidtobe

MuchmoreaboutlimitsispresentedinChapter1.
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Chapter13
Series
Series
Introduction
ASeriesisanorderedsummationofasequence.If
associatedinfiniteseries(orsimplyseries)is:
isaninfinitesequence,thenthe

ThePartialSumcontainingthefirstntermsof
is:
Asequenceofpartialsumscanbeformedasfollows:
,
Notethefollowingabouttheseformulas:
ThesymbolSisthecapitalGreeklettersigma,whichtranslatesintoEnglishas ,
appropriatefortheoperationofSummation.
Theletter isusedasanindexvariableinbothformulas.Theinitial(minimum)value
of isshownbelowthesummationsignandtheterminal(maximum)valueof is
shownabovethesummationsign.Lettersotherthan maybeused; , ,and are
common.
Whenevaluatingaseries,makesureyoureviewtheinitialandterminalvaluesofthe
indexvariable.Manymistakesaremadebyassumingvaluesfortheseinsteadofusing
theactualvaluesintheproblem.
Thesubscript in (inthepartialsumformula)indicatesthatthesummationis
performedonlythroughterm .Thisistruewhethertheformulastartsat
0,
1,orsomeothervalueof ,thoughalternativenotationsmaybeusedifproperly
identified.
Ifthesequenceofpartialsums
convergesto ,theseriesconverges.Not
surprisingly, iscalledthesumoftheseries.
Ifthesequenceofpartialsums
Version 2.9
diverges,theseriesdiverges.
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November 26, 2016
Chapter13
Series
KeyPropertiesofSeries(thesealsoholdforpartialsums)
Scalarmultiplication
Sumanddifferenceformulas
Multiplication
Inordertomultiplyseries,youmustmultiplyeveryterminoneseriesbyeveryterminthe
otherseries.Althoughthismayseemdaunting,therearetimeswhentheproductsofonly
certaintermsareofinterestandwefindthatmultiplicationofseriescanbeveryuseful.
thTermConvergenceTheorems
If
converges, then lim

If lim

0, then
0.
diverges.
PowerSeries
APowerSeriesisaninfiniteseriesinwhicheachtermisexpressedastheproductofaconstant
andapowerofabinomialterm.Generally,apowerseriesiscenteredaboutaparticularvalue
of ,whichwewillcall inthefollowingexpression:

ExamplesofpowerseriesaretheTaylorandMaclaurinseriescoveredinChapter14.
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Chapter13
Series
TelescopingSeries
ATelescopingSeriesisonewhosetermspartiallycancel,leavingonlyalimitednumberof
termsinthepartialsums.Thegeneralformofatelescopingseries,anditssumareis:
lim

Convergence:Atelescopingserieswillconvergeifandonlyifthelimitingtermoftheseries,
lim
,isafinitevalue.

Caution:Telescopingseriesmaybedeceptive.Alwaystakecarewiththemandmakesureyou
performtheappropriateconvergencetestsbeforeconcludingthattheseriessumstoa
particularvalue.
Example:

1
1
Noticetheusefulnessofthe
telescopingapproachinthecase
ofarationalfunctionthatcanbe
expressedaspartialfractions.
Thisapproachwillnotworkfor
somerationalfunctions,butnot
allofthem.
ThePartialSumsforthisexampleare:
1
1

2
1
2
1
2
1
3
1

3
1
2
1
2
1
3
1
3
1
4
1
2
1
2
1
3
1
3
1
4
1

4
...
1
1
1
1
1
Then,
1
Version 2.9
lim

1
1
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Chapter13
Series
GeometricSeries
AGeometricSerieshastheform:
If | |
1,thentheseriesconvergesto:
1
If | |
1,thentheseriesdiverges.
PartialSums
Partialsumshavetheform:
...
1
1
Example:

0.9

10
0.9
1
0.9
10
0.9
100
Inthisgeometricseries,wehave
0.9
1

10
0.9

1
1
10
Thisproves,therefore,that0.9999
0.9
1000
0.9and
0.9999
.Thereforetheseriesconvergesto:
1
1.
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Chapter13
Series
Riemann Zeta Functions ( Series)

Definition
TheRiemannZetaFunctionisdefinedbytheequivalentintegralandsummationforms:

Thesummationformofthefunctionisoftencalleda series(and replaces intheformula).

Zetafunctionsaregenerallydifficulttoevaluatefrombasicprinciples.Anexampleofhowone
oftheworldsgreatestmathematiciansevaluated
in1735isprovidedlaterinthischapter.
PositiveEvenIntegers
Valuesof
forpositiveevenintegervaluesof inclosedform(asrationalexpressions
involving)havebeencalculatedbymathematicians.Theformulafortheseis:
|
where isthe thBernoulliNumber.

!
Thedecimalapproximationsbelowweredevelopedfromupto14millionterms
ofthe seriesusingtheAlgebraAppavailableatwww.mathguy.us.
Somevaluesof
2
forpositiveevenintegervaluesof are:
1.644933966 8
1.082323233 10
1.017343061 12
1.004077356

1.000994575
1.000246086
PositiveOddIntegers
Valuesof
forpositiveoddintegervaluesof donothaveageneral
formula,butcanbeapproximated.
1 diverges
1.008349277
1.202056903
1.002008392
1.036927755
11
Version 2.9
Page 127 of 199
1
1
6
0
30
0
1
42
0
1
30
0
5
66
0
691
2730
1.000494188
November 26, 2016
Chapter13
Series
Eulers Development of the Value of
Definition
2.A Seriesisdefinedas:
Thisisalsoa serieswith
1anddivergefor
seriesconvergefor
1.
Eulersdevelopmentgivesusaglimpseoftheextentofhisgenius.Seeifyouagree.
EulersDevelopment
1. BeginwiththeMaclaurinExpansionfor:sin .
sin
3!
5!
7!
9!
2. Weknowthatwecanfitacurveofdegree throughanysetof
1points.Euler
proposedthatweconsiderthesinefunctiontobeapolynomialofinfinitedegreethatgoes
throughtheinfinitenumberofpointsofthefunction.
Further,henotedthatthezerosofthepolynomialarethezerosofthesinefunction,i.e.,
0,
, 2 , 3 , 4 .So,thepolynomialforsin isaninfiniteproductthatlookslike
thefollowing,where issomeconstant:
sin
16
3. Divideeachtermontherightbyafactorthatresultsin1sbeforethe sineachterm.
Changetheleadconstanttoreflectthis.Letscallthenewleadconstant .
sin
Version 2.9
4
1
9
9
16
16
16
Page 128 of 199
November 26, 2016
Chapter13
Series
4. Determinethevalueof bydividingeachsideby andevaluatingtheresultat

lim

sin
16
lim

UseLHospitalsRuleontheleftsidetodeterminethatlim

1 1 1
1.Then,
1.
so,
1.
5. RewritethepolynomialinStep3with
sin
0.
6. Letsexaminethecoefficientof
16
intheequationinStep5.
Thecoefficientofthe terminthisproductisobtainedbymultiplying bythe partof

oneoftheothertermsand1sintherestoftheotherterms.Wesumtheresultofthis
acrossallofthemultipliedtermstogetthefollowing termfortheequationinStep5:
1
4
1
9
1
16
7. The terminStep1mustbeequaltothe terminStep6,sincebothrepresentthe

terminanexpansionforsin .Equatingthetwocoefficientsof gives:
1

3!
1
4
1
9
1
16
8. MultiplybothsidesoftheresultinStep7by

6
1
1
1
4
1
9
1
16
toget:
So,

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Chapter13
Series
Alternating Series
ThegeneralformforanAlternatingSeriesthatincludesanerrortermis:
1
Theorem:Ifthesequence,
,ispositiveandnonincreasing,and lim
Then:
isthentherrorterm,then:|
If
0,
converges,and
|
ErrorTerm
1
Themaximumerrorinaconvergingalternatingseriesafter termsisterm
this,wecanestimatethevalueofaseriestoadesiredlevelofaccuracy.
1
6
Example:Approximatethefollowingsumto4decimalplaces:
Weneedtofindterm
.Using
1toestimatetheerror.Fortheseriesprovided,thistermis
1 termsimplyindicatesthedirectionoftheerror.Themagnitudeoftheerroristhe
The
balanceoftheerrorterm,i.e.,
Inordertofindanapproximationoftheseriesto4decimalplaces,weneedanerrorlessthan
0.00005.So,wewant:
1
6
0.00005
Wecansolvethisusinglogarithmsorbytakingsuccessivepowersof .Eitherway,wefind:
0.00005and ~ 0.0000214
~ 0.0001286
0.00005,so
6,and
5.
Using5termsofthealternatingseries,wefindthatthevalueofthesumto4decimalplacesis:
1
6
1
6
1
36
1
216
1
1296
1
7776
Theactualvalueoftheseriesis ~ 0.1428571,sowecanseethatthedesiredlevelof
accuracyhasbeenachieved.
Version 2.9
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Chapter13
Series
Series Convergence Tests

