I can do all things through Christ which strengthens me Phils 4:13
Chapter 7
I. STEPS IN THE FORMATION OF SKELETAL
TISSUES
1. Aggregation of mesenchyme to form blastema
2. Some mesenchyme cells become fibroblasts
3. Synthesis of collagen by fibroblasts
4. The fibrils aggregate to form collagen fibers
5. The fibers form dense collagen bundles that are
woven into network of dense CT
6. Deposition of minerals
7. Formation of cartilage or bone
BONE
II. BONE
- Matrix of collagenous fibers + hydroxyapatite
crystals + (water + mucopolysaccharide) *
* two substance that binds the crystals into the
matrix
- Osteoblasts become TRAPPED by the bone they
have laid around them (lacunae)
- Lacunae contains osteocytes
- Canaliculi (fluid-filled canals that connects the
lacunae) present. It houses the protoplasmic
processes extending from the osteocytes
III. COMPACT OR LAMELLAR BONE
- consist of layers mineralized collagen bundles
(lamellae) that is arranged in Harvesian Canal
Harvesian Canal- arteriole + venule + lymph
vessel + nerve fibers. The cana and the
surrounding lamellae have:
a) Osteon or Haversian system present (thus,
vascularized)
Blood vessels are responsible for the
configuration of haversian systems
More or less parallel to the direction of force
Characteristic of amniotes
b) Periosteal Bone
lamellae are formed on the inner surface of
periosteum (a membrane that covers the
outer bone except articular surfaces)
IV. SPONGY BONE
Consist of bony trabeculae and bone marrow
a) Trabeculae provides maximum strength
Haversian systems absent
b) Marrow (occupies the cavities) in the trabeculae
supports blood vessels, nerve fibers and adipose
tissues
c) Endosteum has the capacity to deposit bone
and remodel it
~ Flat Bones: core of spongy bone and marrow
sandwiched between two layers of compact surface:
sternum, scapulae, skull mem. bones
V. DENTIN
- same constituent as the compact and spongy
bone.
- odontoblast are not trapped in the lacunae (they
retreat as they deposit dentin)
- canaliculi are called dentinal tubules (extends all
the way to the surface of the dentin)
- forms only in the outer layer of the dermis
- found only in scales of basal ray-finned and
elasmobranch fishes in teeth
VI. ACELLULAR BONE (aspidin)
- the osteoblast not only retreat as they deposit
bone but also leaves no trace behind of
processes or canaliculi
- constitutes the fibrous plates of the flexible scales
of modern fishes and cementum of vertebrate teeth
BLASTEMA- any aggregation of mesenchyme, that
given the appropriate stimulus, will differentiate into
some tissues, such as muscle, cartilage or bone.
TYPES OF BONES (BASED ON VISUAL)
1. MEMBRANE BONE
bone deposited directly within a
membranous blastema without having
been preceeded by a cartilaginous model
(diretso ossification)
lacks Harvesian canal (due to
arrangement of the blood vessel that
participate in the deposition)
it may be compact, spongy or non-
lamellar
dermal bone- any bone derived from
dermis of the skin
ex: bones of the lower jaw, skull
(Meckels cartilage), pectoral girdles;
periosteal bone
2. ENDOCHONDRAL
BONE/REPLACEMENT BONE
a bone where hyaline cartilage already
exist
dumadaan sa cartilage stage
includes endochondral and
intramembranous ossification (but
 I can do all things through Christ which strengthens me Phils 4:13
enchondral when ossified the cartilage
must be removed first before a bone is
deposited)
in both cases= spongy bone is the
immediate result of formation
formation of epiphyseal plate= where
new cartilage is form, if fused na the
bone will stop growing
in ectotherms= chondrogenesis is
continues throughout life
in birds and mammals= epiphyseal
center cease elaborating cartilage
shortly after individual reach sexual
maturity
have three types: (1) sesamoid, (2)
dermal and (3) perichondral
TYPES OF BONES (BASED ON POSITION)
1. Cortical bone- peripheral bone
2. Medullary bone- medial bone
CARTILAGE
- resembles bone in that it is formed in the matrix of
collagenous matrix and cells lie in lacunae
- intracellular matrix contains sulfated
mucopolysaccharide instead of hydroxyapatite
crystals (bone)
- have no canaliculi and no blood vessel of its own
- lacunar cells are supplied with oxygen and
nutrients by diffusion from the nearest capillaries
adjacent to the cartilage
Formation: chondroblast deposit their
mucopolyssacharide to existing collagenous
matrix mesenchyme surrounding the area of
chondrification will organize a perichondrium
additional cartilage is laid down within blastema
- chondroblast becomes chondrocytes after being
trapped in the lacunae
I. Hyaline Cartilage
Precursor of replacement bone, least
differentiated, most prevalent
Can be transformed into fibrocartilage,
elastic cartilage or calcified cartilage
II. Fibrocartilage
Thick, dense collagenous bundles in the
interstitial matrix
ex: intervertebral discs
III. Elastic Cartilage
contains collagenous fibers + network of
elastic fibers
Mammals= pinna of the ear, walls of the
outer ear canal, epiglottis
IV. Calcified Cartilage
Formed when Calcium salts are
deposited within interstitial substance of
hyaline cartilage or fibrocartilage
Ex. Jaws of the shark
SKELETAL REMODELING
Bones also participate in maintaining
homeostasis
Serum calcium level, excess calcium that is
not excreted is deposited along with inorganic
phosphate
Serum calcium level, calcium is withdrawn
from the skeleton (to maintain normal serum
calcium level)
Withdrawal is regulated by
parathyroid hormone and calcitonin
Remodelling of the bone is needed and not
acceration
a response to mechanical stress resulting from
continuing use of inserting muscle or from
weight bearing
TENDONS, LIGAMENTS AND JOINTS
Tendons
connects muscle with bones, have a shiny
appearance
continuous with epimysium (envelops the
muscle) and periosteum (envelops the bone)
Ligaments
Connect bone to bone
Directly continuous with periosteum
Nuchal ligament in the back of the neck-
longest ligament in mammal
Aponeuroses- tendons and ligaments that are flat
Gala aponeurotica- aponeurosis in
mammalian scalp
Sesamoid cartilage or bones- mineralized
nodules in tendons or ligaments
Joint/Arthrosis- site where two bones or cartilage
meet
Diarthrosis- a joint that is freely movable in
one or more planes; the articular surface is
covered by hyaline cartilage; joint is
enclosed in a fibrous capsule lined by a
 I can do all things through Christ which strengthens me Phils 4:13
synopvial membrane that secretes
lubricatory fluid
Ex: hinge joint at elbow and knee,
articulation btwn the upper and lower jaws
of the mammals
Amphiarthrosis- permits limited movement,
no fibrocartilage
Ex: joints btwn the centra of mammalian
vertebrae
Synarthrosis- sutured joint, immovable
Ex: joints in the roof of the mammalian skull
Ankylosis- condition where the sutured becomes
obliterated
Ex: skull of birds, premaxilla and maxilla of
humans
Symphysis- joint in the midline of the body,
bilateral bones are separated by fibrocartilage
Pubic symphysis of female become
movable due to hormone
Mineralized tissue and the invertebrates
- Matrix of collagenous fibers + calcium
carbonate
- Invertebrates like gastropods have cartilage
- BONE, DENTIN AND ENAMELOID are
restricted to vertebrates!!!
Heterotrophic bones
Develop by endochondral or intramembranous
bones
In areas subject to stress in amniotes
Ex:
(1) os cordis (interventricular septum of the
heart of the deer and bovines)
(2) baculum (os penis)- in septum between
spongy bodies of the penis of dogs, basal
primates and other mammals
(3) os clitoridis
(4) gizzard of doves
(5) tongues in at least one species of bats
(6) tarsal plate of the eyelid (humans)
(7) sesamoid bones
CHAPTER 8
I. VERTEBRAL COLUMN:
Segmented, flexible, arched rod flanked by
axial musculature; axial locomotor apparatus
Provides a protective bony tunnel for the spinal
cord
In Fishes: articulations between vertebrae
permit only SIDE-TO-SIDE flexibility (lateral
undulation)
In Tetrapods: provides DORSOVENTRAL
flexibility and a strong bowlike arch for
suspending the trunk above the ground;
functional separation of muscles in locomotion
from ventilation (regional specialization)
Centra
Occupy the position of the notochord
Arches
-Encloses a long vertebral or neural canal
Hemal arches or chevron bones in amniotes
Processes
Transverse processes (diapophyses)
articulate with the ribs; attachment for
muscles
Zygapophyses are paired processes in the
trunk vertebrae, chiefly in tetrapods; LIMITS
dorsoventral flexion of the column
Parapophyses are lateral projections that
serves as articulation site for the capitulum
Hypapophyses are midventral projections
that are sites of muscle and tendon
attachment
Tetrapod tails have no zygapophyses thus flexible
Morphogenesis of vertebrae
1. Mesenchyme cells that stream out of the
sclerotomes of mesodermal
somites.surround the notochord and neural
tube blastema
2. Chondroblast that differentiate within the
blastema subsequently deposit a
cartilaginous centrum and neural arch and
hemal arch (result: cartilaginous vertebra)
3. Scleroblasts from the caudal half of one
somite and cephalic half of next somite
stream to an intersegmental location around
the notochord to establish perichordal
blastema.
4. Centra are intersegmental as well as
myomeres are segmental
5. Diplospondyly- two centra per segment
- Provides tail with increased flexibility of
the vertebral column (coz of elasticity of
the intervertebral ligaments)
 I can do all things through Christ which strengthens me Phils 4:13

