EDs Basic Histology PDF

Ed's Basic Histology Gallery
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This site was placed originally for the medical students at Kansas City University
of Medicine and Biosciences in Kansas City.
Since then, I have been delighted that many other learners at all levels have
found it helpful.
This site introduces basic concepts of histology actively, without having to

schedule classroom time.
Especially if you plan a career in medicine or bioscience, you will need basic
histology competency in the years ahead.
If you become a doctor, you will need it to make sense of what's

happening at the tissue level -- in "Pathology", in reading professional
journals, and when you are caring for sick people.
If you attend KCUMB, you will need it to complete your three "Pathology"
signoffs and hundred-or-so lab cases successfully.
As a doctor, you will be expected to review at least some of your own
biopsies with the pathologist, regardless of your speciality.

As a lay person, this exercise will help you understand popular articles
about medical science, especially when there are schematic drawings of
tissues.
KCUMB Students who complete this exercise can expect to be successful on the
first histology signoff. (We are considering this as a requirement for completing
the first unit of the new curriculum.)
In this exercise, you will be required to identify, all by yourself, under a real
microscope with a flesh-and-blood instructor, EACH of the following:
nuclei
euchromatin and heterochromatin
nucleoli
mitotic figures
cytoplasm
simple columnar / cuboidal epithelium
stratified squamous epithelium
exocrine glands
smooth muscle
skeletal muscle
collagen fibers
fat
blood vessels
lymphatic vessels
red blood cells
neutrophils
lymphocytes
We hope you enjoy the dynamic approach to histology. We encourage you to ask
at any time, "What is this cell DOING?"
Click here if you hate studying histology.
Start Learning
1. Cells and Fibers
2. Cells in Relationship
3. Some Large Cells
4. More Epithelium and Fibrous Tissue
5. Nuclei and Cytoplasm
6. Nuclei at Low Magnification
7. Some Abnormally Large Nuclei
8. Nucleoli
9. More Nucleoli
10. Still More Nucleoli
11. Heterochromatin and Euchromatin
12. More Heterochromatin and Euchromatin
13. Looking At Nuclei
14. Cancer Nuclei
15. Mitotic Figures
16. Mitotic Figures
17. Mitotic Figures
18. Mitotic Figures
19. Mitotic Figures
20. Introducing Red Blood Cells
21. More Red Blood Cells
22. Arteries and Veins
23. A Larger Artery
24. A Small Vein
25. A Capillary
26. Another Capillary
27. A Small Artery
28. Artery and Vein
29. Artery Branchpoint
30. Dilated Lymphatic Vessel
31. Another Big Lymphatic
32. A Slender Lymphatic Vessel
33. A Collapsed Lymphatic Vessel
34. Cancer Cells in a Lymphatic Vessel
35. Neutrophils and Hemorrhage
36. Neutrophils in Smooth Muscle
37. Neutrophils in Tissue Fluid
38. Neutrophils in Pus
39. Neutrophils in Dead Tissue
40. Neutrophils in Acute Pneumonia
41. Neutrophils in Hemorrhagic Pneumonia
42. Lymphocytes in Tissue Section
43. More Lymphocytes in Tissue Section
44. Another Group of Lymphocytes
45. Lymphocytes and Neutrophils
46. Large Lymphoid Aggregate
47. Lymphocytes and Giant Cells
48. Lymphocytes in Edema
49. Lymphatic Channel in Inflammation
50. Small Blood Vessel
51. Lymphocytes and Plasma Cells
52. Dense Irregular Connective Tissue
53. Smooth Muscle, Longitudinal Section
54. Smooth Muscle, Low Magnification
55. Smooth Muscle, Longitudinal and Cross Sections
56. Smooth Muscle, Interlacing Bundles
57. Smooth Muscle, Cross Section
58. Smooth Muscle vs. Dense Connective Tissue
59. Smooth Muscle in Arterial Wall
60. Inner Circular, Outer Longitudinal
61. Skeletal Muscle, Longitudinal Section
62. Skeletal Muscle, Cross Section
63. Muscle Vasculature
64. White Fat
65. White Fat and its Vessels
66. White Fat, Low Magnification
67. White Fat, High Magnification
68. Fat in a Gland
69. White Fat with Capillary
70. Brown Fat
71. More Brown Fat
72. Simple Cuboidal Epithelium
73. Mucin-Producing Columnar Epithelium
74. Short Columnar Epithelium (Exocrine Glands)
75. Exocrine Pancreas
76. Cuboidal Epithelium, Thyroid
77. Eccrine Sweat Glands
78. Columnar Epithelium, Stomach
79. Columnar Epithelium, Higher Magnification
80. Malignant Epithelium
81. Cuboidal Epithelium, Two Layers
82. Columnar Epithelium, Mucus-Secreting
83. Small Intestinal Crypts
84. Ciliated Epithelium
85. Intestinal Columnar Epithelium
86. Ciliated Epithelium of Oviduct
87. Ciliated Epithelium of Airway
88. Columnar Epithelium and Smooth Muscle
89. Stratified Squamous Epithelium, Smoker's Lung
90. Stratified Squamous Epithelium, Mucosa
91. Stratified Squamous Epithelium, Thick
92. Stratified Squamous Epithelium, Glycogen-Rich
93. Stratified Squamous Epithelium, Lower Layers
94. Stratified Squamous Epithelium
95. Hair Follicle
96. Endothelium (A Simple Squamous Epithelium)
97. Macrophages
98. Review: Cancer
99. Review: Neutrophils in Loose Connective Tissue
100. Review: Island of Langerhans
Basic Histology -- Cells and Fibers

Organs are composed of cells lying within an intercellular matrix of solid fibers
and gelatinous or liquid ground substance. The cells produce and maintain their
intercellular matrix, which in turn provides physical support and protection and a
pathway for diffusion to and from the cells themselves.
The standard tissue stain is composed of hematoxylin and eosin.
The hematoxylin stains nucleic acids (plus calcium deposits and bacteria)
blue.
The eosin stains most proteins (actually, arginine and lysine) pink.
Clear areas represent water, carbohydrate, lipid, or gas.
Don't be upset if the various recipes for "H&E" do not always produce exactly the
same colors. Try to understand what you are seeing.
Nuclei will always stain blue with the hematoxylin. The cytoplasm of cells will
stain according to its composition. The strong supporting proteins around the
cells will stain pink, and you will be able to see their texture. In all but the most
regular of tissues, between the fibers will be looser areas where there is a
proponderance of ground substance. It is composed of mucopolysaccharide plus
complex carbohydrates. The protein component of the mucopolysaccharide
usually imparts a weak pink color.
This is fibrocartilage from an intervertebral disk. The collagen fibers give strength
and shape, while the abundant ground substance between them makes the disk
springy and resiliant. Advanced students: Don't expect to see any blood vessels.
With your study partners, find:
Cells with nuclei
Thick collagen fibers
Areas composed mostly of ground substance
United States Pronunciations:

Matrix: MAY-tricks
Collagen: CALL-uh-jenn
Roots:
colle: glue
gen: produces
matrix: mother
eos: dawn
muco: slime
Basic Histology -- Cells in Relationship

Often you will see cells in orderly arrangements.
When cells adhere to one another in order to cover an interior or exterior surface,
we call them epithelium. The cells are attached tightly to one another to protect
the integrity of the surface and keep tissue fluids from leaking out.
Epithelial cells cover every healthy body surface except the gliding surfaces of
joints and the surfaces of the teeth.
Epithelial cells stick tight to one another. There are many different kinds of
epithelium.
Beginning students are often disappointed that they cannot always see the cell
borders. This should not surprise you. Often they are only a few molecules thick.
Also remember that animal cells do not have cell walls.
This photo shows a group of cells, adherent to one another and forming a ring.
The cell borders are just barely visible. Don't be concerned if you cannot see
them.
This is a pancreatic duct. Its inner surface is lined (as almost all surfaces must
be) by an epithelium which makes up most of its thickness. Surrounding the
epithelium are strands of collagen which are continuous with the surrounding
fibrous tissue.
the epithlium of the little duct; notice both cytoplasm and nuclei
the fibrous tissue, with many strands of collagen surrounding the duct
Don't worry right now about anything else on the slide.