IntegralTest
Let beapositiveseries,and
let
beacontinuouspositivedecreasingfunctionon 1, suchthat
every
0.Then,
converges if and only if
for
converges
Iftheseriesconverges,
havedifferentvalues.
.Thatis,thesumoftheseriesandtheintegralwill
ComparisonTest
Let
and
,then:
bepositiveseries.Ifthereisanindex ,beyondwhich
If
converges,sodoes
If
diverges,sodoes
forevery
.
.
LimitComparisonTest
Let
and
bepositiveseriessuchthat0
convergesifandonlyif
divergesifandonlyif
lim

.Then:
converges.
diverges.
AbsoluteandConditionalConvergence
isabsolutelyconvergentif |
isconditionallyconvergentifitisconvergentbutnotabsolutelyconvergent.
| isconvergent.
TermRearrangement
Ifaninfiniteseriesisabsolutelyconvergent,thetermscanberearrangedwithout
affectingtheresultingsum.
Ifaninfiniteseriesisconditionallyconvergent,arearrangementofthetermsmayaffect
theresultingsum.
Version 2.9
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Chapter13
Series
RatioTest
Let
beaseries.Then:
If lim
1, then:
is absolutely convergent.
If lim
1, then:
is divergent.
If lim
1, then no conclusion about convergence or divergence can be drawn.
Example:
Determinewhetherthefollowingseriesconvergesordiverges:
1
Ratio
1 !
1 !
1
1
1 !
Then,
lim 1
Since
,theseriesdiverges.
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Chapter13
Series
RootTest
Let
beaseries.Then:
If lim
| |
1, then:
is absolutely convergent.
If lim
| |
1, then:
is divergent.
If lim
| |
1, then no conclusion about convergence or divergence can be drawn.
Example:
2
3
Determinewhetherthefollowingseriesconvergesordiverges:
Root
2
3
3
2
2
3
3
2
2

3
3

2
2
3
3
2
3
2
Then,
lim
Since
,theseriesconverges.
Version 2.9
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Chapter13
Series
Radius and Interval of Convergence of Power Series

ConsiderthePowerSeries:

Definitions:
Center:Thevalue iscalledthecenterofthepowerseries.Manypowerserieshavea
centerof
0.
Coefficients:Thevalues
RadiusofConvergence:Theseriesmayconvergeforcertainvaluesof anddivergefor
othervaluesof .Iftheseriesconvergesforallvaluesof withinacertaindistance, ,
from ,i.e.,for ontheinterval
,
,wecall theradiusofconvergenceof
theseries.
IntervalofConvergence:Thesetofallvaluesof forwhichthepowerseriesconverges
iscalledtheintervalofconvergenceoftheseries.Theintervalofconvergenceisclosely
relatedtotheradiusofconvergence;itincludestheinterval
,
,andmay
alsoincludeoneorbothendpointsofthatinterval.
arecalledthecoefficientsofthepowerseries.
FindingtheRadiusandIntervalofConvergence
TheradiusofconvergenceisfoundusingtheRatioTest.Tofindtheintervalofconvergence,
theseriesdefinedateachendpointoftheintervalmustbetestedseparately.
Example:Considerthepowerseries:
UsingtheRatioTest,wefind:
lim
lim | |
lim
1 intheopeninterval:
1, 1 .
1.
So,thisserieshasaradiusofconvergence:
Tofindtheintervalofconvergenceoftheseries,wemusttesttheendpoints,i.e.,
When
When
1,weget
1,weget
1
1
Theintervalofconvergence,then,is
Version 2.9
1
1
1
1
1.
,whichdiverges.
1
,whichalsodiverges.
1, 1 .Itdoesnotincludeeitherendpoint.
Page 134 of 199
November 26, 2016
Chapter13
Series
Differentiating or Integrating Power Series

WhendifferentiatingorintegratingaPowerSeries,wedifferentiateorintegratetermbyterm.
Example:Integratethepowerseries:
1
1
1
1
2
1
3
1
4
Theresultoftheintegrationturnsouttobethepowerseriesforln 1
whichwewouldexpecttobethecasebecause:
1
1
ln 1
,plusaconstant,
Theorem:DifferentiationofaPowerSeries
Ifafunction isdefinedbyapowerserieswithradiusofconvergence ,then:
isdifferentiableontheopenintervaldefinedby .
isfoundbytermbytermdifferentiationofthepowerseriesfor .
Theresultingpowerseriesfor alsohasradiusofconvergence .
Theintervalofconvergenceof maybethesameasthatfor ,oritmayloseeitheror
bothendpoints.
Theorem:IntegrationofaPowerSeries
Ifafunction isdefinedbyapowerserieswithradiusofconvergence ,then:
isfoundbytermbytermintegrationofthepowerseriesfor .
Theresultingpowerseriesfor alsohasradiusofconvergence .
Theintervalofconvergenceof maybethesameasthatfor ,oritmaygaineitheror
bothendpoints.
Differentiation:
Integration:
Termbytermdifferentiation.
HassameRatioofConvergence.
Relative
to
Termbytermintegration.
HassameRatioofConvergence.
IntervalofConvergencemaygain
oneorbothendpoints.
IntervalofConvergencemaylose
oneorbothendpoints.
Version 2.9
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November 26, 2016
Chapter13
Series
Example:TheMaclaurinSeriesfor
1
is:
Asshownonapreviouspage,itsintervalofconvergenceis
1, 1 .
Integratingtermbytermweget:
1
ln 1
Forthenewseries,ln 1
,notethat
convergesordivergesatanypoint.Then,
hasnoimpactonwhethertheseries
UsingtheRatioTest,wefind:
lim
lim
interval:
lim
lim | |
1 intheopen
1, 1 .
1.
So,thisseriesalsohasaradiusofconvergence
Tofindtheintervalofconvergenceoftheseries,wemusttesttheendpoints,i.e.,
When
1,wegetln 2
1.
,whichconvergesbythealternating
seriestest.
When
1,wegetln 0
,whichdiverges(itisthenegative
harmonicseries,andln 0isundefined).
Theintervalofconvergence,then,is
1, 1 .Itincludestherightendpoint.
Conclusion:Inthecaseofthisexample,theintervalofconvergenceoftheintegratedseries
picksuptheendpointat
1.
Version 2.9
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Chapter13
Series
Summary of Tests for Series

Test
lim
thterm(testsfor
divergenceonly)
SpecialSeries
lim

| |
Series
Integral ispositive,
continuous,and
decreasing
Comparison
0,
0)
(
LimitComparison
(
0,
0)
| |
lim

converges(2)
lim
diverges
0
lim
lim

Root
(absolute
convergence)
lim
diverges
(absolute
convergence)
lim

Coulduse lim
insteadof lim

intheconditions.
lim

1.
Useanothertest.
Testinconclusiveif:
lim

(2)Iftheseriesconverges,
Page 137 of 199
Comparisonof
and needonly
existfor beyond
someindex .
Testinconclusiveif:
Ratio
Version 2.9
converges
Remainder:
diverges
Remainder:
| |
converges
Notes:(1)Riemannzetafunction.
lim

lim

Thistestshould
alwaysbe
performedfirst.
notfinite
lim

isfinite
Comments
lim

required,butnot
sufficient
Geometric
Series(
0)
Conditionsfor
Divergence
Telescoping
Series
AlternatingSeries
Conditionsfor
Convergence
SeriesForm
lim

1.
Useanothertest.
.
November 26, 2016
Chapter14
TaylorandMaclaurinSeries
Taylor and Maclaurin Series

TaylorSeries
ATaylorseriesisanexpansionofafunctionaroundagivenvalueof .Generally,ithasthe
followingformaroundthepoint
:
2!
3!
MaclaurinSeries
AMaclaurinseriesisaTaylorSeriesaroundthevalue
form:
0
!
0
2!
0.Generally,ithasthefollowing
0
3!
Example :
:
FindtheMaclaurinexpansionfor
0
. . .