Chondrichthyes Teleost, Anurans consisted of thick rings neural and hemal

urodeles and of calcified cartilage arches
apodans
Cartilaginous membrane Replacement
vertebrae are bone is the bone deposited Intercentrum
NEVER one (not in a perichordal The other vertebrae in two centra per body
REPLACED by cartilage) blastema, segment (but only one arch); not homologous to
the bone deposited in notochord hypocentra below
the perichordal disappears Incorporated with the interdrosal and
blastema, interventrals
CHORDAL
CARTILAGE
Rachitomous Vertebrae: hindi pa fused na
The Vertebral Column of Fishes vertebrae
Living agnathans Sharks 1. Hypocentrum or intercentrum; large,
Lateral neural cartilage Notochord is present median, U-shaped anterior bone that cradled
(only skeletal element), throughout the length the notochord
1-2 pairs per body of the adult vertebral 2. Pleurocentra paired small wedges of bone
segment, column and is overlying the notochord dorsolaterally
constricted within 3. Laminae of bone rested in a notch between
each centrum pleuroc. and hypoc. providing a neural arch
Centra= chordal +
perichordal cartilage TREND: increase prominence of pleurocentra and
Amphicoelous concomitant reduction of hypocentra
Vertebral Canal=
paired dorsal plate + Vertebrae of Urodeles, Anurans and
dorsal intercalary urodeles and Apodans, modern
plates + wedge- Apodans Sphenodon and reptiles
shaped supradorsal basal lizards
cartilage Lack evidence Amphicoelous Procelous
of pleurocentra vertebrae (buildup of
Dipnoans, Teleost or hypocentra Vestige of the hypocentrum
Chondrostei, Latimeria notochord of chordal
No centra Well-ossified persist in the cartilage
notochord is present amphicoelous vertebra intervertebral and coalition
and unconstructed Space btwn vertebrae joints of
thick fibrous sheath is occupied by porous intercentrum
contains little cartilage material that and centrum
cartilage or bone probably includes
basidorsal, basiventral, notochordal remnants Opisthocelous Acelous Heterocelous
interdorsal and Connected by a Evolved from the Mammals Birds
interventral (products collagenous and coalition of But have (saddle
of separate elastic ligaments (for hypocentrum and intervertebral shaped)
chondrification lateral undulation of centrum behind it
disc and the
centers in the the body ~ salamanders
(urodeles) core it a
embryonic Have superneural remnant of the
perichordal blastema bones (neural spines notochord
that are very tall) known as pulpy
nucleus
Extinct Holocephalan Elasmobranch and
bony fishes
Vertebral column 2 centra and 2 sets of
 I can do all things through Christ which strengthens me Phils 4:13

vertebra Synsacru Sacrum-

Regional Specialization in Tetrapod Columns m- for axial sacral
1. Sacral vertebrae (supporting body above the rigidity for vertebrae
ground) streamline of
2. Cervical vertebrae (increasing the mobility of the body mammals
intervertebral joints in that region) during that
3. Thoracic vertebrae flight akylosed
4. Lumbar Vertebrae Last Armadillo
thoracic s have a
Snakes have almost no regional specialization. vertebra synsacrum
Longest columns Snakes e+ (13 fused
Shortest columns Anurans lumbar + sacral and
sacral + caudal
Cervical Vertebrae first few vertebrae)
Amphibians Amniotes caudal +
The first and only Larger number of ribs
cervical vertebra cervical vertebrae (long
lacks process that flexible neck)
permits limited Atlas (centrum is Note: Sacral vertebrae do not differentiate in
dorsoventral rocking missing) tetrapods that lack hind limbs
of the skull Axis (with odontoid
Two facet- process) acts as a pivot Tail Vertebrae: Urostyle, Pygostyle, Coccyx
articulation for for turning of the head Anuran have urostyle (developed from the
occipital chondyle Rocking is facilitated by continuous elongated perichordal cartilage)
the reduction or Lizards have autotomy tail in which it
absence of degenerates
zygapophyses on the Apes and human have 4-5 vestigal caudal
atlas vertebrae. For human called coccyx
Prehensile tail- for monkeys
Proatlas Apodans have no post anal tail
Resembling neural arch, interposed
between the skull and atlas in crocodilians, Ribs
Sphenodon, and spiny hedgehogs Formed intersegmentally by scleroblasts
Birds Turtles from 2 successive mesodermal somites
Heterocoelous ball and socket joints Bony ribs are endochondral in origin
centrum- enables both between successive Abdominal ribs/ Gastralia- riblike membrane
lateral and dorsoventral procoelous centra bones of the reptiles that are remnants of the
flexion of the neck (enabling the entire ancestral bony dermal exoskeleton
head and neck to be
completely retracted into Fishes
shell) Dorsal ribs- pass laterad into horizontal
skeletogenous septum that seperates the
Mammals epaxial and hypaxial muscles
- have 7 cervical vertebrae Ventral ribs- develop in myosepta and
- transverse atlantal ligament holds the odontoid arched ventrad in the lateral wall
process in place Dorsal ribs Ventral ribs No ribs
Sharks and Most fishes skates,
Sacrum and Synsacrum few Chimaera
Bear a stout transverse process with a and unusual
akylosed stout ribs teleost,
seahorse and
Amphibians Reptiles Birds Mammals agnathans
One sacral 2 2 3-5
 I can do all things through Christ which strengthens me Phils 4:13

Tetrapod Ribs Tetrapod Sternum

Dati tetrapod rib and ventral rib of some fishes Endochondral origin
occupy the same position but are not Serves as a base for the pectoral girdle and
homologous with each other ribs are braced
Most are bicipital ribs (two headed ribs with For birds- it become an assistant for breathing
tuberculum and capitulum) Anurans have well differentiated sternum
Capitulum was used to attached at the Birds have developed a keel or carina
hypocentra but with the reduction of it For terrestrial mammals- has bony segments
Places where capitulum was attached: called sternebrae (last sternebra:
1. On the demifacets xiphisternum with cartilaginous or bony
2. With the parapophyses (if centra is present) structure called xiphoid)
3. In a facet on a single centrum Marine mammals- have small sternum and is
Two parts of the thoracic vertebrae: correlated with their galloping mode of
1. Costal ribs- adjacent to the vertebrae swimming
2. Sternal ribs/Costal cartilage- more ventral Sternum may arise from paired
and usually articulate with the sternum mesenchymal bars that unite and undergo
Amphibians NO SKELETAL CAGE chondrogenesis and have two blastemas:
1. Presternal- gitna, malaki and give rise to
Anurans and Urodeles Apodans manubrium
Ribs are very short Ribs are quite long 2. Suprasternal- give rise to suprasternal
Only the ribs of the No sternum ossicles
ANURANS ARE NOT
BICIPITAL CHAPTER 9
Reptiles Notes:
Draco- posterior ribs of the trunk that is called 1. BraNChial- gills
the patagium that becomes a winglike 2. Brachial- arms
membrane for gilding
Turtles have no cervical ribs, ribs are fused to Cranial Skeleton (Skull)
costal plates, no sternum 1. Neurocranium/ Primary Braincase
Snakes- long and curved ribs (2nd vertebra- far 2. Dermatocranium
to tail), no sternum for rib attachment
Visceral Skeleton
Birds Palatoquadrate
Ucinate process- provides a lightweight but Meckels cartilage
sturdy thoracic body wall skeleton for the Skeleton of the branchial arches
attachement of powerful flight muscle
Evolved from archosaurs NEUROCRANIUM
Ucinate process can also be observed in Called endocranium, chondocranium (sharks)
some lizards and labyrinthodonts or primary braincase
Protects the brain and certain special sense
Mammals organs
Recognizable ribs are confined to thorax Arise as cartilage
Floating ribs- costal cartilage that fail to reach Partly or wholly replaced by bone except in
the sternum cartilaginous fishes
Transverse foramen formed by two heads of
the rib; in mammals and in birds Cartilaginous Stage of the Neurocranium
Arteriovertebral canal bony tunnel formed I. Parachordal and Prechordal Cartilages
by consecutive transverse foramen, transmits and Notochord
vertebral artery from the base of the neck to the
brain
 I can do all things through Christ which strengthens me Phils 4:13