Epithelium: EPP-ih-THEE-lee-um (unvoiced th)
Roots:
epi: on
thelium: layer
duct: guide
Fun to know:
Medical singular words that end in -um usually form plurals in -a (not -ae).
epithelium, epithlia
septum, septa (not septae)
trabeculum, trabecula (not trabeculae)
diverticulum, diverticula (not diverticulae)
Medical singular words that end in -a usually form plurals in -ae.
glabella, glabellae
lamella, lamellae
Basic Histology -- Some Large Cells

Skeletal muscle cells are big and easy to see. Their cytoplasm contains a great
deal of protein, so they stain dark pink. Their many nuclei are normally located
under their surface membranes.
This is skeletal muscle. For now, just focus on telling the cells from what is
between them, and recognizing their nuclei. For now, you will have to trust us
that these are multinucleated single cells, while the epithelial layer you saw in the
last frame was composed of many uninucleate cells.
skeletal muscle cells ("skeletal muscle fibers")

skeletal muscle cell nuclei.
Note: A few of these fibers are cut tangentially, so you may see
what appear to be central nuclei. Think about the geometry.
collagen fibers between the muscle fibers
Skeletal: SKELL-uh-tull. Canadians say "skell-LEE-tull".
Roots:
musc: little mouse.
The Romans thought that a well-defined person's muscles seem to

be little mice running around the body surface.
Basic Histology -- More Epithelium and Fibrous

Tissue
Epithelial cells from surfaces may grow down into the tissues to perform
specialized functions. We call these "glands".
Whatever form they take, you can recognize epithelial cells because they adhere
tightly to one another. Although you cannot always distinguish the cell borders,
you can tell where the epithelial cells' cytoplasm is located.
Of course, gland cells must have fibers to support their active epithelium, both
physically and by supplying blood flow. There are also some cells in-between
these fibers. You will learn about the components of fibrous tissue soon.
This is a mucus-producing gland. Remember the mucin is mostly carbohydrate,

so it stains pale.
Mucin inside cells tends to look a little bit bubbly, because it's contained inside
vacuoles. The bubbly effect is easy to see here.
Epithelial cells, pale-staining, with relatively distinct borders.
Epithelial cell nuclei. These are difficult to see because of the mucin.
Fibers between the glandular units.
A large blood vessel

Basic Histology -- Nuclei and Cytoplasm
You will need to identify nuclei and cytoplasm in tissue sections.
Nuclei always stain blue, with at least a rim of dark blue at their edges. We refer
to this loosely as the "nuclear membrane", though of course the real nuclear
membrane is only a few molecules thick and is invisible on light microscopy.
Cytoplasm is more variable in its appearance. Protein-rich cytoplasm stains dark

pink. Cytoplasm that is actively synthesizing protein, by contrast, will stain rich
purple. (The protein molecules stain pink; the messenger, transfer, and ribosomal
RNA's stain blue.) Cytoplasm that is mostly filled with carbohydrate, lipid, or
water will stain pale.
This is a pancreatic island surrounded by other pancreatic cells.
The nuclei of the island cells are quite more-or-less and rather large. The
cytoplasm of the island cells is light pink. Don't expect to see cell borders.
Within the island, there are also some cells that make up the walls of the
capillaries. These nuclei are dark and elongated. Don't expect to see their
cytoplasm clearly.
Around the island are the glandular units that produce the pancreatic enzymes.
Notice the nuclei. The cytoplasm of the cells tends to be purple near the nuclei,
more pink toward the center of the unit. With your study partners, find:
the island of Langerhans
the nuclei of the island's functioning cells
the cytoplasm of the island's functioning cells
the nuclei of the island's capillaries
the digestive enzyme secreting units
the nuclei and cytoplasm of the cells of these units
Fun to know:
You have probably noticed that the nuclei of the island cells seem to vary
some in size. This is mostly due to their being cut through different planes.
A few of the nuclei are probably tetraploid. This is normal for human
endocrine organs. Can you spot these unusually large nuclei?
Islet: EYE-let
Nucleus: NUKE-lee-us
Nuclei: NUKE-lee-eye
Anyone saying "nuculus" or "nucular" will be pronounced dead and

given a free autopsy.
Roots:
plasm: shapeable
Basic Histology -- Nuclei at Low Magnification

At lower magnification, nuclei are still easy to recognize.
They appear as blue dots.
Do not expect all nuclei to be round.

This is a nerve fiber running through fat.
In the nerve itself, the schwann cells are wrapped around the axons. You can
see their nuclei scattered around.
In the fibrous tissue around the nerve ("epineurium"), the nuclei of cells that
make tissue fibers are arranged with the long axes circumferentially around the
nerve itself.
In the fat cells around the nerve, you can spot occasional nuclei at the edges of
cells. It is hard to distinguish nuclei of the fat cells themselves and of the
capillaries within the fat.
nuclei of the schwann cells
nuclei of the epineurium

nuclei of the fat
Basic Histology -- Some Abnormally Large Nuclei

In our new curriculum, you will learn to recognize abnormal cells along with
normal cells.
Generally, the nuclei tell the pathologist "benign or malignant" while the
cytoplasm tells the pathologist "cell of origin".
Cancer cell nuclei have become genetically destabilized. Often their nuclei vary
greatly in size.
This is the edge of a lung cancer. The cancer is composed of bizarre epithelial
cells. They grow next to an area of normal fibrous tissue.
The nuclei in the cancer cells are much larger than in the normal areas. They
vary wildly in shape.
the cancer, with its abnormal nuclei
the normal fibrous tissue, with its normal nuclei
Hotshots: More to find.
The largest cancer cell is dead, with its nucleus fragmented.
There is a blood vessel left-of-center.

Basic Histology -- Nucleoli
Nucleoli are the organelles in the nucleus where ribosomes are made.
Although most eukaryotic cells have at least one nucleolus, you can only see
them on light microscopy if they are relatively large. This means that the cell is
planning to make a lot of protein.
Nucleoli appear sharply demarcated within the surrounding nucleus. They will
stain slightly more eosinophilic than the heterochromatin under the nuclear
membrane.
Except in some cancer cells, nucleoli are always round.

This is a section of brain with an especially large nerve cell ("neuron") in the
middle.
the nerve cell (HINT: It has abundant pink cytoplasm.)
the nerve cell's nucleus (HINT: Look for the thin rim of heterochromatin at
the "nuclear membrane".)
the nerve cell's nucleolus (HINT: It is about the same size as the nuclei of
in the lower half of the section).
Basic Histology -- More Nucleoli
Neurons, the big electric cells of the brain, are good places to look for healthy
nucleoli. They are constantly synthesizing protein to maintain their processes and
connections, which may be several feet away.
This is another neuron.
three big neurons
the nucleus and nuceolus of the one in the center
Fun to know:
Did you notice that a section through a big cell might miss not only the
nucleolus, but even the nucleus?
We call this a "tangential cut".