SubstitutingthesevaluesintotheMaclaurinexpansionformula(andrecallingthat 0!
get:
Version 2.9
2!
3!
4!
1)we
Page 138 of 199
November 26, 2016
Chapter14
Example :
ln 1
FindtheMaclaurinexpansionfor
ln 1
1
2
ln 1
6
1
:
0
1
1
0
1
0
1
1
2
1
0
6
1!
2!
6
3!
. . .
1 !
1
1
1 !
SubstitutingthesevaluesintotheMaclaurinexpansionformula,weget:
ln 1
1
2!
1 !
!
Version 2.9
2!
3!
3!
4!
Page 139 of 199
November 26, 2016
Chapter14
LaGrangeRemainder
TheformforaTaylorSeriesabout
thatincludesanerrortermis:
2!
Theterm
1 !
iscalledtheLagrangeRemainder,andhastheform:
where, producesthegreatestvalueof
between and .
Thisformistypicallyusedtoapproximatethevalueofaseriestoadesiredlevelofaccuracy.
Example:Approximate usingfivetermsoftheMaclaurinSeries(i.e.,theTaylorSeriesabout
0)for andestimatethemaximumerrorintheestimate.
Usingfivetermsandletting

2!
1
2
2!
1
2
~ 1
3!
,weget:
4!
1
2
3!
1
2
4!
1
2
1
8
1
48
1

384
Tofindthemaximumpotentialerrorinthisestimate,calculate:
and between0and .
for
,thefifthderivativeof is:
Since
0and
between
occursat
.Themaximumvalueofthis
.Then,
1.65basedonourestimateof1.6484375above(wewillcheckthis
aftercompletingourestimateofthemaximumerror).Combiningallofthis,
1

2
5!
1
2
1
2
1.65 1
5! 2
Notethatthemaximumvalueof ,then,is1.6484375
lessthanthe1.65usedincalculating
0.0004297
1.6488672,whichis
,soourestimateisgood.Theactualvalueof is
1.6487212 .
Version 2.9
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Chapter15
CoolStuff
Whatise?
Eulersnumber,eisthebaseofthenaturallogarithms.
eisatranscendentalnumber,meaningthatitisnottherootofanypolynomialwith
integercoefficients.
WhatMakesesoSpecial?
eshowsupoverandoverinmathematics,especiallyinregardtolimits,derivatives,and
integrals.Inparticular,itisnoteworthythat:
1
lim 1

lim

lim 1
Perhaps,mostinterestingly,thefollowingequation,calledEulersEquation,relatesfive
seeminglyunrelatedmathematicalconstantstoeachother.
SomeSeriesRepresentationsofe

1

!
1
!
1
2
1
6
1
24
1
120
Therearemanymoreseriesinvolvinge.
Asamplingoftheseisprovidedat:
1
1
1
2
1
6
1
24
1
120
http://mathworld.wolfram.com/e.html.
DecimalExpansion
2.718281828459045235360287471352662497757247093699959574966
Thewebsitehttp://antwrp.gsfc.nasa.gov/htmltest/gifcity/e.2milshowsthedecimalexpansion
ofetoover2milliondigits.
Version 2.9
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November 26, 2016
Chapter15
CoolStuff
Derivation of Eulers Formula by Integration
Startwith:
Then:
cos
sin
sin
cos
cos
sin
ln
Integrate:
[notethat 0, 1 isapointonthisfunction]
[notethat
0since 0, 1 isapointonthisfunction]
FinalResult:
VeryCoolSubCase
When
,Eulersequationbecomes:
or,
cos
sin
1
Notethatthiswillallowustocalculate
logarithmsofnegativenumbers.
Rewritingthisprovidesanequationthatrelatesfiveofthemostimportantmathematical
constantstoeachother:
Version 2.9
Page 142 of 199
November 26, 2016
Chapter15
CoolStuff
Derivation of Eulers Formula Using Power Series
APowerSeriesaboutzeroisaninfiniteseriesoftheform:
Manymathematicalfunctionscanbeexpressedaspowerseries.Ofparticularinterestin
derivingEulersIdentityarethefollowing:
1
2
sin
1 !
1
2
cos
2!
3!
3!
5!
7!
2!
4!
6!
4!
5!
6!
7!
Note,then,that:
i sin
1
2
1 !
1
2
cos
3!
2!
2!
3!
4!
5!
4!
5!
7!
6!
6!
7!
Noticethatwhenweaddthefirsttwoserieswegetthethird,sowehave:
Version 2.9
and, substituting
yields:
Page 143 of 199
November 26, 2016
Chapter15
CoolStuff
Logarithms of Negative Real Numbers and Complex Numbers
NaturalLogarithmofaNegativeRealNumber
FromEulersFormula,wehave:
1
Takingthenaturallogarithmofbothsidesgives:
ln
ln
1 which implies that
ln
Next,let beapositiverealnumber.Then:
ln
ln
ln
ln
Logarithm(AnyBase)ofaNegativeRealNumber
Tocalculatelog
,usethechangeofbaseformula:log
Letthenewbasebe toget:log
LogarithmofaComplexNumber(PrincipalValue)
Define
inpolarformas:
magnitude)of and
tan
isthemodulus(i.e.,
,where
istheargument(i.e.,angle),inradians,ofcomplexnumber
.Then,
and
Version 2.9
where,
Page 144 of 199
November 26, 2016
Chapter15
CoolStuff
What Is ( to the power of )
Startwith:
Then:
(EulersFormulaspecialcase)
Calculate
toobtain:
Soweseethatitispossibletotakeanimaginarynumbertoanimaginarypowerandreturntotherealm
ofrealnumbers.
Version 2.9
Page 145 of 199
November 26, 2016
Chapter15
CoolStuff
Derivative of e to a Complex Power ( )

Startwith:
cos
sin
cos
Then:
sin
CauchyRiemannEquations
Acomplexfunction,
,
,
thefunctions and aredifferentiableand:
,isdifferentiableatpoint
and
ifandonlyif
ThesearecalledtheCauchyRiemannEquationsforthefunctions and :
and
in Cartesian form
and
in Polar form
Derivativeof
,
Foradifferentiablecomplexfunction,
Then,let
cos
cos and
cos
So,
Version 2.9
sin
:
sin
sin
cos
sin
.Cool,huh?
Page 146 of 199
November 26, 2016
Chapter15
CoolStuff
Derivatives of a Circle
ThegeneralequationofacirclecenteredattheOriginis:
ofthecircle.
, where istheradius
FirstDerivative
Notethat isaconstant,soitsderivativeiszero.UsingImplicitDifferentiation(withrespect
to ),weget:
2
SecondDerivative
Wehaveacoupleofoptionsatthispoint.Wecoulddoimplicitdifferentiationon
2
0,butgiventhesimplicityof
,letsworkfromthere.
UsetheQuotientRule,simplifyandsubstitutein
intheexpression.
Noticethatthenumeratorisequaltothelefthandsideoftheequationofthecircle.Wecan
simplifytheexpressionforthesecondderivativebysubstituting for
toget:

Version 2.9
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Chapter15
CoolStuff
Derivatives of an Ellipse
ThegeneralequationofanellipsecenteredattheOriginis:
1,where isthe
radiusoftheellipseinthe directionand istheradiusoftheellipseinthe direction.
FirstDerivative
1whichcanalsobewritten
Notethat
isaconstant,soitsderivativeiszero.UsingImplicitDifferentiation(with
respectto ),weget:
2
SecondDerivative
Giventhesimplicityof
,letsworkfromtheretocalculate
intheexpression.
Noticethatthenumeratorinsidethebracketsisequaltothelefthandsideoftheequationof
theellipse.Wecansimplifythisexpressionbysubstituting
for
toget:

Version 2.9
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Chapter15
CoolStuff
Derivatives of a Hyperbola
Thegeneralequationofahyperbolawithaverticaltransverseaxis,centeredattheOriginis:
1,where
, 0 aretheverticesofthehyperbola.
FirstDerivative
1whichcanalsobewritten
Notethat
isaconstant,soitsderivativeiszero.UsingImplicitDifferentiation(with
respectto ),weget:
SecondDerivative
Giventhesimplicityof

,letsworkfromtheretocalculate
intheexpression.
Noticethatthenumeratorinsidethebracketsisequaltothelefthandsideoftheequationof
thehyperbola.Wecansimplifythisexpressionbysubstituting
for
toget:

Version 2.9
Page 149 of 199
November 26, 2016
Chapter15
CoolStuff
Derivative of:
Startingexpression:
Expandthecubicofthebinomial:
Subtract
frombothsides:
Dividebothsidesby3:
Investigatethisexpression:
Factorit:
Solutionsarethethreelines:
Notetheslopesoftheselines:
0,
0,
undefined, 0,
Obtainthederivative:
Startwith:
Implicitdifferentiation:
Rearrangeterms:
Solvefor :
Factoredform:
0
0
Considereachsolutionseparately:
0:
0:
undefined
0
Conclusion:
isanelegantwaytodescribethederivativeof withrespectto forthe
expression
(whichisnotafunction).However,itisnoteworthy,that
thisderivativecanonlytakeonthreepossiblevalues(ifweallowundefinedtocountasa
value)undefined,0and 1.
Version 2.9
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Chapter15
CoolStuff
Inflection Points of the PDF of the Normal Distribution

TheequationfortheProbabilityDensityFunction(PDF)oftheNormalDistributionis:

where and arethemeanandstandarddeviationofthedistribution.
1
1
1
0,andnotingthat
Setting
1
0Sothat:
0forallvaluesof ,weget:
.
Further,notingthatthevalueofthesecondderivativechangessignsateachofthesevalues,
weconcludethatinflectionpointsexistat
.
InEnglish,theinflectionpointsoftheProbabilityDensityFunctionoftheNormalDistribution
existatpointsonestandarddeviationaboveorbelowthemean.

Version 2.9
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November 26, 2016
Appendix A
Key Definitions in Calculus
AbsoluteMaximum
SeeentryonGlobalMaximum.Mayalsosimplybecalledthemaximum.
AbsoluteMinimum
SeeentryonGlobalMinimum.Mayalsosimplybecalledtheminimum.
Antiderivative
Alsocalledtheindefiniteintegralofafunction,
,anantiderivativeof
,suchthat
onanintervalof .
isafunction
Thegeneralantiderivativeof
istheantiderivativeexpressedasafunctionwhichincludes
theadditionofaconstant ,whichiscalledtheconstantofintegration.
2
Example:
isanantiderivativeof
because
isthegeneralantiderivativeof
forallvaluesof .
Notation:theantiderivativeofafunction,
,isexpressedas:
.
because
Version 2.9
Page 152 of 199
November 26, 2016
AppendixA
KeyDefinitions
AultTable
NamedforALainaAult,theMathDepartmentChairatDamonteRanchHighSchoolinReno,
Nevada,anAultTableisachartthatshowsthesignsandthebehaviorofafunctionandits
derivativesoverkeyintervalsoftheindependentvariable(usually or ).Itisveryusefulin
curvesketchingbecauseitmakestheprocessoffindingextremaandinflectionpointsrelatively
easy.ThestepstobuildinganAultTableare:
1. Calculatethefirstandsecondderivativesofthe
functionbeingconsidered.Additionalderivativesmay
betakenifneeded.
2. Findthezerosofeachderivative;theseformthe
intervalendpointsforthetable.Notethatthezerosof
thefirstderivativearecriticalvalues,representing
potentialmaximaandminima,andthezerosofthe
secondderivativearepotentialinflectionpoints.
3. Arrangethezerosofthefirsttwoderivativesin
numericalorder,andcreatemutuallyexclusiveopen
intervalswiththezerosasendpoints.Ifappropriate,
includeintervalsextendingto and/or.
4. Createasetofrowsasshowninthetablebelow.At
thispointtheboxesinthetablewillbeempty.
5. Determinethesignofeachderivativeineachinterval
andrecordthatinformationintheappropriatebox
usinga ora .
6. UsethesignsdeterminedinStep5toidentifyforeach
intervala)whetherthefunctionisincreasingor
decreasing(greeninthetablebelow),b)whetherthe
firstderivativeisincreasingordecreasing(redinthe
tablebelow),andc)whetherthefunctionisconcave
upordown(bottomredlineinthetablebelow).
AnAulttablefacilitatesthegraphing
ofafunctionliketheoneabove:
2 9
12 4
Fromtheinformationinthetable,youcandeterminethelocationofallextremaandinflection
pointsofthecurve.Youcanalsodeterminewherethespeedispositive;thesignsofboththe
firstandsecondderivativesarethesame.
Anexampleisprovidedonthenextpage:
Version 2.9
Page 153 of 199
November 26, 2016
AppendixA
KeyDefinitions
Example:developanAultTableforthefunction:s(t)=2t39t2+12t4
Firstfindthekeyfunctions:
2 9
18
|6
12 4
Positionfunction
12
Velocityfunction
18
12
12|
18
Speedfunction
Accelerationfunction
Next,findthefunctionscriticalvalues,inflectionpoints,andmaybeacouplemorepoints.
2 9
12 4
6 2
2 9
0 CriticalValuesof are:
CriticalPointsare: 1, 1 , 2, 0
0 InflectionPointat:
12 4
1, 2
1.5
5,justtogetanotherpointtoplot
Then,buildanAultTablewithintervalsseparatedbythekeyvalues:
1, 1.5, 2
Keyvaluesof thatdefinetheintervalsinthetableare
Note:Identifythesigns(i.e., , )first.Theworddescriptorsarebasedonthesigns.
, .
increasing
. ,
decreasing
decreasing
increasing
decreasing
increasing
increasing
concavedown
concaveup
concaveup
andis:
decreasing
concavedown
Results.Thisfunctionhas:
Amaximumat
1.
Aminimumat
2.
Aninflectionpointat
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AppendixA
KeyDefinitions
Concavity
Afunction, ,isconcaveupwardonanintervalif
ontheinterval,i.e.,if
0.
Afunction, ,isconcavedownwardonanintervalif
0.
decreasingontheinterval,i.e.,if
isincreasing
is
Concavitychangesatinflectionpoints,fromupwardtodownwardor
fromdownwardtoupward.
Continuity
Afunction, ,iscontinuousat
a.
isdefined,
b. lim
exists,and

c. lim
iff:
Basically,thefunctionvalueandlimitatapoint
mustbothexistandbeequaltoeachother.
Thecurveshowniscontinuouseverywhere
exceptattheholesandtheverticalasymptote.
CriticalNumbersorCriticalValues(andCriticalPoints)
Ifafunction, ,isdefinedatc,thenthecritical
numbers(alsocalledcriticalvalues)of are
valueswhere
0andwhere doesnot
exist(i.e., isnotdifferentiableat ).Thisincludes
valueswheretheslopeofthecurveishorizontal,
andwherecuspsanddiscontinuitiesexistinan
interval.
Thepointswherethecriticalnumbersexistare
calledcriticalpoints.Note:endpointsareexcluded
fromthisdefinition,butmustalsobetestedincaseswherethestudentseeksanabsolute(i.e.,
global)maximumorminimumofaninterval.
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AppendixA
KeyDefinitions
DecreasingFunction
Afunction, ,isdecreasingonanintervalifforanytwovaluesintheinterval, and ,with
,itistruethat
.
DegreeofaDifferentialEquation
Thedegreeofadifferentialequationisthepowerofthehighestderivativeterminthe
equation.Contrastthiswiththeorderofadifferentialequation.
Examples:
Version 2.9
Degree
Degree
Degree
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AppendixA
KeyDefinitions
Derivative
Themeasureoftheslopeofacurveateachpointalongthecurve.Thederivativeofafunction
isitselfafunction,generallydenoted
or .Thederivativeprovidesthe
instantaneousrateofchangeofafunctionatthepointatwhichitismeasured.
Thederivativefunctionisgivenbyeitherofthetwofollowinglimits,whichareequivalent:
lim

or lim

Inthefigurebelow,thederivativeofthecurve
tangentlineat 3, 4 ,whichis .
25
at
3, 4 istheslopeofthe
Differentiable
Afunctionisdifferentiableatapoint,ifa
derivativecanbetakenatthatpoint.Afunctionis
notdifferentiableatany valuethatisnotinits
domain,atdiscontinuitiesandatsharpturns
(sometimecalledcusps).
Tofindwhereafunctionisnotdifferentiableby
inspection,lookforpointsofdiscontinuityand
sharpturnsinthecurve.Inthecurveshownat
right,thecurveisnotdifferentiableatthepoints
ofdiscontinuity(
5 noratthecusp(
2).
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AppendixA
KeyDefinitions
Differential
Considerafunction
,thatisdifferentiableonanopenintervalaround . and
representsmallchangesinthevariables and around on .Then,
Thedifferentialof isdenotedas ,and