Parachordal- parallel the anterior b. Cartilaginous Fishes

end of the notochord beneath the Presence of chondocranium
midbrain and hindbrain Brain completely roofed by cartilage
Basal plate= parachordal cartilage + Otic capsule fused with posterolateral
notochord walls of the braincase
Origin: sclerotome or epimeric Olfactory capsule as the rostrum
mesoderm Have occipital condyle (site for
Prechordal (trabeculae cranii)- immovable articulation of the occipital
develop anterior to the notochord region + first vertebra)
underneath the forebrain Endolymphatic fossa- houses the
Ethmoid plate= Prechordal cartilage endolymphatic and perilymphatic
that expands and unite across the ducts
midline c. Bony Fishes (Teleost)
Origin: neural crest ectoderm Cartilaginous neurocranium is
*Parachordal and Prechordal replaced by endochondral bone
cartilage makes up the
neurocranium Neurocranial Ossification Center (4 centers)
A. Occipital Centers (endochondral)
II. Sense Capsules - Basioccipital bone- underlies the
Olfactory nasal capsule- partially hindbrain, ventral to the foramen
surrounding the olfactory epithelium, magnum
incompletely anterior - Two exoccipital bone- lateral to the
Otic capsule- completely foramen magnum
surrounding the otocysts - Supraoccipital bone-
* the two capsules have foramina that In mammals- these fuses into the occipital
transmit nerves and vascular channels bone
*neurocranium is cartilaginous In amphibians- some remains
cartilaginous
Optic Capsules - Occipital Condyles
forms around the retina (sclerotic 1. Mammals- 2
coat of the eyeball) 2. Amphibians- 1 borne on
fibrous in mammals, unfused from basioccipital
the neurocranium 3. Reptiles and birds- 1
A. Floor, Walls and Roof
Ethmoid plate unites with Olfactory Capsules B. Sphenoid Centers
Basal plate unites with Otic Capsules Ossification occurs independently in the
*The two plate will then unite to form the floor synapsids and reptilian lineages
- Basisphenoid bone- ossified
Hypophyseal Foramen- cartilaginous neurocranium + pituitary
accommodates the hypophysis and gland
internal carotid arteries - Presphenoid- anterior to the
Foramen magnum- the largest basisphenoid
Tectum- primitive craniate condition, - Laterosphenoid bone- independent
cartilaginous roof above the brain ossification center in archosaurs
( crocodiles and dinosaurs), lateral
B. Cartilaginous Neurocrania of Adult ossification of the sphenoid region
Craniates - Orbitosphenoid- interorbital septum
a. Living Agnathans in the archousaurs
Roof are unchondrified - Alisphenoid- helps to form lateral
Identifiable notochord, olfactory walls, derived from palatoquadrate
capsule, otic capsule and basal plate cartilage and NOT NEUROCRANIUM
Neurocranium components are *Mammals: Sphenoid bone with wings=
separate basisphenoid + alisphenoid + presphenoid
 I can do all things through Christ which strengthens me Phils 4:13
NO REPLACEMENT BONE develop
above the brain
C. Ethmoid Centers
- Anterior to sphenoid and includes
ethmoid plate + olfactory capsule
- Remains cartilaginous in tetrapods
- For amniotes- mesethmoid bones
(contributes to the nasal septum of
birds and mammals)
- Turbinal bones- in the walls of the
nasal passageway of most reptiles,
birds and mammals
- Cribriform plate- in mammals, with
olfactory foramina (that transmits
bundles of olfactory nerve fibers from
the olfactory epithelium to the brain)
- Anurans have sphenethmoid (from
sphenoid and ethmoid)
- Sphenodon have ectethmoid
- NOT ALL CARTILAGE IN THE NASAL
PASSAGE OF THE AMNIOTES ARE
DERIVED FROM THE ETHMOID
(sesamoid bone)
D. Otic Centers
1. Prootic- anterior
2. Opisthotic- posterior
3. Epiotic- above
Petrosal bone/Periotic= fusion of the
three in mammals and birds
Opisthotic + Exoccipital= fusion in the
frogs and nonavian reptiles
Temporal bone= Petrosal bone +
Squamosal bone (membrane bone)
Fontanel membranous soft spot in the
dorsal portion of the neurocranium
- dense fibrous connective tissue
- advantage: temporary mishapening
during passage of infant in the
birthcanal
Bregmatic Bones ossified fontanel
DERMATOCRANIUM
- membrane bones of the skull
- the bones in the skin are also part of the skull
- neurocranium: endoskeleton while the dermal
bones:exoskeleton
- membrane bones is the one that constitute the
modern dermatocranium of the fishes to
humans
- ossify from dermal mesenchyme (primitive) or
subdermal mesenchyme (modern
vertebrates)
Parts of the dermatocranium (4)
A. Roofing Bones (-al)
- First seen in rhipdistian
- Provides protecting shield and special
sense organs with openings only for
nares, paired eyes and parietal
(median) eyes
- Labyrinthodonts= paired nasals,
frontals, parietals and postparietals
Postparietal DISAPPERED in
amphibians
- Vault Series (4): paired nasal,
frontals, parietals and postparietals
- Orbital Series (5): intertemporal,
supratemporal, tabular, quadratojugal
and squamosal
- Temporal Series (6): prefrontal,
postfrontal, lacrimal, infraorbital,
postorbital and jugal
B. Dermal Bones of the Upper Jaw
(Marginal Bones)
- Palatoquadrate Cartilage (precursor
of upper jaw of the bony fishes)
- Premaxillae and Maxillae (becomes
part of the margin of the
dermatocranium)
C. Primary Palatal Bones (-pterygoid)
- Primary Palate
fishes: roof of the oropharyngeal
cavity of fishes
Basal tetrapods- oral cavity
- remains in the roof of the nasal
passageway even after developing
secondary palate
parasphenoid, vomer, palatine,
endopterygoid, ectopterygoid
Primary Palate- amphibians
Secondary Palate- reptiles, birds and
mammals
D. Opercular Bones
- Operculum- outgrowth of the hyoid arch,
extends caudad from the gill slit
Membranous for holecephalans
 I can do all things through Christ which strengthens me Phils 4:13
Absent in elasmobranch
Bony fishes- stiffened by squamous
plates of the dermal bone
- Constant: large opercular,
preoperculars, suboperculars and
interopercular
- Basal bony fishes: Gular bones
- Ray finned fishes and Dipnoans:
Branchiostegal rays and branchiostegal
membranes of the operculum
- Tetrapods: No opercular or gular
plates or vestiges remains
Neurocranial and Dermatocranial Complex
a. Basal Actinopterygians
N remains almost completely
cartilaginous throughout life
Only otic capsules are endochondral
For Polypterus- neurocranium is well
ossified, primitive
b. Basal Neopterygians
Amia neurocranium is cartilaginous
Gars are bony
c. Teleost
Highly specialized and structural
Highly maneuverable jaws
Compressed laterally and vaulted
dorsally
Neurocranium is fully ossified except for
olfactory capsules
3 bones of the middle ear
1. Malleus (hammer)
2. Incus (anvil)
3. Columella/Stapes (Stirrup)
Neurocranial-Dermatocranial Complex of
Modern Tetrapods
a. Amphibians
Neurocranium is incomplete dorsally
and much of it remains cartilaginous
except in apodans
Apodans have rigid skull for burrowing
Only replacement bone in anurans and
urodeles are sphenethmoid, 2 prootics
and 2 exoccipital (bearing a condyle)
Columella (stapes)- middle ear ossicle
that conducts sound waves from an
eardrum to the capsule
Dermatocranium is incomplete (no
temporal bones)
They have premaxillae and maxillae
Anurans: large palatal vacuities
Apodans: least modified, rigid
b. Non-avian reptiles
Primitive reptiles- well-ossified
neurocranium, single occipital condyle
Turtles have enigmatic skull
Temporal Fossae
A cavernous opening in the temporal region of
some amniote skulls bounded by one or more
bony arches
Provide space and surface for accommodation
of adductor muscle
Anapsids: turtle and stem reptiles
- No TF, unperforated
Synapids: mammals
- Single lateral TF
- Surrounded by postorbital, squamosal and
jugal bones
- Infratemporal arch (squamosal + jugal)
- Zygomatic arch (human cheeks)
Diapsids- Sphenodon, lizards, snakes and
crocodiles
- Two fossae are present: superior
(supratemporal) and inferior (zygomatic)
temporal fossae
Modified Diapsid Skull: snakes, lizards
and birds
-cavernous void in the posterolateral walls
of the squamate skulls due to loss of
arches
Euryapsid: ichthyosaur, plesiosaurs
- one pair of dorsally located TF
(supratemporal fossa)
- evolved from the diapsid type with the
loss of the ventral pair
Secondary Palate
a horizontal partition that partially or
completely divides the primitive oral cavity
into separate oral and nasal passageways,
thus displacing the internal nares
primary palatal components: remain in
the roof of the nasal passageway with a
reduced membrane bone
other reptiles- not all palatal components
reach the midventral line
 I can do all things through Christ which strengthens me Phils 4:13
Palatal fissure- if the secondary palate is
incomplete such as in turtles and birds
The respiratory airstream is channeled
in a fairly deep longitudinal groove
Cranial Kinesis
The movement of the functional component
of a skull independent of another
component
Possible due to movable intracranial
joints btwn the 2 components
Found in teleosts, lizards, birds and snakes
Associated in food-getting and manipulation
of food within the oral cavity
Snakes: can open their mouth wide
Birds
Mostly reptilian but have modifications
some roofing bones are lost
dermal bones are thinner
modified diapsid (superior and inferior TF is
lost)
rear: solid bony box (neurocranium +
dermatocranium), protects sutures needed
for input and processing of infos
front: food procuring and handling area,
elongated beak and palate
parietal foramen: closed
neurocranium is incomplete dorsally
only cartilaginous: olfactory capsule and
mesethmoid component of the interorbital
septum
not all are equally kinetic (some have
C. VISCERAL
minimal kinetism like the woodpecker)
parasphenoid incorporated with
basisphenoid
Mammals
unique: emergence of (1) dentary as the
sole bone of the lower jaw (altered site of
articular of the lower jaw with the braincase)
(2) alteration in the secondary palate (3)
three bones in the middle ear cavity (
neurocranium is dorsally incomplete
have fontanels (membranous soft spots
bregmatic bones may ossify
antiepileptic bone
Inca bone- bone where postparietal is still
present
In humans premaxillae is not identifiable
Tympanic bulla= tympanic (surrounds
tympanic membrane) + entotympanic
(cartilage replacement ossification)
Petrous portion= fused prootic + opisthotic
+ epiotic= ossified in the otic capsule
Nasal process of the palatine (lateral wall
of the nasopharynx that contributes to the
wall of the orbit)
Pterygoid process- reduced, in the
sphenoid complex, serves as the anatomic
origin of the powerful pterygoid muscle
Parasphenoid and ectopterygoid = LOST
Have three nasal conchae
a. Superior- covered by olfactory
epithelium
b. Inferior and Middle- covered by nasal
epithelium
These increases the surface area of the
epithelia
Turtles- 1 pair
Birds- 2 pairs
Unique: presence of the ossified posterior
tips of the palatoquadrate and Meckels
cartilage in the middle ear that now serves
as the ear ossicles along with the
columella
Reduction due to:
1. Fusion of adjacent embryos
2. Phylogenetic loss of ossification
centers
3. Obliterations of sutures in young
animals
SKELETON/SPLANCHNOCRANIUM
Skeleton that develops within the
pharyngeal arches
Origin: neural crest blastemas
(producing cartilage first)
1st arch- only arch that is ensheathed
by dermal bone
Sharks
Lacks bones
Consist of: cartilages in each
pharyngeal arch, median basihyal and
basibranchial cartilage
Mandibular arch has two components:
(1) dorsal- palatoquadrate (2) ventral-
Meckels cartilage
Hyomandibular cartilage- with gill-
bearing ceratohyal
 I can do all things through Christ which strengthens me Phils 4:13
Hyostylic jaw suspension- the dorsal
end of the hyomandibula is bound by
ligaments to the otic capsules and
suspends the jaws and the entire
branchial skeleton from the
neurocranium