Basic Histology -- Still More Nucleoli
You will find clearly-demarcated nucleoli in most cells that are making lots of
protein.
In addition to brain cells, good places to look include liver cells, ganglion cells,
and regenerating cells.
This sensory ganglion cell might send one process to the big toe and the other as
far as the bottom of the brain. It is not surprising that you can see a good
nucleolus.
the ganglion cell
its nucleus and nucleolus

Ganglion: GANG-glee-un
Roots:
Gangl-: knot
Basic Histology -- Heterochromatin and

Euchromatin
As you have been examining the nuclei of cells, you have surely noticed that (in
addition to nucleoli) they do not stain uniformly.
Light-staining areas of the nucleus are called "euchromatin". Abundant

euchromatin denotes an active cell.
Dark-staining areas of the nucleus are called "heterochromatin". There is always

a rim of heterochromatin under the real nuclear membrane. Abundant
heterochromatin with only scanty euchromatin denotes an inactive cell.
This is a section of the epidermis, the epithelial covering of the skin. It is a self-
renewing structure and metabolically quite active, so its nuclei feature. However,
they display heterochromatin under their nuclear membranes, and little patches
of heterochromatin throughout their nuclei.
The patches of heterochromatin are much smaller than the nucleoli, and stain
more blue, the same color as the heterochromatin at the outer edge of the
nucleus.
the cell borders
the nuclei
the nucleoli (there may be more than one visible in a cell)
the rim of heterochromatin under the nuclear membranes

the stippled pattern of euchromatin and heterochromatin in the nuclei
a mitotic figure
We can't really mark the heterochromatin chunks in the nuclei; they're too small.
We don't think you'll have trouble identifying them.
Euchromatin: YOO-chrome-uh-tin
Heterochromatin: HETT-err-oh-CHROME-uh-tin
Roots:
eu: good
hetero: the other
Hotshots:
Did you notice that the epidermal cells are connected by a series of little
junctions, like railroad ties? These are the "prickles" or "spines" of the
epidermis. Actually, they are desmosomes. Fixation in formalin has pulled
the cells slightly apart.
Basic Histology -- More Euchromatin and

Heterochromatin
Here is an abnormal tissue with two very distinct populations of cells. One kind of
cell has abundant, intensely eosinophilic cytoplasm and nuclei with mostly
euchromatin.
The other kind of cell has very little euchromatin, and very scanty cytoplasm.
This is a tissue with two types of cell. One has nuclei which are mostly
heterochromatin. The other has nuclei which are mostly euchromatin.
If you're really curious, this is a thymoma.
the nuclei with mostly euchromatin
the nuclei with mostly heterochromatin

Basic Histology -- Looking at Nuclei
You can get practice looking at nuclei by noticing how they change as the cells
develop and mature.
Busy nuclei have lots of euchromatin. Inactive nuclei have mostly

heterochromatin. Nuclei of cells which plan to synthesize protein will show
nucleoli.
This is skin. The epidermis is the richly cellular epithelium on the surface.
Beneath it is the dermis, the fibrous layer.
The epidermis renews itself by division of cells at the dermal border, and
shedding of cells from the surface. This epidermis is somewhat abnormal, since
its nuclei are retained in the upper layers of the epidermis.
Notice that it is easy to see the cell borders in most of the epidermis. Notice how
the nuclei change from region to region. The lowest cells have nuclei of moderate
size and color. In the middle of the epidermis, the cells are actively synthesizing
keratin to protect the surface. So the nuclei are very large and pale and exhibit
nucleoli. On the top, the nuclei are no longer active, so they are dark. They tend
to flatten as do the surface cells.
In the bottom layer of the epidermis, a few of the cells have pale cytoplasm and
relatively small, dark nuclei. These are the melanocytes. They do not make much
protein, and rarely divide, so their nuclei are inactive.
epidermis
epidermal cell borders
dermis
cells of the lower epidermis
active nuclei (nucleoli, lots of euchromatin) in the lower and mid-epidermis

inactive nuclei in the upper epidermis
melanocytes
Hotshots: Find blood vessels in the dermis, perpendicular to the surface.

Roots:
derm: skin
Basic Histology -- Cancer Nuclei

When the genome is damaged and chromosomes begin assorting improperly
during mitosis, there is selection for cells with extra chromosomes.
This ultimately results in some very large nuclei. Since the nucleus does not
know exactly how to pack the extra chromosomes, the nuclear membrane
usually shows some wrinkles, like an overpacked suitcase.
Also as a result of problems with packing, and/or from having an excess of genes
that aren't really doing anything, cancer nuclei tend to have big clumpy blocks of
heterochromatin.
As a general rule, the more bizarre the nuclei, the more aggressive the cancer.
This is a cancer arising from glandular cells. Most of the nuclei are at least
somewhat abnormal.
the largest nucleus
cells with easy-to-see euchromatin and heterochromatin
Hotshots:
Find a few nuclei with wrinkled membranes!
Basic Histology -- Mitotic Figures

Cells in mitosis are easy to spot.
Instead of a nucleus, the chromosomes are visible as tangled, dark-staining
threads.
We call these "mitotic figures." Counting mitotic figures sometimes helps the
pathologist tell benign from malignant.
If you see a nuclear membrane, it is not a mitotic figure.
This is a small-intestine crypt.
the mitotic figure
Mitotis: my-TOE-sis
Mitotic: my-TOT-tick
Roots:
mito: thread
-osis: full of (this is the actual meaning, despite what anybody else may
tell you)
chromo: colored, dark-staining
some, soma: body
pro-: first
meta-: beyond
ana-: on both sides (one of several meanings)
telo-: end
Here is another mitotic figure.
In anaphase and telophase nuclei, you can see two groups of chromosomes
drawing apart.
Like the last picture, this is from the small intestine. These cells replace their
neighbors, which are continually being lost, by undergoing mitosis.
This is some tissue in the deeper epithelium of the gut.
the mitotic figure

This is another cell in mitosis. In early anaphase, most of the chromosomes have
begun to separate, though there may be some overlap between the groups.
This is small intestine once again.
the mitotic figure

The picture below shows some "Venetian Blind artefact", and a fold in the
paraffin. Both happen during slide preparation.
Pathologists ignore these artefacts, but they tend to throw students off.
This is intestine once again.
the two mitotic figures
the venetian blind artefact
the tissue fold (upper left)

Here is another slide with a mitotic figure. This is probably an early telophase.
You can see the cell has almost become two.
There is also more Venetian blind artefact.
This is small intestine.
the mitotic figure
the venetian blind artefact

Basic Histology -- Introducing Red Blood Cells
Your red blood cells ("erythrocytes") carry oxygen from your lungs to the rest of
your tissues, and carbon dioxide in the opposite direction. The standard
hematoxylin and eosin tissue stain was selected to stain red blood cells a brilliant
red. Don't expect red cells in sections to look exactly like the red cells which you
have seen in smears. They bend and deform as they travel through the tiny
vessels of your body. You already know that normal circulating red cells do not
have nuclei.
See if you can figure out which red blood cells are in a blood vessel, and which
are outside. Red blood cells outside of the blood vessels are called
"hemorrhage".
In the bloodstream, you will always see some nucleated cells as well. These are
normally your white blood cells, which fight infection. This slide shows several
neutrophils. You can spot them by their lobulated nuclei. You will learn more
about them soon.
This is a specimen from bruised tissue. There is a large blood vessel in the
middle. The large clear cells are fat cells.
red cells in the blood vessel
red cells outside the blood vessel (hemorrhage)
neutrophilic white blood cells
fat cells
Neutrophil: NEWT-row-fill
Erythrocyte: ee-RIHTH-row-sight
Hemorrhage: HEM-ridge
Leukocyte: LUKE-oh-sight
Roots:
rrhage: flow
erythro: red
leuko: white
hemo: blood
Basic Histology -- More Red Blood Cells

Arteries, veins, lymphatic vessels, and nerves tend to travel together.
Spotting one member of a group will help you find the others.
Most bleeds into tissue come from injured capillaries and small veins.
This is a bleed into tissue, near a vascular group.
red cells inside vessels
red cells outside vessels
the thick-walled blood vessels (arteries)
the thin-walled blood vessel (vein)
the vessel without red blood cells (lymphatic vessel)

Hotshots:
Why is this lymphatic vessel so full of protein-rich fluid?
Basic Histology -- Arteries and Veins