.
Thedifferentialof isdenotedas ,and

istheactualchangeis resultingfromachangein of . isanapproximation
of .
DifferentialEquation
Anequationwhichincludesvariablesandoneormoreoftheirderivatives.
Anordinarydifferentialequation(ODE)isadifferentialequationthatincludesanindependent
variable(e.g., ),adependentvariable(e.g., ),andoneormorederivativesofthedependent
varaiable,(e.g.,
,etc.).
Ifthedifferentialequationincludespartialderivatives,itisapartialdifferentialequation(PDE),
andnotanordinarydifferentialequation.SeeChapter10formoredefinitions.
Examples:
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AppendixA
KeyDefinitions
Displacement
Displacementisameasureoftheshortestpathbetweentwopoints.SoifyoustartatPointAandend
atPointB,thelengthofthelinesegmentconnectingthemisthedisplacement.
Togetdisplacementfromvelocity:
Integratevelocityovertheentireinterval,withoutanybreaks.
Distance
Distanceisameasureofthelengthofthepathtakentogetfromonepointtoanother.So,traveling
backwardaddstodistanceandreducesdisplacement.
Togetdistancefromvelocity,overaninterval ,
Integratevelocityoverthe , inpieces,breakingitupateachpointwherevelocity
changessignfrom" " to" "orfrom " "to " ".
Taketheabsolutevalueofeachseparatedefiniteintegraltogetthedistanceforthat
interval.
Addthedistancesovereachintervaltogetthetotaldistance.
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AppendixA
KeyDefinitions

isthebaseofthenaturallogarithms.Itisatranscendentalnumber,meaningthatitisnotthe
rootofanypolynomialwithintegercoefficients.
1
lim 1
1

!
1
!
1
2
lim
1
6
1
24
1
120
1
2
1
6
1
24
1
1
1
120
EulersEquation:
1
0showstheinterconnectionoffiveseeminglyunrelatedmathematicalconstants.
DecimalExpansionof :
2.7 1828 1828 4590 4523 5360 2874 7135 2662 4977 5724 7093 6999 5957 4966
The web site http://antwrp.gsfc.nasa.gov/htmltest/gifcity/e.2mil shows the decimal
expansion of e to over 2 million digits.
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AppendixA
KeyDefinitions
GlobalMaximum
Aglobalmaximumisthefunctionvalueatpoint onanintervalif
forall inthe
interval.Thatis,
isaglobalmaximumifthereisanintervalcontaining where
isthe
greatestvalueintheinterval.Notethattheintervalmaycontainmultiplerelativemaximabut
onlyoneglobalmaximum.
GlobalMinimum
Aglobalminimumisthefunctionvalueatpoint onanintervalif
forall inthe
interval.Thatis,
isaglobalminimumifthereisanintervalcontaining where
isthe
leastvalueintheinterval.Notethattheintervalmaycontainmultiplerelativeminimabutonly
oneglobalminimum.
HorizontalAsymptote
If:
lim

, or
lim

thentheline
isa
horizontalasymptoteof .
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AppendixA
KeyDefinitions
HyperbolicFunctions
Thesetofhyperbolicfunctionsrelatetotheunithyperbolainmuchthesamewaythat
trigonometricfunctionsrelatetotheunitcircle.Hyperbolicfunctionshavethesameshorthand
namesastheircorrespondingtrigonometricfunctions,butwithanhattheendofthename
toindicatethatthefunctionishyperbolic.Thenamesarereadhyperbolicsine,hyperbolic
cosine,etc.

GraphsofHyperbolicFunctions
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AppendixA
KeyDefinitions
IncreasingFunction
Afunction, ,isincreasingonan
intervalifforanytwovaluesinthe
interval, and ,with
,itis
truethat
.
InflectionPoint
Aninflectionpointisalocationonacurve
whereconcavitychangesfromupwardto
downwardorfromdownwardtoupward.
Ataninflectionpoint,thecurvehasatangent
lineand
0or
doesnotexist.
However,itisnotnecessarilytruethatif
0,thenthereisaninflectionpointat
.
InverseFunction
Twofunctions
and
areinversesifandonlyif:
forevery inthedomainof ,and
forevery inthedomainof .
Importantpointsaboutinversefunctions:
Eachfunctionisareflectionoftheotheroverthe
line
.
Thedomainofeachfunctionistherangeofthe
other.Sometimesadomainrestrictionisneeded
tomakethishappen.
If
Theslopesofinversefunctionsatagivenvalueof arereciprocals.
Version 2.9
,then
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AppendixA
KeyDefinitions
MonotonicFunction
Afunction ismonotonicifitiseitherentirelynonincreasingorentirelynondecreasing.The
derivativeofamonotonicfunctionneverchangessign.
Astrictlymonotonicfunctioniseitherentirelyincreasingorentirelydecreasing.Thederivative
ofastrictlymonotonicfunctioniseitheralwayspositiveoralwaysnegative.Strictlymonotonic
functionsarealsoonetoone.
NaturalExponentialFunction
Thenaturalexponentialfunctionisdefinedas:
.
Itistheinverseofthenaturallogarithmicfunction.
NaturalLogarithmicFunction
Thenaturallogarithmicfunctionisdefinedas:
1
ln
0.
ln 4
41
~ 1.38629
Thebaseofthenaturallogarithmis .So,
ln
Version 2.9
log
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AppendixA
KeyDefinitions
OnetoOneFunction
Afunction isonetooneif:
forevery inthedomainof ,thereisexactlyone suchthat
forevery intherangeof ,thereisexactlyone suchthat
,and
.
Afunctionhasaninverseifandonlyifitisonetoone.Onetoonefunctionsarealso
monotonic.Monotonicfunctionsarenotnecessarilyonetoone,butstrictlymonotonic
functionsarenecessarilyonetoone.
OrderofaDifferentialEquation
Theorderofadifferentialequationisthehighestderivativethatoccursintheequation.
Contrastthiswiththedegreeofadifferentialequation.
Examples:
Order
Order
Order
OrdinaryDifferentialEquation(ODE)
Anordinarydifferentialequationisonethatinvolvesasingleindependentvariable.
ExamplesofODEs:
NotODEs(PartialDifferentialEquations):
and
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AppendixA
KeyDefinitions
PartialDifferentialEquation(PDE)
Apartialdifferentialequationisonethatinvolvesmorethanoneindependentvariable.
ExamplesofPDEs:
and
PositionFunction
Apositionfunctionisafunctionthatprovidesthelocation(i.e.,position)ofapointmovingina
straightline,inaplaneorinspace.Thepositionfunctionisoftendenoted
,where istime,
theindependentvariable.Whenpositionisidentifiedalongastraightline,wehave:
Positionfunction
Velocityfunction(rateofchangeinposition;maybepositive,negative,orzero)
|
Speedfunction(absolutevalueofvelocity;itiszeroorpositivebydefinition)
Accelerationfunction(rateofchangeinvelocity)
Jerkfunction(rateofchangeinacceleration)
Notethattheinverserelationshipsholdforthefunctionsaswell.Forexample,considertheposition
andthevelocityfuntion
:
function
and
GeneralCaseofIntegratingthePositionFunctioninProblemsInvolvingGravity
Givenintialposition 0 ,andintialvelocity 0 ,thepositionfunctionisgivenas:
16
0 whereallfunctionsinvolvetheunitsfeetandseconds.
Note:Theforceofgravityis 32 /
or 9.8 /
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AppendixA
KeyDefinitions
RelativeMaximum
Arelativemaximumisthefunctionvalueat
point inanopenintervalif
and
forarbitrarily
small .Thatis,
isarelativemaximum
ifthereisanopenintervalcontaining
where
isthegreatestvalueinthe
interval.
RelativeMinimum
Arelativeminimumisthefunctionvalueatpoint inanopenintervalif
and
forarbitrarilysmall .Thatis,
isarelativeminimumifthereisanopen
intervalcontaining where
istheleastvalueintheinterval.
RiemannIntegral
If
isaRiemannSum(seetheentryonRiemannSumbelow),thenthe
correspondingdefiniteintegral,
interval ,
lim
lim