Bony Fishes
The palatoquadrate and Meckels
cartilage become invested by
membrane bones during development
Hyoid skeleton- has greater number of
segments
Embryonic cartilage of the gill arches
are ultimately replaced by the bone
Site of articulation btwn the upper
and lower jaw: posterior ends of the
palatoquadrate articulate throughout
life with the posterior ends of the
Meckels cartilage
palatoquadrate cartilage ensheathed
by premaxilla and maxilla
roof of the oropharyngeal cavity
develop two to three dermal
ossification sites
ossification:
1. posterior
palatoquadratequadrate bone
2. caudal Meckels
cartilagearticular bone
3. remaining cartilagedentary,
angular
ossification centers:
hyomandibular cartilage:
SYMPLECTIC and INTERHYAL
ceratohyal: EPIHYAL
Living Agnathans
NO palatoquadrate, Meckels
cartilage, hyoid cartilage and
branchial arch cartilage
V-shaped lingual cartilage- bears
horny teeth and located in the floor of
the buccal cavity moves in and out of
the buccal funnel
Serves as rasping tonguelike
organ
Tetrapods
Larval frogs- six pairs of visceral
cartilage (last 4 bears gills)
Hypobranchial plate- where the
cartilages of the gill arches meet
ventrally, but latter becomes
incorporated with the body of the hyoid
Ceratohyal of the 2nd arch- anterior
horn
Ceratohyal of the 4th arch- posterior
horn
New function: serves as an
anchorage for the muscular tetrapod
tongue
Jaw suspension in fishes
1. Hyostylic jaw suspension- elasmobranch
and most bony fishes
Hyomandibular cartilage is braced
against the otic capsule
Posterior end of the palatoquadrate
cartilage is braced against the
hyomandibula
2. Amphistyly
Primitive
The hyomandibula and one or more
processes of the palatoquadrate are
braced independently against the
braincase
3. Autostylic- early sharks, chimaeras and
lungfishes
Palatoquadrate is attached to the
neurocranium
Hyomandibula plays no role in the
jaw suspension
Fate of the palatoquadrate and meckels
cartilage
Quadrate bone INCUS (middle ear
ossicle)
Meckels cartilagedentary, angular,
suprangular, splenial, coronoid, prearticular
posterior end of MC articular (excluding
mammals), MALLEUS (mammals; middle
ear ossicle)
Expansion of the Dentary and a New Jaw Joint
in Mammals
TF enables the adductor mandibulae
muscles of the synapsids to enlarge,
subdivide and acquire anatomic origins
The increase in the mass of the muscle
is due to (1) expansion of the dentary bone
and (2) formation of ramus (where
temporalis muscle is inserted)
 I can do all things through Christ which strengthens me Phils 4:13
Articular bone ear ossicle
columella/ stapes first ear ossicle;
derived from the hyomandibula,
specifically the dorsal tip of the hyoid
arch
Mammals have 2 dentary bones
Ear Ossicles from the Hyomandibula and Jaws
Hyomandibula Columella (Stapes), the
1st ear ossicle (columella conducts sound
waves from the eardrum to the inner ear)
Still interposed btwn the quadrate
and otic capsule
Caudal end of meckels cartilage
malleus
Evidences:
1. embryonic Meckels cartilage projects into
the area where middle ear cavitaion is
proceeding
2. MCs cartilaginous posterior tip can be
seen to separate, ossify and become the
malleus
Quadrate bone incus
Evidences:
1. articulation of the articular and
quadrate bones in the diarthrosis
2. separation of the articular from the
lower jaw
3. disappearance of the quadrate from the
upper jaw
4. articulation of the articular in diarthrosis
with the incus
Amniote Hyoid
consist of: (1) body in the pharyngeal floor
just anterior to the larynx (2) 2-3 horns in the
pharyngeal walls
derived from: homologous anlagen
Lizards and birds: entoglossus (elongated
bony process that extends from the body
forward into the long darting tongue
Snakes have no hyoid
Mammals: cranial horns from the 2nd arch
and caudal horns from 3rd arch
Cranial horns (greater horns);
tympanohyal- dorsal most and ends with a
notch in the tympanic bulla
Caudal horns (lesser horns)
Stylohyal- imbedded in the tendon of
insertion of the posterior belly of the
stylohyoid muscle
Humans:
1. Ceratohyals (lesser horns)
2. Epihyal and Stylohyal (unossified
Stylohyoid Ligament)
3. Tympanohyal (attached to the temporal
bone)
Functions of the hyoid:
1. Anchors the tongue of tetrapods
2. Skeleton for the buccapharyngeal
pressure pump
3. Respiration in anurans
4. Attachment for extrinsic muscles of the
larynx
5. Lower jaw movement
6. Attachment of muscles for swallowing
Laryngeal Skeleton
tetrapods have cricoids and arytenoid
cartilage (replacing bones)
products of the 5th arch
mammals have thyroid cartilage or bones
arise from the mesenchyme of the 4th and
5th pharyngeal arch
CHAPTER 10
Appendicular Skeleton- pectoral, pelvic, skeleton
of the fins and limbs
Girdles- brace the fins and limbs against the
counterforces that appendages transmit from water
or substrate
terrestrial amniotes have the greatest force
becoz they need to lift themselves above
the ground
Limb buds- pair of tetrapod limbs during
embryogenesis
Fin folds- where fins arise during embryogenesis
PECTORAL GIRDLES- dermal + replacement
bone
Ostracoderms
-w/ pectoral appendages
-girdles remain unclear
Teleost- modern bony fishes
-cleithrum- the major bone of the girdle
-no clavicle
-scapulocoracoid- fusion of scapula +
coracoid
Cartilaginous fishes
-have endoskeletal component
 I can do all things through Christ which strengthens me Phils 4:13
-do not ossify but become hardened thru
calcification of the cartilaginous matrix
Tetrapods
-interclavicle- additional membrane bone
-lost posttemporal (that usually braced the
girdle against the skull)
Basal Amphibian
-supercleithrum is missing
-cleithrum did not last when the species
arrived to land
Fate of the Clavicle
Urodeles and Apodans- missing
Nonavian reptiles- uncommon
Birds- found in the long bones of the
furculum/wishbone
In turtles- epiplastra
Fate of the Coracoid
Assist the clavicle or replace them
functionally in bracing scapula against the
sternum
Arise from the coracoid plate in the lateral
body wall extending ventrad from the
glenoid region of the scapula
Procoracoids- arise from the anterior
ossification center of the plate
Coracoids- arise from the posterior
ossification center
Fate of the Scapula
Present in all tetrapods that retain any
vestiges of anterior limbs becoz it bears
part or all of the glenoid fossa for
articulation of the girdle w/ the head of the
humerus
Suprascapular- ossification center
remains independent in urodeles and
anurans
Mammalian Pectoral Girdle
Therapsid Girdle and Monotremes-
interclavicle, clavicle, procoracoid, coracoid
and scapula
Eutherians- scapula and clavicle only
remains of the coracoid ay naging
coracoid process
Parts of the mammalian scapula
Suprascapular spine- insertion site for
some of the appendicular muscle that arise
from the vertebral column. It divides the
scapula into:
a. Supraspinous fossae
b. Infraspinous fossae
*these fossae are the origin of strong
muscles that insert on the humerus
Acromion process- for muscular
attachment forms near the glenoid fossa
Mammalian Clavicle
Monotremes, Insectivores and Primates-
have large of this
Large in mammals with strong forelimbs that
is usually used for digging, climbing or flying
Felines- claviclesplinter
Cetaceans, Ungulates and some-clavicle is
eliminated
Cat- clavicle is a vestigial splinter, that enables
the cat to withstand the shock of landing
upright on their forelimbs after a leap as it has
a no rigid connection btwn scapulae and
another part of the skeleton
Ungulates- absent for grazing
Dermal bones predominate in the pectoral girdle of
bony fishes whereas replacement bone in
tetrapods
PELVIC GIRDLE- no dermal bone
Fishes
Have a pair simple cartilaginous or bony
pelvic (ischiopubic) plate- that meets in
the midventral pelvic symphysis- provides
a brace for the pelvic fins
Cartilaginous Fishes and Lungfishes
2 embryonic cartilage unite to form an adult
plate
Tetrapods
Also develops cartilaginous pelvic plate,
each has two centers and form
1. Pubis
2. Ischium- posterior
Urodeles- nagreremain yung cartilaginous
pelvic plate
Dorsal to pelvic plate is a blastema that give
rise to ilium
Acetabulum- found at the junction of pubis,
ischium and ilium. The one that receives the
head of the femur
 I can do all things through Christ which strengthens me Phils 4:13
The ilium is braced in the against the stout
transverse process of the sacral
vertebrae
a. Amphibians-1
b. Nonavian reptiles- 2
c. Birds and Mammals- more
Ribs usually become ankylosed to the
transverse process
The force is distributed throughout
either by:
1. Dorsally by ilia
2. Ventrally by pubis and ischium
In amniotes
sacrum and girdle is united rigidly and
form a bony closure thus meron silang
pelvic cavity (houses the urogenital organs
and the terminal portion of the large
intestine)
In frogs
Ilia is slender and greatly elongated, extend
from the sacral vertebra to the end of
urostyle
Have a movable sacroiliac joint (for
leaping)
In Urodeles- weak posterior limbs
Prepubic cartilage- extends from the girdle
forward in the linea alba for 2-3 somites
Furnishes attachment for certain muscle
utilized for respiration
Develop due to losing their gills and
develop lungs
In Reptiles
Ilium becomes braced to an additional
vertebrae
Pubis is directed away from the ischium
(having a triradiate girdle)
Birds + Ornithischian Dinosaurs- the
pubis and ischium are parallel and directed
caudad
In some reptiles: ischiopubic fenestra
(result from the incompletion of the wall of
the socket)
Epipubic (Marsupial bone, supports the marsupial
pouch) and Hypoischial- one or both are present
in monotremes and marsupials, also in some
reptiles
In birds
Synsacrum= where the ilia and ischia is
united
Provides broad surface for attachment of
hindlimbs muscle used in bipedal stance
and for the thrust required by some species
for flight takeoff
Pubis bones- reduced to a splinter,
directed caudad and parallel to ischium,
does not meet ventrally (for laying off eggs)
Archaeopteryx- no synsacrum
In mammals
Ilium + ischium + pubis= akylosed to form a
left and right innominate (coxal) bone
Dorsally the ilium on each side ankyloses
with the synsacrum in an immobile
sacroiliac joint
Ventroposteriorly, the pubis and ischia
meet in a pubic or ischiopubic symphysis
(completing the walls of the pelvic cavity)
Relaxin-the hormone that softens the
fibrocartilage of the pelvic symphyses,
permits expansion of the pelvic outlet for
delivery
FINS
(1) Serve as a steering device for changing
directions, (2) stabilizers that prevent the
body from rolling or wobbling, (3) device
that control the inclination of the body in
swimming away from the horizontal
Pectoral fins- for forward locomotion,
provided by the lateral undulation of the
posterior part of the trunk, tail and caudal fin
Fins are consist of two surfaces of skin back
to back, stiffened by flexible fin rays
Consist of bony basalia (absent in teleost)
and one or more rows of radialia (usually a
vestige in teleost)
Two types of fin rays
a. Lepidotrichia- jointed bony dermal scales
aligned end to end
b. Ceratotrichia- unjointed, long horny rays
and have a material similar to that of the
dorsal spines of the sharks
Paired Fins
1. Lobed fins- for sarcopterygians
have fleshy proximal lobe (contains the
skeleton and attached muscle
have membranous distal portion that is
stiffened by fin rays
2. Fin fold fins- for chondrichthyans (dogfish,
skates and chimaera)
have broad base
 I can do all things through Christ which strengthens me Phils 4:13
have three basalia: pro-, meso- and
metapterygia
in male the basalia are modified into
clasper
3. Ray fins- for actinopterygians
most have no pelvic fins (correlated for
streamlining)
tuna the largest propel themselves by
forward undulation
Biseralia- fins with two series of radials