We aren't going to worry yet about the difference between an artery and an
arteriole, or a vein and a venule.
Both types of blood vessel have an inner lining of simple, flat cells called
"endothelium". They often, but not always, contain at least a few red blood cells.
Except for one curious exception in the ear, blood vessels run only through
fibrous tissue, never through epithelium. Even in muscle and nervous tissue, they
are always surrounded by at least a tiny rim of collagen fibers.
This is a bit of fibrous tissue bearing two arteries and a vein.
the two arteries
the vein
the endothelial cells
Hotshots:
Do you think the two cross-sections of artery might really be the same
artery, looping in and out of the plane of section?
Endothelium: enn-doe-THEE-lee-um (unvoiced th)
Roots:
-le, -ule: little
end-: inside
Basic Histology -- A Larger Artery

It is usually easy to spot arteries. They present a thick ring of pink tissue, with
endothelium lining the inner surface.
The hole down the middle of a hollow organ is called the "lumen". Of course
blood flows down the lumen of an artery.
This is an artery in the pancreas.
the large artery
other, smaller blood vessels
Hotshots:
There is a little nerve to the left of the artery. If you remember what the
schwann cell nuclei looked like, it will be easy for you to spot.
Lumen: LOO-men
Roots:
Lumen: light (Latin). You can see through a tube.
Basic Histology -- A Small Vein

Veins are harder to spot than arteries, especially if they are not in visible artery-
vein pairs. However, if they contain a lot of blood, spotting a vein is easy.
A vein's wall is thinner than that of an artery of corresponding size.

This is a little blood vessel in a section of brain. It contains quite a few red cells.
the vein
the endothelial cells

Basic Histology -- A Capillary
Capillaries are tubes of endothelium, freely permeable to molecules smaller than
albumin.
Endothelial cells, in three dimensions, look like fried eggs, sunny-side up. The
nucleus would be the yolk. Now think of a long lines of fried eggs, cooked close
enough so that their edges meet on the right and left. Roll the line of fried eggs
into a tube, and you have a capillary.
This is a section of brain showing capillaries.
capillaries
their endothelail cells
Hotshots:
Find the neurons, the brain cells which have easy-to-see pink-staining
cytoplasm.
Some of the cells on this capillary are pericytes, a second layer of cells
applied on the outside of the first layer. Don't try too hard to figure out
which is which. We'll show you how to use a reticulin stain to do this later
on, if you're curious.
Basic Histology -- Another Capillary
Despite their small size and easy permeability, capillaries are quite strong.
They are protected from the full force of the heartbeat by the muscles of the
arteries which lead to them.
You have probably heard the old story about how every pound of fat adds thus-
and-such many capillaries that your heart must work to perfuse. That's true -- but
most of the time, the vast majority of the capillaries in the body are not receiving
appreciable blood flow. Fat receives very little blood flow despite its many
capillaries. Most of the increased cardiovascular burden of obesity results from
the extra weight that must be carried.
This is a lucky shot of a capillary that shows it at considerable length as it runs
through the brain.
the brain capillary
any red blood cells?
Hotshots:
Again, some of the cells in the capillary are actually pericytes, a second
layer of flat cells on the outside of the endothelium. Don't worry about
distinguishing them now; you're free to guess, though.
Basic Histology -- A Small Artery
An organ's larger arteries and veins flow between its functional units.
Often there is a generous amount of loose fibrous tissue separating an artery and
the business cells of the organ. If you're interested in the layers of the arteries,
they are:
Intima: Inner layer, the endothelium, a bit of collagen, and perhaps a few
other inconspicuous cells
Media: Middle layer, composed of smooth muscle oriented

circumferentially
Adventitia: Fibrous tissue, merging with the surrounding fibrous tissue of

the organ.
This is an artery in the testis. The structures at the upper left, lower left, and far
right are tubes in which sperms are made. More about these later in the course.
the artery (only the muscularis is easy to see)
the surrounding loose fibrous tissue

Basic Histology -- Artery and Vein
You will often be able to distinguish arteries and veins, especally when they run
together, as they usually do.
Arteries have thicker walls and tend to have narrower lumens. They have to
constrict and dilate to control how much blood flows where, and they must bear
the powerful force generated by the heart. Because of the large amount of
muscle in their walls, they are usually round when cut in cross-section.
Veins have thinner walls and tend to have wider lumens. They have to store
blood, and need muscle only to push the blood back to the heart. Because the
walls are collapsable, they may change shape depending on the surrounding
tissue conditions.
This is a vascular group in the pancreas.
the arteries in this section
the veins in this section
Hotshots:
The endothelial nuclei in these arteries are easy to see.

Basic Histology -- Artery Branchpoint
Arteries possess strong walls made of layers of smooth muscle oriented
circumferentially.
You will learn about recognizing smooth muscle soon. For now, notice how thick
the arterial walls are.
This is a bit of fatty tissue, with three branches of an artery cut in cross section.
One branch has a little lymphatic running with it.
the three branches of the artery
the little lymphatic
To see the little lymphatic, look for a tissue space next to the artery
that looks to be lined with endothelium. Often the identification of a
lymphatic vessel is only tentative -- as it is here.
the lumens of each of these vessels
Hotshots:
Can you imagine the actual three-dimensional structure?

Basic Histology -- Dilated Lymphatic Vessel
Fibrous connective tissue is full of little endothelially-lined, thin-walled channels.
(Typically they are just tubes of endothelium.)
These are your lymphatic vessels. They are easiest to see when they are
distended, i.e., when they are draining excess tissue fluid.
This is a section of fibrous tissue from a patient with some some extra tissue fluid
that needed draining.
the big dilated lymphatic

another, less-filled lymphatic
the endothelium of both lymphatics
Basic Histology -- Another Big Lymphatic

Lymphatic vessels fill up with fluid whenever there is increased interstitial fluid in
a tissue.
When there is acute inflammation (which always includes extra protein moving
from the blood vessels into the tissues), you can often see a tinge of pink in the
lymphatics as they carry some of this fluid back to the bloodstream.
This is a dilated lympatic in the serosa of the colon in a person who had
peritonitis.
the big lymphatic
We'll let you find the endothelial cell nuclei yourselves, and won't point them out
any more.
Hotshots:
Do you see what might be a valve?
Can you find the pus in the left lower corner? More about this soon!
Can you find the smooth muscle at the top? More about this soon!
Basic Histology -- A Slender Lymphatic Vessel
Lymphatic vessels are not always easy to see. Their walls have to be very thin.
If you are very lucky, you may spot a valve in a lymphatic vessel.
Here is a lymphatic vessel under a bit of ciliated epithelium. If you're curious, this
is from oviduct.
There are no valves visible here.
the lymphatic vessel
its endothelium
the little blood vessels near it

Basic Histology -- A Collapsed Lymphatic Vessel
Although they are very important, healthy lymphatic vessels don't look like much.
You can see them most everywhere in connective tissue. But there are no
lymphatics in the brain.
This is dense irregular connective tissue.

Basic Histology -- Cancer Cells in a Lymphatic
Vessel
Many kinds of cancer cells are easy to spot even at low power.
You can recognize them because their nuclei are very large.
Most of the common cancers spread via the lymphatic vessels.

This is a lymphatic with cancer in it.
the large lymphatic in the center
the cancer cells in the lymphatic vessel
Hotshots:
This lymphatic is reinforced by a bit of smooth muscle. Can you spot it?
Basic Histology -- Neutrophils and Hemorrhage
During infection, our tissues become a battleground.
In bacterial infection, neutrophils pursue and devour bacteria. The neutrophils

usually damage the tissue during the process. Sometimes the damage is
permanent.
We win all our battles with our bacteria except our last one. They win the war.
This is tissue which was badly infected. The hemorrhage should be obvious.
Once again, it is the multi-lobed nuclei which distinguish the neutrophils. With
your study partners, find:
neutrophils
hemorrhage
Hotshots:
Find the pink, acellular masses of fibrin. They have a very fine fibrillary
structure. Do you know what fibrin is?
fibrin: FIE-brinn
The adjectival form for "fibrin" is "fibrinous", FIB-rinn-us (short "i")
Basic Histology -- Neutrophils in Smooth Muscle

Neutrophils chasing bacteria through tissue can weaken the walls or organs.
In addition to disrupting the tissue, proteolysis releases amino acids which bring
in water by osmosis.
Extra water in the interstitial spaces is called "edema".