, ,
Version 2.9
lim
onthe
.RiemannIntegralsinone,twoandthreedimensionsare:
Page 167 of 199
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AppendixA
KeyDefinitions
RiemannSum
ARiemannSumisthesumoftheareasofasetofrectanglesthatcanbeusedtoapproximate
theareaunderacurveoveraclosedinterval.
Consideraclosedinterval , on thatispartitionedinto subintervalsoflengths
, , , .Let beanyvalueof onthe thsubinterval.Then,theRiemann
Sumisgivenby:
AgraphicalrepresentationofaRiemannsum
ontheinterval 2, 5 isprovidedatright.
Notethattheareaunderacurvefrom
to
is:
lim
Thelargest iscalledthemeshsizeofthepartition.AtypicalRiemannSumisdeveloped
withall thesame(i.e.,constantmeshsize),butthisisnotrequired.Theresultingdefinite
integral,
ontheinterval ,
ScalarField
AScalarFieldinthreedimensionsprovidesavalueateachpointinspace.Forexample,wecan
measurethetemperatureateachpointwithinanobject.Thetemperaturecanbeexpressedas
T=(x,y,z).(note:istheGreekletterphi,correspondingtotheEnglishletterf.)
Version 2.9
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AppendixA
KeyDefinitions
SeparationofVariables
SeparationofVariablesisatechniqueusedtoassistinthesolutionofdifferentialequations.
Theprocessinvolvesusingalgebratocollectalltermsinvolvingonevariableononesideofan
equationandalltermsinvolvingtheothervariableontheothersideofanequation.
Example:
Originaldifferentialequation:
Revisedformwithvariablesseparated:
Singularity
Asingularityisapointatwhichamathematicalexpressionorotherobjectisnotdefinedorfails
tobewellbehaved.Typically,singularitiesexistatdiscontinuities.
Example:
doesnotexistat
Inevaluatingthefollowingintegral,wenoticethat
then,that
hasasingularityat
solveintegralswithsingularities.
0.Wesay,
0.Specialtechniquesmustoftenbeemployedto
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AppendixA
KeyDefinitions
SlopeField
Aslopefield(alsocalledadirectionfield)isagraphicalrepresentationoftheslopesofacurveat
variouspointsthataredefinedbyadifferentialequation.Eachpositioninthegraph(i.e.,each
point , )isrepresentedbyalinesegmentindicatingtheslopeofthecurveatthatpoint.
Examples:
Ifyouknowapointonacurveandifyouhaveitscorrespondingslopefielddiagram,youcan
plotyourpointandthenfollowtheslopelinestodeterminethecurve.Slopefieldplottersare
availableonlineat:
http://www.mathscoop.com/calculus/differentialequations/slopefieldgenerator.php
http://www.geogebratube.org/student/m42741
VectorField
AVectorFieldinthreedimensionsprovidesavectorateachpointinspace.Forexample,we
canmeasureamagneticfield(magnitudeanddirectionofthemagneticforce)ateachpointin
, , .Note
spacearoundachargedparticle.Themagneticfieldcanbeexpressedas
thatthehalfarrowovertheletters and indicatethatthefunctiongeneratesavectorfield.
Version 2.9
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AppendixA
KeyDefinitions
VerticalAsymptote
Iflim
.
Version 2.9
orlim
,thentheline
Page 171 of 199
isaverticalasymptoteof
November 26, 2016
Appendix B
Key Theorems in Calculus
Functions and Limits
InverseFunctionTheorem
Afunctionhasaninversefunctionifandonlyifitisonetoone.
IntermediateValueTheorem(IVT)
If
afunction, ,iscontinuousontheclosedinterval ,
isavaluebetween
and
,
Then
thereisavalue in , suchthat
.
,and
ExtremeValueTheorem(EVT)
If
afunction, ,iscontinuousontheclosedinterval , ,
Then
hasbothanabsolutemaximumandanabsoluteminimumon ,
SqueezeTheorem(Limits):
If
lim

Then
lim

, and
lim

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AppendixB
KeyTheorems
Differentiation
Rolle'sTheorem
If
afunction, ,iscontinuousontheclosedinterval , ,and
isdifferentiableontheopeninterval , ,and

,
Then
thereisatleastonevalue in , where 0.
MeanValueTheorem(MVT)
If
isdifferentiableontheopeninterval , ,
Then
Thereisatleastonevalue in
where
,and
IncreasingandDecreasingIntervalTheorem
If
Then
isdifferentiableontheopeninterval , ,
If
If
If
0forevery
0forevery
0forevery
,
,
,
,and
,then isincreasingon , .
,then isdecreasingon , .
,then isconstanton , .
ConcaveIntervalTheorem
If
afunction, ,iscontinuousontheclosedinterval , ,and
existsontheopeninterval , ,
Then
If
0forevery , ,then isconcaveupwardon , .
0forevery , ,then isconcavedownwardon , .
If
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AppendixB
KeyTheorems
FirstDerivativeTest(forfindingextrema)
If
afunction, ,iscontinuousontheopeninterval , ,and
isacriticalnumber , ,
isdifferentiableontheopeninterval , ,exceptpossiblyatc,
Then
changesfrompositivetonegativeat ,then
isarelativemaximum.
If
If
changesfromnegativetopositiveat ,then
isarelativeminimum.
SecondDerivativeTest(forfindingextrema)
If
, ,and
0and
exists,
Then
If
0,then
isarelativemaximum.
If
0,then
isarelativeminimum.
,and
InflectionPointTheorem
If
, ,and
0or
doesnotexist,
Then
,
maybeaninflectionpointof .
,and
InverseFunctionContinuityandDifferentiability
If
Then
afunction, ,hasaninverse,
If iscontinuousonitsdomain,thensois
onitsdomain.
onitsdomain.
If isincreasingonitsdomain,thensois
If isdecreasingonitsdomain,thensois
onitsdomain.
onitsdomain(wherever
If isdifferentiableonitsdomain,thensois
Note:thisexceptionexistsbecausethederivativesof and areinverses.
0).
Version 2.9
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AppendixB
KeyTheorems
DerivativeofanInverseFunction
If
afunction, ,isdifferentiableat
hasaninversefunction ,and
,
Then
,and
(i.e.,thederivativesofinversefunctionsarereciprocals).
Integration
FirstFundamentalTheoremofCalculus
If
Then
isacontinuousfunctionon , ,
isanyantiderivativeof
,then
SecondFundamentalTheoremofCalculus
If
Then
Forevery
MeanValueTheoremforIntegrals(MVT)
If
isacontinuousfunctionon , ,
Then
thereisavalue , ,suchthat
Version 2.9
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Appendix C

Summary of Key Derivatives and Integrals

Version 2.9
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November 26, 2016
AppendixC
KeyDerivativesandIntegrals

CommonFunctions
PowerRule
ln
log
0,
ln
ln
ln
1
ln
1
ln
log
sin
cos
tan
cot
sec
csc
cos
sin
sin
sec
csc
cos
tan
cot
sec tan
sec
csc cot
csc
cos
sin
sec
csc
sec
tan
csc cot
Version 2.9
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AppendixC