Median Fins
Acts as a keel, keeping motionless fishes
from rolling to the left and right, and rare
cases can be used for location
Dorsal fins
Anal fins of some viviparous teleost
becomes modified into gonopodium
(analogous to clasper)
Caudal fins
1. HETEROCERCAL notochord turns upward
into a large dorsal lobe; placoderms, Paleozoic
and modern sharks, some acanthodians, and
chondrosteans (sturgeons and spoonbills)
2. HYPOCERCAL vertebral column turns
downward; ichthyosaurs (result of evolutionary
convergence)
3. DIPHYCERCAL externally symmetrical,
vertebral column ends with a little upbending;
dipnoans and Latimeria
4. HOMOCERCAL notochord or urostyle turns
far dorsad; teleosts
*Heterocercal condition primitive and the rest
are modifications of it
*Similaities in morphologic features of caudal fins
may be the result of convergent evolution
ORIGIN OF PAIRED FINS
Fin fold hypothesis- paired fins are
derived from a pair of continuous fleshy
folds of lateral body wall analogous to the
metapleural folds of an amphioxus; no
evidence; of historical interest only
Gill arch hypothesis- pectoral and pelvic
girdles are modified gill arches, and the
skeleton within the fin is an expansion of the
gill rays
Fin spine hypothesis- membranes in 2
pairs develop in rays supported by radial
elements
*Pelvic fins appear to be a gnathostome feature.
*Spines in acanthodians derived feature
TETRAPOD LIMBS
In reptiles and mammals
There has been a rotation of the entire
appendages toward the body
Limbs are excellent shock absorbers
Divided into three segments
1. Stylopodium (Propodium)
Includes the upperarm, thigh and single
bone (humerus or femur)
2. Zeugopodium (Epipodium)
Includes the forearm, shank and two
parallel bones; (1) radius and ulna
(preaxial sides) and (2) tibia and fibula
(post-axial sides)
Stylopodium + Zeugopodium= elbow joint and
knee joint
3. Autopodium
Has three divisions
a. Basipodium
Carpus (wrist) and Tarsus (ankle)
Consist of proximal row of bones
(1) radiale or tibiale
(2) intermedium
(3) ulnare or fibulare and
(4) Centralia
Distal group of five carpalia or tarsalia
b. Metapodium
metacarpus (palm) and metatarsus
(sole)
Consist of distal group of five bones in
a row- metacarpals and metatarsals
c. Acropodium
Each digits consist of a linear row of
bones termed phalanges
First tetrapod- have 7 digits; two extra
are called (1) prepollex (pre-axial side)
and (2) postminimus (post-axial side)
Radius- pre-axial, usually bears the force
Ulna- post axial, may be vestigial
Sesamoid bone- bone from the tendon
Patella or kneecap (protects the joint from
the abrasive action of the tendon)
Tibia
Fibula
In frogs: tibiofibula
In chicken: slender and reduced to splinter
In deer: lost
 I can do all things through Christ which strengthens me Phils 4:13
In birds: tibiotarsus
Pentadactyl limb- 5 digit limb
MANUS- wrist + palm + digit
Carpus (wrist)
consist of 3 more or less regular rows of
carpal bones
Proximal Carpals
a. Radiale
b. Intermedium
c. Ulnare
d. Pisiform- a sesamoid bone
Centrale- middle row, 3 or more bones
Distal Carpals- 5
a. Hamate- fused 4th and 5th distal carpals
Metacarpus- skeleton of the palm
Phalanges-
Early: 2-3-4-5-3
Late therapsids: 2-3-3-3-3 (universal formula)
PREPOLLEX elongated carpal; can be seen in a
panda
POLLEX thumb
MODIFICATIONS OF MANUS:
1. reduction in the number of bones by evolutionary
loss or fusion
2. disproportionate lengthening or shortening of
some of the bones
3. increase in the number of phalanges
ADAPTATION OF MANUS
Flight
Carpometacarpus- 3 distal carpals unite
with 3 metacarpals
Alula- 1st finger of the bird, for braking
For bats and pterosaurs the hand is the
main part of the wing
Patagium- 4th finger that is imbedded in the
wing membrane, a result of convergent
evolution if present in unrelated mammals
(lemurs, bats, pterosaurs)
Life in the Ocean
Hands flippers
Sea lions, cetaceans and sirenias,
ichthyosaurs and plesiosaurs, seals and
penguins
Flippers- flatten and stout, phalanges have
greatly increased
But it is impt to note that some do not
use flippers for locomotor trust, the
flippers acts as for manuevering- seals,
walruses, cetaceans and sirenias they move
thru dorsal and ventral undulation
Swift-Footedness
PLANTIGRADE common in mammals
with pentadactyl limbs (monotremes,
marsupials, insectivores, bears, arboreal
raccoons and primates); primitive tetrapod
stance
DIGITIGRADE rabbits, rodents and most
carnivores; increased speed and agility and
more silent than plantigrade
UNGULIGRADE stance that is well-suited
for running
a. PARAXONIC FEET (even, 3&4) body
weight borne on two parallel axes;
artiodactyls (camel, pigs, hippopotamus,
cattles )
b. MESAXONIC FEET (odd, 3) body
weight borne on the middle digit;
perissodactyls (horse, tapirs and
rhinoceros)
Grasping
accomplished by flexing the fingers at each
interphalangeal joint; primates, rodents;
opposable thumb
PES
Tarsals wrist with 3 rows of bones:
a. proximal tarsals
fibulare
intermediale
tibiale
b. centralia 3 or more bones
c. distal tarsal- 5
cuboid- fusion of 4th and 5th
Metatarsals- skeleton of the sole
Phalanges
2-3-4-5-4 Sphenodon and generalized formula
for reptiles
2-3-4-4-0 Alligators
2-3-3-3-3 for early therapsids and mammals
Prehallux-vestige of a tarsal and metatarsal
Hallux- great toe, opposable in primates but not in
humans
Astragalocalcaneus- fused proximal tarsals and
centrale, lizards
Tibiofibula- tibia +fibula (frogs); splinter for birds,
lost in deer
 I can do all things through Christ which strengthens me Phils 4:13
Tibiotarsus- proximal tarsals + lower end of the
tibia, no centralia
Tarsometatarsus- distal tarsals + 3 fused
metatarsals
*Intratarsal joint= btwn the tibiotarsus +
tarsometatarsus
*Joint= btwn tarsometatarsus + toes, for digitigrade
stance, keeping birds ready for takeoff
Zygodactyl- forming X by woodpeckers and
parrots (enabling them to have firm grip on rough
bark on a vertical tree trunk while drilling)
Mammals
NO intratarsal joint instead have a large
hinge joint (where the tibia and fibula meet
the ankle)
Tibiale- principal weight bearing bone of the
ankle
Metatarsal arch (homonids)- distributes the
body weight over all 4 solid bases, absorbs
some of the shock generated by bipedal
locomotion and provides spring for walking
and running
*In wriggling seals, walruses, cetaceans and
sirenians, the anterior flippers are for maneuvering.
Wriggling seals move using their posterior flippers
and with lateral undulations of the trunk.
Walruses, cetaceans and sirenians move by
dorsal and ventral undulations.
Origin of the limbs
1. Modification of the existing structures
Rhipidistian pectoral fin with basal bone
articulates proximally with scapula and
distally with a pair of radials
Loss of fin rays and modifications of
distal radials could have produced the
skeleton of the tetrapod limb
Preaxial and postaxial radials could
have formed the digits
2. Formation of new features
Initial cell proliferations develop the limb
buds at the sides of the trunk of the
body
Second period of cell proliferation
occurs at right angles to the limb axis
(distal to the wrist) giving rise to the
digits
Locomotion of Land without Limbs
1. Serpentine or Lateral Undulation-
Forming irregular loops that become
propped against and push against any
available stationary object on their path
minimum of 3 contact sites are
necessary
no appreciable force is exerted
downward against the ground
2. Rectilinear Locomotion
gliding forward on the substrate while
keeping the entire body in a straight line
ventral skin acts as conveyor belt
depends on generating friction btwn the
ventral skin and substrate
two sets of striated muscles are
responsible; (1) pair of costocutaneous
muscle extends downward and backward,
(2) a pair that extends obliquely for forward
3. Sidewinding-enables rattlesnakes and
other to inhabit sandy deserts
4. Concertina movements
modified serpentine movements
Bracing S-shaped loops against the
burrow wall and exerting horizontal force
while thrusting the head and forebody
foreward
*these are all possible due to the vertebral
column with flexible intravertebral joints,
exceptional ribs that extends from the atlas to tip
of the tail
CHAPTER 11
Muscles
muscle: tissue, muscles: organs
specialized to perform a single function: to shorten
when stimulated and recover thereafter.
Shortening is a result of chemical change
between two muscle proteins; the actin and
myosin
the usual stimulus for muscle contraction is a nerve
impulse, although this does not hold true for a
cardiac muscle
Striated Muscle Tissue
long, cylindrical multinucleated muscle
fibers, each with a transverse bands and
longitudinal striae
 I can do all things through Christ which strengthens me Phils 4:13
Myofibrils- parallel threadlike fiber that
causes the longitudinal striation
consist of sarcomeres, repeated
component of the myofibrils (consisting of
myofilaments, a proteins; (1) actin and (2)
myosin
Striated muscle fiber is NOT A CELL but a
syncytium, a single functional unit of the
striated muscle fiber (when myoblast
become aligned end to end and unite)
Sarcolemma- plasma membrane
Motor end plate- portion of the
sarcolemma with receptors for
neurotransmitters
single nerve cell supplies motor end
plates a many muscle fibers, so that motor
units (functional group of muscle fibers)
contracts when stimulated
Cardiac Muscle Tissue
Contains myofibrils and filaments of actin
and myosin
Cell is uninucleate
Cell is separated by intercalated disks (link
cytoplasm of adjacent cell)
Can contract without nervous
stimulation
Innervated by fibers of the autonomic
nervous system
Cardiac tissue regularly self-depolarize
(myogenic)
Smooth Muscle Tissue
Are fusiform
Uninucleate
With myofibrils but LACK STRIATION
Innervated by autonomic nervous
system
Major Categories of Muscle
I. Somatic Muscles
Orient the body (soma) of the organism in
the external envt.
Striated muscles that attached to
ligaments, tendons and bones of the axial
skeleton to the appendicular skeleton and
skeletal components of the lateral and
ventral body walls
Innervated by spinal nerves
Voluntary
Derivatives: myotomes of mesodermal
somites
Primitively segmented
Usually in body wall and appendages
II. Visceral
Regulate internal envt
Smooth muscle of the hollow organs,
vessels, tubes and ducts
The intrinsic musculature of the eyeballs
and erector muscle of feathers and hair
Includes cardiac muscle
Derivatives: splanchnic mesoderm
Innervated by ANS
Unsegmented
Usually in the splanchnopleure
III. Branchiomeric Somatic Muscle
Belong to the pharyngeal arches and their
ontogenic or phylogenetic derivatives from
fishes to human beings
Striated skeletal muscle
Origin: myotomal (most anterior somites
and unsegmented paraxial mesoderm in the
head)
Somitomers-individual subdivision of the
paraxial somites and:
1. Does not fully segment
2. Lack sclerotome and dermatome
components
Innervated by cranial nerves
Skeletal Muscles as Organs
Epimysium- surrounds the muscle, a
muscle fascia, glistening fibrous sheath
Perimysium- surrounds the major bundles
of muscle fibers
Endomysium- collagenous reticulum that
supports the muscular, neural and vascular
components of each functional unit
(continuous with perimysium)
Tendons- is the continuation of the muscle
beyond the site where fascicles end
*At the site of attachment the tendon of the
skeleton, collagenous bundles of the tendon
continue into and contribute to the perichondrium or
periosteum of the bone to which they are attached.*
Two Contractile Fiber Types
Twitch Fibers Tonic Fibers
Fast to slow Slow contraction
contraction Postural muscle in
Slow- mammalian amphibians and
postural muscle reptiles
Fast- most Extraocular and ear
 I can do all things through Christ which strengthens me Phils 4:13