This is the wall of an appendix which ruptured during an episode of acute
inflammation.
neutrophils
smooth muscle cells
edema fluid between the cells

Edema: uh-DEEM-uh
Roots:
oed- : swollen
Basic Histology -- Neutrophils in Tissue Fluid

When inflammation takes place, some water leaves the blood vessels.
The vessels are programmed for this to happen when injury takes place.
When proteins are being broken down, the increased osmotic pull generated by
the freed peptides and amino acids also causes water to enter the tissues.
This is some inflamed tissue. You can recognize the extra water between the
cells. It doesn't stain.
neutrophils
the edema fluid

Basic Histology -- Neutrophils in Pus
When a cell dies, its nucleus shrivels and becomes composed entirely of
heterochromatin.
Later the nucleus can break up into fragments ("nuclear dust") or even
disappear.
This is some tissue with dead cells, including dead neutrophils. For now, just try
to find the dead areas. Do this by looking for the nuclear dust.
zones of cell death (look for the nuclear dust)

Pus: PUHss (short "u")
.
The adjective is "purulent" or "suppurative". The verb is
"suppurate". Don't try to put a "-y" on "pus". When you spell "pus",
use only one "s", please.
Purulent: PURE-you-lent (long "u")
Suppurate: SUP-your-ate (short "u")
Basic Histology -- Neutrophils and Dead Tissue

This section will let you contrast living neutrophils with dead tissue.
Don't worry about what has caused the injury.

Remember that you are training your eyes to tell the lobulated, mostly-
heterochromatin nuclei of neutrophils from the fragmented, entirely-
heterochromatin nuclei of dead cells ("nuclear dust").
This is a site of infection with in a hollow organ.
live neutrophils
area of cell death (look for the nuclear dust)
Hotshots:
Nuclear changes that announce cell death:
o pyknosis: darkened and shrivelled

o karyorrhexis: darkened and fragmented ("nuclear dust")
o karyolysis: gone
Lysis: LIE-siss
Roots:
Karyo: nucleus ("kernal" of a nut)
Pykno: shrivel
Rrhex: break apart

Lysis: loosen
Basic Histology -- Neutrophils in Acute

Pneumonia
You might as well learn about pneumonia now, since it is the mechanism of
death for most people "dying of a long illness".
In pneumonia, there is fluid and neutrophils inside the air spaces of the lungs.
Blood flowing through these areas cannot get oxygenated. Yet the area will
actually receive extra blood because it is inflamed. This is what makes
pneumonia so lethal.
This is a section of lung from a pneumonia patient. The neutrophils appear to be

floating in space. Actually they are suspended in watery tissue fluid.
the neutrophils
Hotshots:
Can you find the membrane, only a cell or so thick, which forms the wall
between two little air spaces?
Basic Histology -- Neutrophils in Hemorrhagic

Pneumonia
Sometimes pneumonia is very destructive to the local tissues, and blood vessels
are damaged enough to leak.
In this case, the patient will cough up blood.
This may hint at the type of pneumonia and the micro-organism responsible. But
it is not a guarantee that the outcome will be bad.
This is a severe pneumonia in a patient who coughed up blood.
neutrophils
dead cells (these are probalby dead neutrophils)
red cells
Hotshots:
The pink stuff in the background is largely fibrin.

Basic Histology -- Lymphocytes in Tissue Section
You will need to recognize lymphocytes in tissues.
You can find them nearly anywhere. Often they are simply standing watch.
Resting lymphocytes have scanty cytoplasm, since they are not really doing
anything but remembering.
Resting lymphocytes nuclei always have a preponderance of heterochromatin. It

is always clumpy, separated by thin strips of euchromatin.
Plasma cells make antibodies. They have:
abundant, deeply-staining (usually purple) cytoplasm;
a round, eccentrically-located nucleus
clumps of chromatin arranged around the edge of the nucleus, like the
numbers on a clock
a pale spot next to the nucleus; this is the Golgi apparatus
This is a group of lymphocytes.
lymphocytes
Hotshots: Can you find a plasma cell?

Basic Histology -- More Lymphocytes in Tissue
Section
You can expect to find lymphocytes nearly anyplace. Sometimes there are many.
Sometimes there are only a few.
This is connective tissue.
the lymphocytes
44-Basic Histology -- Another Group of
Lymphocytes
Expect to find lymphocytes -- a few, or many -- just about anyplace.
Think of these patches as outposts for your immune system.

This is just a group of lymphocytes waiting patiently for something to happen.
the lymphocytes
Basic Histology -- Lymphocytes and Neutrophils

Often when there has been tissue injury, a variety of cells are recruited.
Lymphocytes and neutrophils are often seen alongside one another, each
helping in its own way.
This is the wall of an inflamed appendix. There is a lot of edema fluid.
lymphocytes
neutrophils
46-Basic Histology -- Large Lymphoid Aggregate
Large groups of lymphocytes are normal in many areas, including the lymph
nodes and the mucosa of the gut.
Sometimes they are abnormal. One familiar example is the synovium in

rheumatoid arthritis.
This is Lymphocyte City.
the large group of lymphocytes

Basic Histology -- Lymphocytes and Giant Cells
Macrophages are cells in the tissues that eat debris and certain invaders.
When macrophages travel via the bloodstream, we call them monocytes.
We won't expect you to spot single macrophages in tissue, unless they have
eaten a lot of something easy-to-see.
These macrophages have gotten excited about something and have fused to
form giant cells. You can recognize them because their nuclei seem to overlap
within a mass of cytoplasm. Often the nuclei are arranged in a rim around the
edge of the cytoplasm.
This is a cluster including two giant cells.
lymphocytes
giant cells
Roots:
Macro-: Big
Phage: Eat
Basic Histology -- Lymphocytes in Edema

Often the edema of inflammation makes the lymphocytes easier to appreciate.
This is some edematous, mildly inflamed tissue.
the lymphocytes
a neutrophil (look to the center)

Basic Histology -- Lymphatic Channel in
Inflammation
Inflammation is the stereotyped tissue response to injury.
In inflammation, the vessels let protein leak out. If the tissue damage is severe
enough, some of the local structural proteins may be solubilized as well.
Normally the fluid in the lymphatic vessels is scanty and contains very little
protein. This changes when a lymphatic vessel drains an area where soluble
proteins have accumulated in an area because of inflammation.
This is a lymphatic vessel draining an inflamed area.
some inflmmatory cells in its lumen
the protein-rich fluid in its lumen
the edema fluid in the tissue surrounding the lymphatic vessel

Lymphatic: limm-FAT-ick
Roots:
-itis: Inflammation
Basic Histology -- Small Blood Vessel

You need to learn to recognize little blood vessels in tissue sections.
Even if they do not contain red blood cells, you can recognize them as rings of
endothelium surrounded by at least some collagen, and usually some smooth
muscle.
This is a small blood vessel running through skeletal muscle.
the small blood vessel
its endothelial cells
its smooth muscle
the red and white cells in its lumen
the collagen fibers around it

Basic Histology -- Lymphocytes and Plasma Cells
Often lymphoid aggregates will include a generous number of plasma cells.
Remember that plasma cells are the altered B-lymphocytes which produce
antibodies.
This is an aggregate with lots of plasma cells.
Plasma cells have a round, eccentric nucleus with coarse clumps of

heterochromatin and euchromatin. It looks more like a soccer ball than a clock
face, at least to me. With your study partners, find:
the lymphocytes
the plasma cells
collagen fibers
Basic Histology -- Dense Irregular Connective
Tissue
Sometimes connective tissue is very rich in collagen.
In a tendon, the collagen fibers are all lined up in the same direction, so they can
help pull the same way. We call this "dense regular connective tissue."
When dense connective tissue is intended for protection instead, the abundant
collagen fibers run every-which-way. We call this "dense irregular connective
tissue".
This is from the dermis, the tough fibrous layer that makes up most of the
thickness of your skin.
fibroblast nuclei
collagen fibers
You cannot be sure that a few of the fibroblast nuclei aren't really
nuclei of collapsed capillaries.
Basic Histology -- Smooth Muscle, Longitudinal
Section
Smooth muscle cells are called "fibers". You'll always see them in parallel.
Don't expect every fiber in a section to exhibit a nucleus. In many, the nucleus
will be out of the plane of section. (You may already have noticed this when
looking at epithelium.)
Smooth muscle is not normally under your voluntary control. (Some people say
that you can learn to control it using biofeedback.) Smooth muscle gives
goosebumps, constricts the pupils, constricts the nipples, and shrivels a man's
scrotum during a cold shower.
Less conspicuous but probably more important is the role of smooth muscle in
moving food through your gut, regulating the diameters of arteries to determine
tissue blood flow, and returning blood to the heart through the constriction of
veins.
Telling smooth muscle from fibrous connective tissue (especially tendon /

aponeurosis) is one of your first big challenges.
Smooth muscle nuclei are long and have rounded ends.