TrigonometricandInverseTrigonometricFunctions
TrigonometricFunctions(repeatedfrompriorpage)
sin
cos
cos
tan
cot
sec
csc
sin
sin
sec
cos
cos
csc
sec tan
sec
csc
csc
sec
csc cot
sec
cot
sin
tan
tan
csc cot
sin
1
1
1
cos
tan
cot
1
1
1
1
1
sec
csc
sin
cos
tan
cot
1
| |
sec
csc
1
1
| |
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
Angle in
Q I or Q IV
Angle in
Q I or Q II
Angle in
Q I or Q IV
Angle in
Q I or Q IV
1
| |
1
1
| |
Angle in
Q I or Q II
Angle in
Q I or Q IV
Version 2.9
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AppendixC
Indefinite Integrals
Note:therulespresentedinthissectionomitthe
termthatmustbeaddedtoall
indefiniteintegralsinordertosavespaceandavoidclutter.Pleaseremembertoaddthe
termonallworkyouperformwithindefiniteintegrals.
BasicRules

IntegrationbyParts

PowerRule
1

0,
ln
1

ln
ln| |
1
ln
ln
ln ln
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AppendixC
Indefinite Integrals of Trigonometric Functions

sin
cos
cos
sin
tan
ln |sec |
cot
sec
csc
ln |csc |
ln |sec
ln |cos |
sec
ln |sin |
csc
tan |
ln |csc
sec tan
cot |
csc cot
tan
cot
sec
csc
Version 2.9
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AppendixC
Indefinite Integrals of Inverse Trigonometric Functions

sin
sin
cos
cos
tan
tan
1
ln
2
cot
cot
1
ln
2
sec
sec
ln
sec
sec
ln
sec
csc
ln
csc
csc
ln
csc
csc
0,
2
0,
2
2
,0
InvolvingInverseTrigonometricFunctions
1
1
1
sin
tan
Version 2.9
sec
| |
sin
tan
1
sec
| |
Page 181 of 199
November 26, 2016
AppendixC

SelectingtheRightFunctionforanIntegral
Form
Function
sin
tan
sec
cosh
sec
| |
ln
ln
1
ln
2
coth
tanh
sinh
tan
sin
Integral
sech
csch
ln
| |
ln
| |
*Thisisaninversehyperbolicfunction.Formoreinformation,seeChapter6.Notethatyoudo
notneedtoknowaboutinversehyperbolicfunctionstousetheformulasonthispage.
Version 2.9
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Appendix D

Key Functions and Their Derivatives
Version 2.9
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AppendixD
FunctionsandTheirDerivatives
Function
Description
Thefunctionisalwaysconcave Thegraphofthefunctionhas
upandthelimitoff(x)asx
the and axesas
approaches0is1.
horizontalandvertical
asymptotes.
Thefunctionisalways
decreasingandhasthexaxis
asanasymptote.
Thefunctionhasoneabsolute
maximumandthexaxisisan
asymptote.
Function
Graph
First
Derivative
Graph
Second
Derivative
Graph
Version 2.9
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AppendixD
Function
Description
| |
Thelogisticcurve.Itisalways
increasingandhasonepoint
ofinflection.
Thefunctionhastworelative
minimaandonerelative
maximum.
Thefunctionisalways
increasingontherightand
alwaysdecreasingontheleft.
Theyaxisasanasymptote.
Thefunctionisperiodicwith
domain andrange 1, 1 .
Function
Graph
First
Derivative
Graph
Second
Derivative
Graph
Version 2.9
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November 26, 2016
AppendixD
Function
Description
Thefunctionhasoneabsolute
minimumandnopointsof
inflection.
Thegraphhasthreezeros,
onerelativeminimum,one
relativemaximum,andone
pointofinflection.
Thefunctionhasonerelative
maximum,tworelative
minima,andtwopointsof
inflection.
Thefunctionhastworelative
maxima,tworelativeminima,
andthreepointsofinflection.
Function
Graph
First
Derivative
Graph
Second
Derivative
Graph
Version 2.9
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Appendix E
Geometry and Trigonometry Formulas
Version 2.9
Page 187 of 199
November 26, 2016
AppendixE
GeometryandTrigonometryFormulas
Geometry
SummaryofPerimeterandAreaFormulas2DShapes
Shape
Figure
Perimeter
Area
Kite
Trapezoid
,
,
b ,b
bases
h height
Parallelogram
Rectangle
Rhombus
RegularPolygon
Square
Circle
Ellipse
Version 2.9
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AppendixE
Geometry
SummaryofSurfaceAreaandVolumeFormulas3DShapes
Shape
Figure
SurfaceArea
Volume
Sphere
Right
Cylinder
Cone
Square
Pyramid
Rectangular
Prism
Cube
General
RightPrism
Version 2.9
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AppendixE
Trigonometry
FunctionRelationships
sin
cos
tan
tan
1
csc
csc
1
sec
sec
1
cot
cot
sin
1
cos
1
tan
sin
cot
cos
cos
sin
cos
tan
sec
cot
csc
sin
DoubleAngleFormulas
2 sin cos
tan
cos 2
cos
sin
1 2 sin
2 cos
1
2 tan
1 tan
tan 2
sin
sin
cos
tan
cot
sec
csc
sin
cos
cos
tan
tan
cot
cot
sec
sec
csc
csc
cos
sin 2
Cofunction Formulas(inQuadrantI)
cos
TripleAngleFormulas
sin 3
3 sin
cos
cos
cos 3
4 cos
tan 3
3 tan
tan
1 3 tan
3 cos
LawofSines
LawofCosines
sin
cos
cos
cos
EulersFormula
Version 2.9
sin
cis
cis
csc
sec
sin
sin cos cos sin
sin
sin cos
cos sin
cos
cos cos
sin sin
cos
cos cos
sin sin
tan tan
1 tan tan
tan tan
1 tan tan
sin
cos
cos
sin
sin
SumtoProductFormulas
1
2
1
tan
2
tan
sin
sin
2 sin
sin
sin
2 sin
cos
cos
2 cos
cos
cos
2 sin
cos
cos
cos
sin
tan
MollweidesFormulas
mathguy.us
PolarMultiplicationandDivision
cis
Let:
DeMoivresFormula
cis
cos 2
2
cos 2
2
cos 2
cos 2
LawofTangents
cos
1
1
tan
ArcLength
cos
cot
1
cos
2
1
cos cos cos
2
1
sin cos sin
2
1
sin
cos sin
2
cos
sin
sin
1 cos
sin
sin
ProducttoSumFormulas
PowerReducingFormulas
4 sin
tan
cos
tan
cos
1

1
AngleAdditionFormulas
HalfAngleFormulas
PythagoreanIdentities
sin
OppositeAngleFormulas
cis
Page 190 of 199
cis
cis
cos
sin
sin
1
2
1
2
cos
1
2
1
2
November 26, 2016
AppendixE
Trigonometry
2
Period
Period
Period
Period
Period
Period
Amplitude:| |
" "
Period:
PhaseShift:
VerticalShift:
HarmonicMotion
cos
or
sin
TrigFunctionsofSpecialAngles(UnitCircle)
Rad
30
1/2
3/2
3/3
45
2/2
2/2
60
3/2
1/2
90
undefined
Rectangular/PolarConversion
Rectangular
Polar
cos
sin
tan
tan
tan
VectorDotProduct
VectorProperties
0
1
2
1
2

1

2
sin sin
sin
1

2
sin
1

2

1
1
1
Page 191 of 199
VectorCrossProduct
u u
u v
x
v v
x
| |
UnitVector:
sin
cos
sin
1
2
Version 2.9
cos
sin
or
cos
sin
TriangleArea
AnglebetweenVectors
u v
x
cos
iff

sin

0iff x
November 26, 2016
Appendix F
Interesting Series and Summation Formulas
1
2
1 2
6
1
2
1
ln
ln 1