locomotor muscle muscle of the 3. Pinnate- feather-lilke

Innervation- a single mammals 4. Domed- diaphragm
action Multiple axons Diaphragm has central tendon
Action potential- all A temporal
or none summation with a Actions of Skeletal Muscle
Variably fatigues graded contraction Extensors- straighten two segments of a limb or
Can maintain vertebral column at a joint
tension efficiently Flexors- draws one segment toward another
Adductors- draw a part toward the midline
Variation of the twitch fiber Abductors- cause displacement away from the
Slow twitch Fast oxidative Fast midline
(Type IA of (Type IIA of Glycolytic Protractors- cause a part (such as tongue or
Mammals) Mammals) (Type IIB of hyoid) to be trust forward or outward
Mammals) Retractors- pull it back
Posture or Fast Powerful Levators- raise a part
slow Fatigue and fast Depressors- lowers a part
repetitive slowly Fatique Rotators- cause a rotation of a part on its axis
movements Large number quickly Supinators- are rotators that turn the palm
Fatigue of Few upward
slowly mitochondria mitochondria Pronators- turn it downward
Large ATP formed ATP formed Tensors- make a part (such as eardrum) more
number of by oxidative by taut
mitochondria phosphorylati glycolysis- Constrictors- compresses internal part
High richer on with possible Sphincters- constrictors that make an opening
blood supply Bird flight oxygen debt smaller
and muscle White breast Dilators- constrictors that make an opening
myoglobin of domestic larger
Dark meat of fowl *Most sphincters and dilators are nonskeletal
fish and fowl Note: For muscle groups to function smoothly,
they must be under reflex control of the
Origin, Insertion and Muscle Shapes cerebellum, which dispatches motor impulses to
Origin- site of attachment that remains fixed appropriate muscles on receiving sensory
under most functional condition feedback from proprioceptive receptors located in
Insertion- site of attachment that is usually the muscles, in the tendons, bursas and capsules
displaced by contraction of the muscle affected joints
Belly- free part, in between the origin and
insertion Names and homologies of Skeletal Muscle
Aponeuroses- tough, thin sheetlike expanses of Muscles sometimes alter their sites of
mammalian tendons and ligaments attachment during evolution as they
Gala Aponeurotica- major component of the spread and produce new slips
mammalian scalp, insertion for Testing homology
integumentary muscle of the forehead, 1. Embryogenesis and neurologic (nerve
temporal and occipital region supply that is dermally derives) (most
Lumbodorsal fascia effective)
Raphes (midline)- are long, seamlike tendons Ex. Coracoscapular muscle of reptiles
(e.g. linea alba) is homologous to supraspinatus and
Tendonous Inscriptions- traverse many infraspinatus muscles of mammals
straplike muscles or broad muscular sheets