Smooth muscle nuclei may be crinkled if the cell has contracted;
fibroblasts will not do this.
The cytoplasm of smooth muscle is homogeneously eosinophilic; collagen
always shows you that it is made of ropy fibers.
You can usually just make out cell borders in smooth muscle.
This is smooth muscle.
the elongated, "cigar-shaped" nuclei of the smooth muscle cells

the deeply eosinophilic cytoplasm of the smooth muscle cells
the intercellular spaces between the smooth muscle cells
Leiomyo: LIE-oh-MY-oh
This prefix means "smooth muscle".
Basic Histology -- Smooth Muscle, Low

magnification
At lower magnification, you can appreciate how the smooth muscle bundles all
run parallel.
Imagine the waves of peristalsis being produced by these fibers.

This is smooth muscle from the wall of the gut.
the wiggly smooth muscle fibers
their cigar-shaped nuclei

Hotshots: Can you spot the skeletal muscle fibers?
Basic Histology -- Smooth Muscle, Longitudinal

and Cross Sections
When smooth muscle fibers are sectioned parallel to the long axis, you will see
the elongated fibers and nuclei.
When smooth muscle fibers are cut perpendicular to the long axis, you will see a
ring of cytoplasm, and it is easy to see the cell borders. A majority of fibers will
have no visible nucleus, i.e., it is out of the plane of section.
Of course, a smooth muscle cell nucleus will appear round in cross-section rather
than elongated.
This is smooth muscle once again.
the area where the smooth muscle is cut longitudinally ("lengthwise")
the area where the smooth muscle is cut transversely ("cross section")
Basic Histology -- Smooth Muscle, Interlacing
Bundles
Especially in the uterus, you may see bands of smooth muscle interlacing.
Cells cut longitudinally will present the cigar-shaped nuclei.
Cells cut in cross section will present round nuclear sections within pink
cytoplasmic rings.
This is smooth muscle.
smooth muscle cut longitudinally
smooth muscle cut transversely
Hotshots: Why might uterus be a good place to find smooth muscle bundles
running every-which-way?
Basic Histology -- Smooth Muscle, Cross Section
When smooth muscle is cut in cross section, you will see the smooth muscle cell
nuclei as round purple-staining masses within pink-staining fibers.
There are other nuclei too. Those between the masses of smooth muscle
cytoplasm belong to fibroblasts or blood vessels.
Spotting blood vessels is easy when smooth muscle is cut in cross section. The
blood vessels run parallel to the fibers, so you will also see them cut in cross-
section.
This is smooth muscle, cut in cross section.
smooth muscle cell nuclei
blood vessels
Basic Histology -- Smooth Muscle vs. Dense
Connective Tissue
One important challenge is to distinguish dense connective tissue from smooth
muscle.
Remember that smooth muscle will present the features we've just seen, in either
longitudinal or transverse cut.
In dense connective tissue, the nuclei will usually be outside the fibers.
Remember that smooth and skeletal muscle "fibers" are cells, while connective
tissue "fibers" are cables of acellular collagen.
This is the border of smooth muscle and dense irregular connective tissue.
the connective tissue
the smooth muscle

Basic Histology -- Smooth Muscle in Arterial Wall
The vascular smooth muscle is of great importance in maintaining our bodies and
adapting to minute-to-minute changes.
Arteries have a generous supply of smooth muscle. It relaxes to allow more

blood to flow to an area, and contracts to restrict the local blood flow.
Veins have less smooth muscle, but it is also of great importance. It is the
venous smooth muscle that gently pumps blood back to the heart. Except when
the heart is failing, this is the way cardiac output is regulated.
This is an artery. You have already learned to spot smooth muscle when it is
present in large quantities. Seeing it around vessels is almost as easy.
the smooth muscle layer of the artery ("media")

Basic Histology -- Inner Circular, Outer
Longitudinal
In hollow organs that do propulsion, you are likely to see separate layers of
smooth muscle. Often the inner one is circular, and the outer one is longitudinal.
This is the wall of some hollow organ or other. Don't worry about which layer is
which.
the border between the two layers

Basic Histology -- Skeletal Muscle, Longitudinal
Section
"Skeletal muscle cell" and "skeletal muscle fiber" are synonyms. The fibrils are
the contractile units visible only on electron microscopy.
Skeletal muscle fibers are maintained by a delicate meshwork of collagen fibers

and occaional fibroblasts. This stuff is called endomysium.
At the dinner table... the more endomysium, the tougher the meat.
Perimysium is the connective tissue that separates bundles of skeletal muscle

fibers, i.e., it's what's on the outside of a sliver of steak that got caught between
your molars.
Epimysium is the thin, smooth, translucent connective tissue layer on the outside
of a muscle. You've seen this in the kitchen.
You already know how to spot the skeletal muscle nuclei. The cross-striations
are easy to see. Don't worry for how about which band is which.
This is skeletal muscle.
the cross-striations
the endomysium
Endomysium: en-doe-MEESE-ee-um (less often endo-MICE-ee-um)

Striation: STRY-ay-shun (less often STREE-ay-shun)
Roots:
Endo: inside
Mys: skeletal muscle
Basic Histology -- Skeletal Muscle, Cross Section

When skeletal muscle is cut in cross-section, you can appreciate all the cables
pulling in the same direction.
The only place you're likely to see interlacing bundles of skeletal muscle is in the
tongue. Why?
This is skeletal muscle cut transversely ("cross-wise"). This makes it very easy to
see the nuclei at the edges of the fibers. However, you cannot see the cross-
striations.
Most of the small blood vessels are cut in cross-section.
skeletal muscle cells ("fibers")

skeletal muscle cell nuclei
blood vessels
Basic Histology -- Muscle Vasculature
The larger arteries and veins in skeletal muscle run through the perimysium,
connective tissue between groups of skeletal muscle fibers.
The capillaries run in the endomysium. ("Blood vessels flow through, and only
through, connective tissue.")
This is the perimysium between two groups of skeletal muscle fibers.
the skeletal muscle fibers
the endomysium (wisps of collagen between the skeletal muscle fibers)

the perimysium
an artery and a vein, both cut longitudinally, in the perimysium
Hotshots:
Find some red cells in the capillaries of the endomysium. We didn't label
these.
Basic Histology -- White Fat
Ordinary fat cells contain a drop of triglyceride, a kind of lipid. Of course you will
not see this stained in sections.
The membranes between the cells are always thin (sometimes so thin you
cannot see them.) By contrast, they may appear wide and diaphanous if they lie
at an angle near-parallel with the plane of section.
You cannot always be sure that a nucleus belongs to a fat cell rather than to a
capillary cell. Actually, fat cells are adapted pericytes.
Fat cells are called "adipocytes".