2!
3!
1
2
2!
4!
6!
3!
5!
7!
4!
1
1
1
1
3
ln 1
cos
cos
1 !
1
1
1 2
6
ln
2 !
sin
tan
sin
tan
Version 2.9
Page 192 of 199
November 26, 2016
Calculus Handbook
Index
Page
Subject
131 AbsoluteConvergenceofaSeries
29 AbsoluteExtremaseealsoIntegration
44 Acceleration
32 AlauriaDiagram
130 AlternatingSeries
49 Antiderivatives
94,98 ArcLength
84 AreabyIntegration
86,91 AreaCrossSectionMethodVolumeofaSolid
92 AreainPolarForm
97 AreaofaSurfaceofRevolution
153 AultTable
146
46
18
131
30
131
98
121
131
10
8
113
118
46,98
34
86,89
76
73
76
77
Version 2.9
CauchyRiemannEquations
CenterofCurvature
ChainRule
ComparisonTestforSeriesConvergence
Concavity
ConditionalConvergenceofaSeries
ConicSectionsinPolarForm
ConvergenceTestsSequences
ConvergenceTestsSeries
ContinuityExamples
ContinuityRules
CrossProduct
Curl
Curvature
CurveSketching
CylindricalShellMethodsVolumeofaSolidofRevolution
DefiniteIntegration
DefiniteIntegrals
FundamentalTheoremofCalculus
PropertiesofDefiniteIntegrals
Page 193 of 199
November 26, 2016
Calculus Handbook
Index
Page
73
76
78
81
79
Subject
RiemannSums
RulesofDefiniteIntegration
SolvingDefiniteIntegralswithDirectedLineSegments
SpecialTechniques
u Substitution
152 DefinitionsAlphabetically
116 DelOperator
z
146 DerivativeofetoaComplexPower(e )
150 Derivativeof:(x+y)3=x3+y3
DerivativesseeDifferentiation
147 DerivativesofaCircle
148 DerivativesofaEllipse
149 DerivativesofaHyperbola
34 DIACIDE(curvesketching)
101 DifferentialEquations
45 Differentials
Differentiation
17
BasicRules
18
ExponentialandTrigonometricFunctions
20
GeneralizedProductRule
24
ImplicitDifferentiation
22
InverseFunctionRule
22
InverseFunctionDiagram
19
177
ListofKeyDerivatives
27
98
ParametricDerivatives
23
PartialDifferentiation
9 Discontinuities
86,87 DiskMethodVolumeofaSolidofRevolution
43 Displacement
43 Distance
117 Divergence
112 DotProduct
Version 2.9
Page 194 of 199
November 26, 2016
Calculus Handbook
Index
Page
Subject
141 e
9 EssentialDiscontinuity
142 Euler'sFormula
106 Euler'sMethods(DifferentialEquations)
18,50 ExponentialFunctions
28 Exterema
31 ExteremaofPolynomials
28 FirstDerivativeTest
8 Functions
192 FunctionsandTheirDerivatives(Summary)
76 FundamentalTheoremsofCalculus
63 GammaFunction
40 GeneralSpecificMethod(forRelatedRatesProblems)
188 GeometryFormulas(AreaandVolume)
116 Gradient
HyperbolicFunctions
65
Definitions
70
Derivatives
69
GraphsofHyperbolicFunctionsandTheirInverses
66
Identities
68
InverseHyperbolicFunctions
67
RelationshiptoTrigonometricFunctions
i
145 i
99
131
71
49
14
9
30
31
ImproperIntegrals
IntegralTestforSeriesConvergence
Integrals
IndefiniteIntegration
IndeterminateForms
InfiniteDiscontinuity
InflectionPoints
InflectionPointsofPolynomials
Integration
50
ExponentialFunctions
Version 2.9
Page 195 of 199
November 26, 2016
Calculus Handbook
Index
Page
49
53
179
50
57
60
54
50
64
55
134
22
19,53
9
32
43
13
140
119
60
12
11
11
16
27
18,50
144
144
105
138
28
47
151
Version 2.9
Subject
IndefiniteIntegration(Antiderivatives)
ListofKeyIntegrals
LogarithmicFunctions
PartialFractions
Parts
SelectingtheRightFunctionforanIntergral
TrigonometricSubstitutions
u Substitution
IntervalofConvergence
InverseFunctionDiagram(forderivatives)
JumpDiscontinuity
KeyPointsonf(x),f'(x)andf''(x)
Kinematics(ParticleMotion)
L'Hospital'sRule
LagrangeRemainderofaTaylorSeries
Laplacian
LIATE
LimitFindingTechniques
LimitRules
Limits
Limits:FailuretoExist
LogarithmicFunctions
LogarithmsofComplexNumbers
LogarithmsofNegativeRealNumbers
LogisticFunction
MaclaurinSeries
MaximaandMinima
Newton'sMethod
NormalDistributionPDFInflectionPoints
Page 196 of 199
November 26, 2016
Calculus Handbook
Index
Page
Subject
107 OrderofaNumericalMethod(DifferentialEquations)
16 OscillatingBehaviorofLimits
46 OsculatingCircle
127 p Series
98 ParametricFormsSummary
43 ParticleMotion
98 PolarFormsSummary
43 PositionFunction
18 PowerRule(differentiation)
124 PowerSeries
17,20 ProductRule(differentiation)
18 QuotientRule(differentiation)
134
46
132
40
28
9
97,86
73
127
113
133
108
116
29
120
121
121
121
122
120
14
Version 2.9
RadiusofConvergence
RadiusofCurvature
RatioTestforSeriesConvergence
RelatedRates
RelativeExtrema
RevolutionVolume,SurfaceArea
RiemannSums
RiemannZetaFunction(p Series)
RightHandRule
RootTestforSeriesConvergence
RungeKuttaMethod(DifferentialEquations)
ScalarField
SecondDerivativeTest
Sequences
AbsoluteValueTheorem
BoundedMonotonicSequenceTheorem
BoundedSequence
ExplicitSequence
IndeterminateForms
Page 197 of 199
November 26, 2016
Calculus Handbook
Index
Page
122
121
120
121
120
123,192
131
132
131
131
123
131
123
126
131
124
138
124
127
123
124
132
133
137
138
125
131
39
86,89
104
86
44,98
97
138
172
19,50
Version 2.9
Subject
LimitofaSequence
MonotonicSequence
RecursiveSequence
SqueezeTheorem
TypesofSequences
Series
AbsoluteConvergence
AlternatingSeries
ComparisonTest
ConditionalConvergence
ConvergenceTests
Definition
GeometricSeries
IntegralTest
KeyProperties
MaclaurinSeries
n thTermConvergenceTheorems
p Series
PartialSums
PowerSeries
RatioTest
RootTest
SummaryofConvergence/DivergenceTests
TaylorSeries
TelescopingSeries
TermRearrangement
ShapeofaCurve
ShellMethodsVolumeofaSolidofRevolution
SlopeFields
SolidsofRevolution
Speed
SurfaceofRevolution
TaylorSeries
TheoremsSummary
Page 198 of 199
November 26, 2016
Calculus Handbook
Index
Page
Subject
190 TrigonometryFormulas
115 TripleProductsofVectors
55,79 u Substitution
16 UnboundedBehaviorofLimits
116 VectorField
110
110
113
118
117
112
116
119
111
110
115
43
86
86,87
Vectors
Components
CrossProduct
Curl
Divergence
DotProduct
Gradient
Laplacian
Properties
SpecialUnitVectors
TripleProducts
Velocity
VolumesofSolids
WasherMethodVolumeofaSolidofRevolution
127 ZetaFunction
Version 2.9
Page 199 of 199
November 26, 2016

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Techniques for Finding Limits

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Indeterminate Forms of Limits

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When Limits Fail to Exist

Note:inthiscase,wemaywrite: lim ln| |

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Basic Rules of Differentiation

Note:Intheserules, isaconstant,and and arefunctionsdifferentiablein .

Basic Derivative Rules

Product Rule (two terms)

Product Rule (three terms)

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Exponential and Logarithmic Functions

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Derivatives of Special Functions

Inverse Trigonometric Functions

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Generalized Product Rule

Product Rule (four terms)

Example: Product Rule (six terms) (from Generalized Product Rule)

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Generalized Product Rule

Generalized Product Rule (n terms)

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Inverse Function Rule

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Implicit Differentiation (contd)

Manipulatingthisequationtofind asafunctionof isoutofthequestion.So,weuse

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Implicit Differentiation (contd)

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,where and arefunctionsof

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Maxima and Minima

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Special Case: Extrema and Inflection Points of Polynomials

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Intercepts:totheextentpossible,thestudentshoulddevelopboth and intercepts

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0, so . 333, 6.481 isarelative

Inflection Pointis: 1.667, 1.741

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sin .Critical Pointsexistat

. 707, 3.224 isarelativemaximum; 3.927, 0.139 isarelativeminimum