Muscle shaped
1. Fusiform- biceps branchii
2. Straplike- sternomastoid, geniohyoid
 I can do all things through Christ which strengthens me Phils 4:13
2. Similarity of location, origin and
insertion
Ex. Genioglossus (mammals, insertion
of tongue) to sublingual seed pouch
(avian)
AXIAL MUSCLE
Skeletal muscles of the trunk and tail
Does not include branchiomeric or
appendicular muscle
Axial muscle of fishes and tetrapods-
metamerism enabling them to propel in
water by lateral undulation (reptiles still
have lateral undulation) mas
appendicular sila kaysa axial
Origin: segmental mesodermal somites
(mesenchyme cells of myotome of each
somite stream into the embryonic lateral
body wall and migrate ventrad while
undergoing repeated cell division
Blastemal cells unite to form striated muscle fibers
Metamerism of the somites- expressed as
myomeres separated by myosepta
Myosepta do not form in the abdominal region of
anurans and amniotes, they only have tendonous
inscription
Trunk and Tail Muscles
A. Fishes
Consist of myomeres separated by myosepta to
which the longitudinal muscle fiber attached
Myosepta serves as origin and insertions of
segmental muscles
Role: locomotion
Linea alba- midventral septum
Have a myomere for each vertebra
Have a spinal nerve for each myomere
Epaxial Muscle and Hypaxial Muscle, separated
by Horizontal skeletogenous septum
Ventral ribs in the lateral body wall- develop
within the myosepta
cones become longer toward the tail, and the
apices of caudally directed cones near the end
of the trunk are often continued as tendonous
extensions that insert on caudal vertebrae.
Forces of contraction is distributed all over the
body segment but greatest in the tail where
flexibility of the vertebral column is also
greater
Counterforces are evoked by pressure of the
undulating body against the water
Oblique fibers- a thin sheet that lies superficial
to the main hypaxial mass ventrolaterally
Bluefin tuna are said to be warm blooded
due to heat generated by contractions of the
voluntary axial musculature
Epibranchial muscle- dorsal to the gills,
continuation of the epaxial muscle to the skull
Hypobranchial muscle- beneath the gills, the
hypaxial muscle extends to the lower jaw
Dorsal rami- supply epaxial myomeres
Ventral rami- larger, innervate hypaxial
myomere
B. Tetrapods
Tailed amphibians retained the primitive
metamerism of epaxial and hypaxial muscle
Disappearance of epaxial myosepta in
amniotes (nagkaroon ng extension of the
spines)- gave rise to long, straplike or pinnate
bundles disposed above the transverse process,
leaving vestige of the metamerism in deepest
bundle.
Modification:
1. Epaxial myosepta disappeared
2. Hypaxials of the abdomen have no
myosepta and form broad sheet of muscle
with fibers disposed in different layers (as
musclular sling to support the viscera)
Greatly increased the flexibility of the
reptilian and mammalian vertebral column-
due to revised vertebral musculature and
modification of the intervertebral joints
Dorsal arching and greater lateral
undulation na sila
Necturus- retained epaxial and hypaxial (has
now 3 layers) myomeres
Sphenodon- retained epaxial muscle only and
has now a broad stratified sheet
Note: loss of the metamerism in the axial muscle
also results to the loss of horizontal skeletogenous
septum
Epaxial Muscles of the Trunk
Function: straightening the vertebral column
and in lateral flexion of the body
Extends from the base of the skull to the tip of
the tail
Muscles act synergetically
Amphibians other than anurans- has
metameric epaxial that arise and insert on
myosepta and transverse process called the
DORSALIS TRUNCI
 I can do all things through Christ which strengthens me Phils 4:13
4 groups of epaxial muscle in amniotes:
(ILSI)
1. Intervertebrals/Shortest bundles
Deepest epaxial muscle
ONLY ones that retain primitive
metamerism
Maintains vertebral posture
Extends btwn
(1) 2 INTERTRANSVERSARII,
(2) 2 INTERSPINALES,
(3) 2 INTERACUALES OR 2
INTERARTICULARES
2. Longgisimus
occupy lateral position above the
transverse process
longest epaxial muscle
dominant extensor in mammals
plays virtually no role in generalized
mammalian locomotion
in the lumbar of mammals: it has 3
distinct bundles
3. Spinales
Includes (1) long and medial
bundles that connect neural spines or
transverse process with neural spines
several or many segments cephalad
and (2) transversospinales that
connect transverse process with the
neural spine of the 2nd vertebra
forward
Multifidus spinae- lumbar
intervertebrals that grouped the
spinales
Assist in maintaining stability of the
column in whatever degree of
extension or flexion is imposed by
other vertebral muscle
Humans: assist in other bundles in
maintaining an upright posture
while standing
4. Iliocostales
Lateral to longissimus
Constitute a thin sheet arising on the
ilium and passing forward to insert on
the ribs and ucinate process
Dominant epaxial in reptiles (provide
leverage for lateral undulation)
Continue forward to the neck but not
caudad into the tail
Provide leverage for lateral undulation
Note: in turtles and birds, the epaxial muscle are
prominent only in the neck because the vertebral
column and ribs (for turtles) are immobilized by the
fusion of synsacrum and carapace respectively.
Complexus- cervical epaxial of birds
insertion: interparietal bone
function: provides power for cracking the
eggshell with the beak during hatching
Hypaxial Muscles of the Trunk (SORT)
Divided into four in amniotes
1. Subvertebrals (longitudinal bundles beneath
the transverse process in the roof of the
coelom)
Meager in thorax but prominent in
lumbar
Action: generally opposite of the epaxial
Longus colli- portion in the neck of the
birds and mammals
Quadratus lumborum- representation of
subvertebrals in lumbar region, in
mammals it is called psoas minor
Origin: centra of several of the last
thoracic vertebrae and the bases of their
ribs and on the transverse processes of
the lumbar vertebrae
Insertion: ventral angle of the wing of
the ilium
Psoas minor
Known as: tenderloin
connects the lumbar vertebrae with
the pelvic girdle
2. Oblique and Transverse Muscle
Parietal Muscle
- external oblique
- internal oblique
- transverse muscles of the abdomen
In amniotes
-external intercostal
-internal intercostal
-transverse muscle of the thorax
One or another sheets can be either split
into two or lost
Cremaster Muscle- loops around the
spermatic cord, commences at the
inguinal ring, inserts fibrous sheath in the
wall of the scrotum
Acts as external respiration (amniotes)
Accessory role (mammals)
 I can do all things through Christ which strengthens me Phils 4:13
Intercostals- assisted by subdivisions of
supracostal mscles that differentiate into:
- Scalenus
- Serratus dorsalis
- Levatores costarum
- Transversus costarum
Urodeles- parietal muscle for locomotion
Crocodiles and some lizards: 3 layers
consist of 2 sheets each
Anurans: internal oblique is missing
Birds: thin
Turles: vestigial
3. Rectus Muscles of the Abdomen
rectus abdominis- extends longitudinally
on either side of the linea alba btwn pubic
symphysis and sternum
assist in flexing the trunk and
supporting the abdominal viscera in a
muscular sling
Urodels: strictly segmental
Anurans and Amniotes: exhibits
irregular transverse tendonous
inscription
Pyramidalis Muscle- a rectus abdominis
in the marsupial pouch (vestigial in
eutherian mammals)
Mammalian Diaphragm
From the 3rd, 4th and 5th cervical spinal
nerves the mesenchyme of the somites
migrate caudad in the somatopleure to
invade the embryonic septum transversum
(coverting into a dome-shaped muscular
diaphragm separating the abdominal and
thoracic cavities)
When completed the diaphragm:
a. Central tendon
b. Muscular portion
c. Cruca- pair of triangular muscular
masses that are firmly anchored to the
lumbar vertebrae
A major component of the suction
pump utilized in mammalian breathing
Hypaxial status is due to: innervation
by ventral rami of cervical spinal nerves
Muscles of the Tail
Intervertebrals and short spinales and
longgisimus continue to the tail as the
lateral extensors
Extensor Caudae Lateralis- tail section of
the longgisimus
Origin: sacral and caudal vertebrae
Insertion: distal tail vertebrae by many long
slender tendons
Action: these epaxial muscles extend the
tail and arch it upward
Caudofemoralis- in urodeles and reptiles, a
muscle that contributes to the fleshy part of
the tail
Dilator and sphincter muscles of the
cloaca and the sphincter muscle of the
anus- derived from hypaxial musculature
Note: meatiest oxtail soup comes from the proximal
portion of the tail
Hypobranchial and Tongue Muscle
Derived: mesenchyme of several
postbranchial somites that streams forward
the floor of the pharynx (anterior trunk
somites and are supplied by cervical spinal
nerves or by hypoglossus)
Anterior extension of the hypaxial
musculature of the trunk
Fishes
1. Coracoarcuales- coracoid region of the
pectoral girdle
2. Coracomandibularis- Meckels
cartilage
3. Coracohyoideus- basihyals
4. Coracobranchialis- ventralmost
segment of the gill cartilage
*These four assist the branchiomeric muscles in
respiration and feeding movements by expanding
the pharynx and gill pouches, moving parts of the
hyoid skeleton and depressing the lower jaw
Rectus cervicis- a hypaxial muscle of the urodeles
Hypobranchial in amniotes:
1. Stabilize the hyoid apparatus and larynx
and draws these cephalad or caudad
2. These are the sternohyoid, sternothyroid,
thyrohyoid, omohyoid and geniohyoid
Tongue (amniotes)- a mucosal sac anchored to
the hyoid skeleton and stuffed with hypobranchial
muscles
Bats- tongue extends far back to the sternum
Chief extrinsic tongue muscle of the mammals
are: (mammalian prehyoid)
1. Hyoglossus
 I can do all things through Christ which strengthens me Phils 4:13
2. Styloglossus
3. Genioglossus
Intrinsic tongue muscle
1. Lingualis (no skeletal attachment)
Hypoglossus- last cranial nerve, a cervical spinal
nerve that become trapped within the amniote skull
Appendicular Muscles
Fishes
Acts as a stabilizers
Dorsal blastemas- form extensors
(elevators of the fin)
Ventral blastemas- flexors (depressor of
the fins)
Anal fins that become gonopodia
Medial dorsal fin- from myotomal
mesenchyme
Medial ventral fin- from hypaxial
myotomes
Postaxial- extend the appendages
Preaxial- flex the appendages
Tetrapods
More complicated due to the joints
Disposed in opposing groups
Have two groups of appendicular muscle
I. Extrinsic Appendicular Muscle
-arise from the axial skeleton or fascia of the
trunk and inserts of the girdle or limb
Origin: blastemas within the embryonic
body wall
Referred to as secondary appendicular
muscles- as they muscles embryonic origin
is not intrinsic to the limb.
Muscles: (LSRTSC)
1. Levator Scapulae
2. Serratus Ventralis
3. Rhomboideus
4. Trapezius
5. Sternomastoideus
6. Cleidomastoideus
II. Intrinsic Appendicular Muscle
-arise from the girdles or limb and inserts
more distally on the limb
Origin: blastemas within the developing
limb
Referred to as primary appendicular
appendages
Exception: latissimus dorsi and iliopsoas of
the posterior limb of generalized mammals
Extrinsic Muscle of the Pectoral Girdles and
Forelimbs
A. Dorsal Group (LSRTCC)
Most constant: latissimus dorsi (inserts on
the humerus)
-Urodeles: arise from superficial fascia,
triangular muscle
-Reptiles: stronger, spread dorsad to
acquire firm attachment
-Mammals: broader dorsal anchorage
continue
Three extrinsic Muscle that inserts on
the dorsal border of the scapula
1. 2 levators of the scapula
Origin: transverse process of the atlas
or on the basioccipital bone and on the
transverse process of the number of
posterior cervical vertebrae
Insert: process of the scapular spine
near the glenoid fossa
2. Rhomboideus group
Origin: occiput and neural spines of a
series of cervival and anterior thoracic
vertebrae
3. Serratus Ventralis
Origin: Slips of the first 9 or 10 thoracic
ribs; transverse process of the last 5
cervical vertebrae
Trapezius- a survivor of the cucullaris
muscle of the fishes
Divides into 3: cleidotrapezius,
acromiotrapezius and spinotrapezius
Innervates via branchiomeric nerves
Cleidomastoideus and Cleido-occipital
Attachment to the clavicle
Moves the head and not function as an
appendicular muscle
B. Ventral Group (PS)
Called the pectoral muscle
Originated on the coracoid cartilage,
median raphe, epicoracoid and entire
length of the sternum
Subdivided into numerous superficial and
deep muscle mass
 I can do all things through Christ which strengthens me Phils 4:13
Urodeles
Pectoralis (chief adductor) and
Supracoracoideus
-in birds: these two are a powerful flight
muscle that depress (pectoralis) and
elevates (supracoracoideus) the wings
Intrinsic Muscle of the Pectoral Girdles and
Forelimbs
A. Dorsal group (DTTTS)
(5 muscles): deltoideus, teres major, teres
minor, subscapularis and long head of the
triceps brachii
Triceps branchii
Insertion: olecranon process of the ulna
Exerts powerful pull that extends the
forearm
2 supinators of the manus- distal to the
triceps, connects the humerus to the radius
Extensors of the hand and digit:
Deltoid muscle of mammals
Homology: dorsalis scapulae or scapular
deltoid
Teres major: appears to be a slip of the
latissimus dorsi
Teres minor: in reptiles called the
scapulohumeralis anterior
B. Ventral group (SIDBAEPC)
Supraspinatus
Infraspinatus
*these two are homologous to: supracoracoid
of the reptiles
Deep coracobrachialis originate from the
coracoid process of the scapula. Present in
reptiles BUT become small to the mammals
Biceps branchii and brachialis- major
flexor of the forearm of the reptiles and
mammals
Anconeus- small and deep (not
homologous to the anconeus of the frogs)
Epitrochleoanconeus- encircles the elbow
joint medially
Pronators of the manus- insert on the
radius and rotate this bone
Flexor of the manus- originate on the
humerus and insert to the long tendon on
the carpals, metacarpals and phalanges
Cleidobrachialis-extends from the clavicle
to the humerus or ulna, present in mammals
- In rabbits and cats: these appear to be
continuous to the basioclavicularis
(rabbits) and cleidotrapezius (cats)
- Innervated by spinal nerves
Birds: extrinsic muscle of the forelimb and
intrinsic muscle of the hindlimb
Muscles of the Pelvic Girdle and Hindlimbs
Cant independently move and are united
with the vertebral column
Caudofemoralis- found in urodeles and
reptiles
-btwn the caudal vertebrae and femur
-not locomotor in urodeles
Part of it: pyriformis in mammals
Muscle of the hindlimbs are chiefly
intrinsic muscle
Reptiles (PPIIIF)
1. Puboischiofemoralis
2. Puboischiotibialis
3. Iliofemoralis
4. Iliotibialis
5. Iliofibularis
6. Femorotibialis
Hindlimbs muscle of the mammals
1. Iliopsoas (iliacus + psoas major)
Appear as separate iliacus (arise in ilium) +
psoas major (arise from extensive area of
fascia covering psoas minor and series of
lumbar vertebrae)
The two inserts and unite at the lesser
trochanter near the femur head
Protacts and rotates femur
In reptiles: Homology:
Puboischiofemoralis internus
Three hip musculature (GPG)-IC
1. Gluteus (reptiles: homology: iliofemoralis)
2. Pyriformis (reptiles: homology:
caudofemoralis brevis)
3. Gemelli
*Origin: wide sacral and caudal vertebrae and on
the ilium and ischium
*Insertion: greater trochanter of the femur
*Action: abducts the thigh and rotates the femur
Quadratus Femoris- (3 vasti and 1 rectus femoris)
Origin: ilium, and greater and lesser trochanter of
the femur
Insertion: ligament in which the patella is
embedded
Vasti- extends the leg
 I can do all things through Christ which strengthens me Phils 4:13
Rectus femoris- adducts the thigh (rotating it to
vary the foot inward)
Other extensors and adductors of the thigh
1. Semi-membranosus
2. Adductor femoris
3. Adductor longus
4. Pectineus
5. Sartorius
6. Gracilis
Two obturator muscles- flex, rotate and
abduct the thigh
Biceps femoris (abducts the thigh) and
Semitendinosus (extends the thigh)
- flexor of the leg
Extensors and Flexors of the foot and digit
1. Gastrocnemius- extensor of the foot
Mammals: long tendon inserts at the calcaneus
Birds: tarsometatarsus
Pectoral Girdle- joined to the trunk by the
extrinsic muscle alone
Pelvic Girdle- firmly ankylosed to the axial
skeleton
Somitomeric and Somitic Muscles of the Head
A. Branchiomeric Muscle
-termed branchiomeric and are striated and
skeletal muscles
In fishes: somatic muscle do not orient the
body in the external envt
Origin: somitomeres and anterior somites
of the head
Muscles of the mandibular arch
In Squalus
o LEVATOR PALATOQUADRATI - raises the
upper jaw
o Arises on otic capsule
o Inserts on the quadrate end of upper jaw
o ADDUCTOR MANDIBULAE- raises the lower
jaw
o Arises on quadrate process
o Inserts on meckel cartilage
o INTERMANDIBULARIS- elevates the anterior
pharyngeal floor
o Extends between meckel and strong
midventral raphe
o SPIRACULARIS(craniomaxillaris)
In mammals: (MTP)
o MASSETER- originated in zygomatic arch
o TEMPORALIS- temporal bone
o PTERYGOIDEUS- pterygoid fossa
intermandibular of fishes is homologous to
MYLOHYOIDEUS
one slip may have given rise to DIGASTRICUS
of tetrapods
TENSOR TYMPANI: probably another slip of the
first-arch, tenses the mammalian eardrum
=mandibular arch muscles of gnathostomes are
innervated by 5th cranial nerve
MUSCLES OF THE HYOID ARCH
In Squalus:
principal muscles of hyoid arch elevate the arch
or constrict the pharyngeal cavity(for respiration
and feeding)
LEVATOR HYOMANDIBULAE and a DORSAL
CONSTRICTOR
origin: neurocranium
insertion: hyomandibula and ceratohyal
cartilage
VENTRAL CONSTRICTOR:
subdivisions: ventral hyoid constrictor and
interhyoideus
In bony fishes:
DORSAL CONSTRICTOR is subdivided; part of
it operates the operculum.
contraction of hyoid arch muscles results in
movement of jaws
*made possible by the joint between the upper and
lower jaw and hyomandibula*
In tetrapods:
hyoid arch muscles continue to serve some of
the functions seen in fishes + acquisition of new
roles
In Necturus: (BDSS
BRANCHIOHYOIDEUS muscle of the hyoid
arch
origin: ceratohyal cartilage
insertion: epibranchial cartilage of the first gill
action: waves the gills back and forth in the
eater for respiration
DEPRESSOR MANDIBULAE-opens mouth of
urodeles and many reptiles
posterior belly of DIGASTRICUS-in mammals,
help in chewing movements
 I can do all things through Christ which strengthens me Phils 4:13
STYLOHYOIDEUS- connects the styloid or
jugular process of the skull with the anterior
horn of the hyoid in mammals
SPHINCTER COLLI- collarlike overlying the
origin of branchiohyoideus
thought to be derived from a portion of
interhyoideus of fishes
in reptiles, spreads upward around the rear of
the skull to insert to the platysma
PLATYSMA- in mammals, becomes the
facial(mimetic muscles)
STAPEDIUS-originates on the posterior wall of
middle ear cavity, inserts on stapes
- Homology: hyomandibular cartilages
- contracts reflexively to impede extra loud
airborne sounds that might injure delicate
hair cells of cochlea
- so named because of its distribution to the
facial muscles
- innervation to the middle ear by V and VII
branchiomeric nerves
*all hyoid arch muscles receive their motor
innervation via the facial (7th) nerve*
MUSCLES OF THE THIRD AND SUCCESSIVE
PHARYNGEAL ARCHES
muscles of the fish caudal to the hyoid: compress
or expand the pharyngeal cavity and gill pouches
during respiration
CONSTRICTORS (dorsal and ventral)
In sharks, directly under skin covered by
tough subcutaneous fascia, that compresses
the gill pouches, expelling the water
LEVATORS
Cucullaris - strong muscle sheet from the
levators that raises the pharyngeal wall
assisted by the levator mandibulae of the
second arch
ADDUCTORS
- Deep in the gill arches; connect
epibranchial and ceratobranchial
cartilages
- Causes the lateral pharyngeal walls to
bow outward when muscles contract,
expanding the pharyngeal chamber
INTERARCUALS(dorsal and lateral)
- Connect successive pharyngo- and epi-
branchials, drawing these together
- Assists in further expansion of pharynx
The coracobranchials in the floor of the pharynx
are HYPOBRANCHIAL
In bony fishes:
branchiomeric muscles caudal to the hyoid
arch are much reduced as a consequence of
the role of the operculum
Refer to table 11 .7 page 260 for Chief
branchiomeric muscles and innervation in Squalus
and Tetrapods
In tetrapods:
branchiomeric muscles have pretty much
disappeared
remaining in ARCH III: (SS)
1. stylopharyngeus- for swallowing
2. posterior belly of stylohyoideus
remaining in ARCH IV- intrinsic muscles of
the mammalian larynx (CCT)
1. cricithyroideus
2. cricoarytenoideus
3. thyroarytenoideus
TRAPEZIUS muscle of amniotes are
derivatives of the cucullaris muscle of fishes
unknown whether homologous as to their
counterpart in urodeles
STERNOCLEIDOMASTOID COMPLEX
aka sternomastoideus,
cleidomastoideus, and in lagomorphs and
few mammals, basioclavicularis, also
known as cleido-occipitalis
has been thought to be of branchiomeric
origin on the basis of innervation by the
spinal accessory nerve
however discovered to be the history of
this nerve is conjectural. OCCIPITOSPINAL
Refer to table 11.8 for chief extrinsic eyeball
muscles and innervation, page 261
B. EXTRINSIC EYEBALL MUSCLES
striated, skeletal, voluntary
origin: orbital wall
insertion: fibrous sclerotic coat of eyeball
In elasmobranches:
from the preotic somitomeres in the
embryonic head
THIRD CRANIAL NERVE innervates four
eyeball muscles:
1. Superior rectus
2. Medial rectus
3. Inferior rectus
4. Inferior oblique
 I can do all things through Christ which strengthens me Phils 4:13