This is common, yellow fat.
the lipid vacuoles
the cell membranes
the cell nuclei

Adipocyte: ADD-i-poe-site.
Please don't say a-DIP-uh-site.
Basic Histology -- White Fat and its Vessels

When fat is injured, the blood which is freed from the vessels tends to spread
between the fat cells, which are quite resistant to rupture.
This is a lower magnification photo of that picture of a hemorrhage from a while

back.
the fat cells
the hemorrhage
Basic Histology -- White Fat, Low Magnification
It's normal to have patches of white fat in the parathyroids, right ventricle, lymph
nodes, and pancreas. Americans treat cattle with hormones to get more fat into
the muscle, for some reason.
You'll learn later how to distinguish this from diseases in which triglyceride
accumulates in the business cells of organs (i.e., the heart cells in diphtheria, the
liver cells in heavy drinkers.)
This is parathyroid gland.
With your study partners, find:fat cells

Basic Histology -- White Fat, High Magnification
The membranes between fat cells are always slender. You can see several of
them at an angle with the plane of section.
This slide is cut rather thick, so they appear wide.

This is fat, at high magnification. It presents a little exercise in three-dimensional
thinking.
fat cells
fibroblast nuclei in the nearby fibrous tissue

Basic Histology -- White Fat in a Gland
Once again, you can have normal fat cells in a variety of places.
Before you ask: "Cellulite" is a pop term for areas in which the fat is relatively
resistant to dieting, i.e., it tends to be lost later in the process. We can't spot it
under the microscope.
This is pancreas, with a bit of fat.
With your study partners, find:fat cells

Basic Histology -- White Fat with Capillary
We've seen how fat cells contain a single drop of lipid. The nucleus is pushed to
the edge.
You may hear of this as a "signet ring" look. Signet rings used to be used to
make impressions in wax, instead of signing your name. (It was harder to forge
and lots of kings were probably illiterate anyway.) Today, we might say such cells
look like class rings.
In people who are obese, the fat cells are large. In people who are very trim, the
fat cells are small.
There's an old adage about every pound of fat containing however many miles of
additional blood vessels that must be perfused. Yeah, sure. But most of these
vessels are tiny, and are past the arterioles (so they don't contribute to
resistance). Your heart gets more of a workout just from carrying the fat around.
This is ordinary bodyfat from somebody of about average adiposity.
the fat cells
the little blood vessels

Basic Histology -- Brown Fat
Brown fat is a special kind of fat, with small vacuoles in the cells rather than a
single large oil drop.
Brown fat is also rich in mitochondria.
Mitochondria are brown. Can you figure out why? Remember all the cytochromes
which they contain. Then think of all these colored substances mixed together,
like your tempra paints when you were in grammar school. They make brown.
The abundance of mitochondria accounts for the color of liver, kidney,

myocardium (mixed with myoglobin for a red-brown), and brown fat.
This is brown fat. You'll have no trouble finding the capillaires; brown fat is
generously supplied.
the brown fat cells
their vacuoles
Basic Histology -- More Brown Fat
Islands of brown fat can occur in many different places in the body.
You may be able to appreciate a bit of extra pinkness to these cells, in addition to
the vacuoles. You are seeing the protein-rich mitochondria.
In this section, you cannot really tell where the cell borders are. But the vacuoles
make the brown fat clear.
This is more brown fat.
brown fat, with vacuoles

hiber: HIGH-burr in English
This is the prefix for brown fat, because it's what hibernating
animals use to re-heat.
Roots:
Hiber: winter
Basic Histology -- Simple Cuboidal Epithelium

All body surfaces except the teeth and the gliding surfaces of joints are normally
covered with epithelium.
Epithelium is tightly-joined cells on top of a layer of collagen (the "basement

membrane") which marks its border with connective tissue.
This extends to the tiny surfaces of glands. Even the glands whose ducts are lost
during embryonic life (i.e., the endocrine glands) have epithelium as their
business cells.
Here is how to name a surface epithlium:
Count the layers:
Simple: There's only one layer
Stratified: Looks like several layers, and is.
Pseudostratified / Transitional: Looks like several layers, but all the

cells contact the basement membrane
What cell is on the top layer?
Squamous: Flat (scaly)
Cuboidal: About as wide as it is tall
Columnar: Much taller than it is wide.
The most elementary epithelium is "simple cuboidal".
This is a cluster of ducts in the pancreas. You can see the cell borders easily
here.
Don't worry about what's at the far right -- it's a curious little type of duct slipping
into a secretory unit.
simple cuboidal epithelium
Hotshots: We think that too much attention goes to memorizing where you're
supposed to see "tall cuboidal" vs. "low columnar".
You do need to know:
Simple squamous: For permeability. Inside of the cardiovascular system

("endothelium"), lung air spaces, and body cavity inner linings
("mesothelium", on pleural, peritoneal, and pericardial cavities)
Stratified squamous: For protection. Skin, mucous membranes.
Transitional: For stretch. Urinary bladder.
Simple cuboidal: For ion pumping, i.e., ducts.
Simple columnar: High-volume secretion.
The presence of contractile myoepithelium as a second layer around the

epithelium does not turn simple into stratified.
Squamous: SKWAY-muss. (Not SQUAW-muss, please.)
Roots:
Squamo-: scaly
Basic Histology -- Mucin-Producing Columnar

Epithelium
Very busy secretory epithelia tend to be simple columnar.
Here is epithelium from the lower stomach. It has to produce mucin to keep
things moving. Think about the alternative.
Mucin-producing cells often present easy-to-see borders, since the carbohydrate-

rich pale-staining mucin contrasts with the protein-rich pink-staining cell surfaces.
This is stomach.
the simple columnar epithelium

Basic Histology -- Short Columnar Epithelium
(Exocrine Glands)
Exocrine glands are tubes (often complexly-branched) of cuboidal or columnar
epithelium that bud off a surface. Their acini are the business units that do the
secreting; branching ones have ducts that bring their secretions to the surface
from which the gland budded during embryonic life.
Exocrine glands look like rings of cuboidal or columnar epithelium, grouped

together.
Usually they will display the lumen into which their product is secreted.
This is a bit of mucus-secreting exocrine gland.
the acini
the lumens of the acini

Glands: GLANDZ. Try to enunciate at least enough so that it doesn't

sound exactly like "glans".
Basic Histology -- Exocrine Pancreas

Exocrine pancreatic ducts are easy to see, as tubes of cuboidal epithelium with
obvious lumens. These cells are involved some in exchanging ions.
The pancreatic acinar units are tubes of cuboidal epithelium. You usually will not
see the lumens, because they are very tiny. Probably this is good, because the
digestive enzymes need to get moving rather than staying around and possibly
digesting the acini themselves.
This is pancreas.
the acini
the ducts
Hotshots: There is a bit of an island of Langerhans, an endocrine (no-ducts)

gland, somewhere on this section. It is also composed of cuboidal cells,
separated by capillaries.
Basic Histology -- Cuboidal Epithelium, Thyroid
Thyroid is an endocrine gland in which simple cuboidal epithelium surrounds
masses of storage protein.
This is thyroid.
the simple cuboidal epithelium
Hotshots: Find areas where a simple cuboidal epithelium is cut tangentially,

creating the illusion of a stratified cuboidal epithelium.
Basic Histology -- Eccrine Sweat Glands
The glands in your skin which produce ordinary sweat are composed of tubes of
cuboidal cells.
This is a cluster of eccrine sweat duct sections. (They are probably all cuts
across the same coiled tube.)
sweat gland acini

Basic Histology -- Columnar Epithelium, Stomach
When columnar epithelium is cut at an angle ("tangentially"), the cells may
appear to be piled up, and the epithelium will stratified when it is actually simple.
This is the mucosa from the bottom of the stomach (antrum).
columnar epithelium
lumens
tangential sections
Basic Histology -- Columnar Epithelium, Higher
Magnification
This is a very nice example of columnar epithelium. You can see the cell borders,
because it's a mucin-producing epithelium.
By definition, columnar cells are clearly taller than they are wide.
Mucin-producing cells have their nuclei pushed down to the bottoms.