B. Intrinsic integumentary muscles:

FOURTH CRANIAL NERVE innervates the
superior oblique eyeball muscle
SIXTH CRANIAL NERVE innervates the
lateral rectus eyeball muscle
Eyeball muscles of other craniates are
innervated by same nerves
Other than elasmobranches, eyeball muscles
are myotomal in origin
Muscle inserts on:
1. Pyramidalis of reptiles (6th nerve)
2. Quadratus of birds
3. Levator palpebrae superioris of reptiles
and mammals (3rd and 4th cranial nerve)
Protractors and retractors of eyeballs of
reptiles and depressors of the lower lids are
not of similar origin to the eye muscles since
they are innervated by 5th cranial nerve
VI. INTEGUMENTARY MUSCLES
Myotomal muscles innervated by spinal nerves:
COSTOCUTANEOUS MUSCLES of snakes-
hypaxial integumentary muscles used in
locomotion
PANNICULUS CARNOSUS (cutaneous
maximus) wraps around in mammals, enabling
armadillos to roll, forms sphincter around
abdomian puch of marsupials, and vigorously
shake flies off horses.
Poorly developed in monkeys and absent in
humans
CUTANEOUS PECTORIS- maintains original
attachment to the chest wall in anurans
PATAGIAL MUSCLES- insert on the skin of
wing membranes
=develop entirely within the skin, in the dermis
ARRECTORES PLUMARUM
ARRECTORES PILORUM
Both insert on feather or hair follicles,
elevate fur or ruffle feathers.
Both are smooth muscles in almost all
species, innervated by sympathetic nervous
system
VII. ELECTRIC MUSCLES
certain muscle masses are modified to
produce, store, and discharge electricity.
Torpedo(electric ray), Raja, Electrophorus(S.
American eel), Malapterururs(water catfish)
ELECTROPLAX - each disc, a modified
multinucleate muscle fiber embedded in a
vascular jellylike extracellular matrix
surrounded by connective tissue
nerve endings terminating on each disc
induce the charge
No systematic distribution among fishes and
probably evolved independently many times.
electric organ appears to be composed of
modified skin glands rather than muscle
tissue.
Oct 3- 3-5PM

A. Extrinsic integumentary muscles:

developmental and anatomical origins are
away from the dermis
insertion: under the dermis
FACIALIS- most notable integumentary
muscle. Innervated by cranial nerve VII
(BRANCHIOMERIC NERVE )
CANINUS- elevates part of upper lip that
hides spearlike canine tooth
AURICULAR muscles(non-humans)
direct pinnas of ears towards faint
sounds