This is epithelium from the stomach bottom again.
mucin vacuoles
downwardly-displaced nuclei
Basic Histology -- Malignant Epithelium
Most of the common cancers arise from epithelium.
Their cells recapitulate what they did in health.

This is cancer that arose in a gland. There is a bit of Venetian blind artifact. You
should have no trouble appreciating that the nuclei are bizarre.
the malignant epithelium (look for bizarre cells forming acini)
lumens
Basic Histology -- Cuboidal Epithelium, Two
Layers
Sometimes you will see portions of gland with two cuboidal layers. You may call
this "stratified cuboidal".
Sometimes the lower layer is myoepithelium, i.e., cells that contract and help
squeeze the secretion out, as in breast and salivary gland. Other times, the effect
is local.
This is sweat gland variant with two layers of cuboidal cells.
two-layer cuboidal epithelium
Hotshots: We'll let you find, by yourself, the area where a tangential cut creates
the appearance of more than two layers.
Basic Histology -- Columnar Epithelium, Mucus-
Secreting
Colonic epithelium is composed mostly of columnar, mucus-producing glands in
simple, non-branching tubes.
This is colon.
the colonic epithelium
the mucin vacuoles
the lumen
Hotshots: Do you see any plasma cells?

Basic Histology -- Small Intestinal Crypts
The crypts (i.e., mucosal glands) of the small intestine lie within a lamina propria
which is rich in lymphocytes, eosinophils, and plasma cells.
Most of their epithelial cells are absorptive, and are tall columnar with purple
cytoplasm. A few of their cells are goblet cells, i.e., mucus producers. They
appear plump and stain pale, with the nucleus pushed to the bottom.
This is a group of small intestinal crypts.
the crypts (there's one with a lumen at the bottom, to the right; the rest do
not have visible lumens)
the goblet cells
Hotshots:
In the center of the picture is a "grape" plasma cell, full of round masses of
immunoglobulin. These are an occasional fun surprise under the
microscope.
Basic Histology -- Ciliated Epithelium
You have learned as an undergraduate about cilia on the edges of epithelial
cells. They look like little eyelashes. They move, and propel things (mucus in the
airways, eggs in the oviduct).
This is oviduct.
the ciliated epithelium

Cilia: SILLY-uh
Roots:
Cilia: Eyelashes
Basic Histology -- Intestinal Columnar Epithelium

Intestinal epithelial cells are adapted for absorption of nutrients and secretion of
mucus. So they must be very tall.
The absorptive cells are protein-rich, so they stain pink. On their free edges,
there is a "brush border", composed of microvilli. You cannot see the microvilli
without an electron microscope, but the brush border appears as a dark pink bar
on the luminal surface.
The mucus-secreting cells bulge out and compress their neighbors, so they are
given the repulsive name "goblet cells", as if each one is a wineglass full of
mucus. Of course, on H&E stain, mucus stains pale.
This is small intestinal mucosa.
columnar epithelium
mucin-producing epithelial cells ("goblet cells")
brush border on epithelium

Basic Histology -- Ciliated Epithelium of Oviduct
Cilia are a surface adaptation that helps propel things along.
In the oviduct, the cilia push the egg toward the uterus.
This is oviduct.
the ciliated epithelium
the underlying connective tissue ("lamina propria")
Hotshots:
Oviduct epithelium features occasional cells with large slender nuclei and
very little cytoplasm. They look like pegs driven between the ciliated
epithelial cells. Find a peg cell.
Basic Histology -- Ciliated Epithelium of Airway
Our large airways are lined by ciliated pseudostratified epithelium. For now, we
are happy if you can just find the cilia.
The cilia beat towards the oropharynx. They propel a thin layer of mucus, so that
you can cough it up and swallow it when you "clear your throat."
There's an old claim that smoking one pack of cigs paralyzes your cilia. If that
were true, then smokers would get the same lung lesions as do people born with
paralyzed cilia. They don't.
Remember that the connective tissue just underlying a surface epithelium of an

internal organ is called the "lamina propria".
This is a section of a large airway.
the epithelium
the cilia
the mucus layer
the thick basement membrane
the lamina propria

Roots:
Lamina: layer
Propria: belongs to
Basic Histology -- Columnar Epithelium with

Mucin Vacuoles
Mucin is composed primarily of carbohydrate. This is chains of carbon with lots of
hydroxyls on the sides.
The purpose of mucin is to mix easily with water in any concentration, and to be
slippery. Think about how the molecular structure makes this possible.
Mucin stains pale pink, because it has a little protein in it.

This epithelium is composed of tall columnar cells with mucin vacuoles at the
apices.
epithelium
mucin vacuoles
Hotshots: The thin pink bar on the apices of the cells is the brush border,
microvilli.
Mucin: MEW-sin (not -kin)
Roots:
muco: slime
Basic Histology -- Stratified Squamous

Epithelium, Smoker's Lung
Smokers occasionally get stratified squamous epithelium lining their airways.
This is largely the result of genetic mutations, rather than being for protection (as
some people may tell you.)
When one morphologically normal type of epithelium is replaced by another, it's

called "metaplasia".
This is bronchus from a smoker. There is some blood free in the lumen of the
bronchus.
stratified squamous epithelium (notice the artifactual crack at the top)
lamina propria
Hotshots: Find a carbon-laden macrophage in the bronchial lumen.

Epithelium, Mucosa
Stratified squamous epithelium covers surfaces that need physical protection.
The cells are bound tightly together and piled up.
Cell division occurs only in the bottom layer of a healthy stratified squamous
epithelium. The bottom cells are cuboidal. They flatten down on the surface.
I chose this glycogen-rich stratified squamous epithelium because it shows the

cells flattening down on the top without dying.
Unmodified, "squamous epithelium" means "stratified squamous". This works in

"pathology", but don't try to get away with it in "anatomy".
This is stratified squamous epithelium from the ectocervix.
upper squamous layers
lower layers (the cells are more cuboidal)
basement membrane
connective tissue (dermis)

Roots:
Strata: ranks of an army.
Compare "strategy", i.e., generalship (Greek strategos, general.)
Basic Histology -- Stratified Sqmaous Epithelium,

Thick
This isn't the time to learn all the names of things that you might find in normal
stratified squamous epithelium.
Where a stratified squamous epithelium is likely to undergo shearing forces, it

usually interdigitates as "pegs" with the underlying connective tissue, which
presents "papillae".
This is skin.
thick epidermis
pegs
papillae
Epithelium, Glycogen-Rich
The stratified squamous epithelium of the ectocervix is rich in glycogen at certain
times of the month. This guarantees a good supply of sugar for the sperms.
This is ectocervix. The glycogen-rich cells are much larger than their progenitors
in the basal layer, and have a pale cytoplasm.
basement membrane
basal layer
glycogen-rich cells
Epithelium, Lower Layers
Here is a photo of skin, stratified squamous epithelium (here called "epidermis")
joining the connective tissue of the dermis. You can sort-of appreciate that the
cells of the lowest layer have scanty cytoplasm. This is called the basal layer.
Look for cells surrounded by prickles higher up. The prickles are desmosomes,
and the layer is the "spiny" or "prickle" layer.
This is dermal-epidermal junction.
basal layer of the epidermis
spiny layer of the epidermis
desmosomes ("prickles")
dermis
Basic Histology -- Stratified Squamous Epithelium
We are not going to make you learn the names of the various layers of a
common stratified squamous epithelium yet.
Most of these epithelia have an region where you can appreciate the
desmosomes, as prickles between the cells. The prickle effect is a fixation artifact
caused by shrinkage of cells which nevertheless remain joined by their
desmosomes. We call this the "spiny layer" or the "prickle layer".
At the top of stratified squamous epithelia is a layer of dead cells (i.e., the nuclei
are pyknotic or gone).
This is a stratified squamous epithelium.
the spiny ("prickle") layer
the dead layer

Basic Histology -- Hair Follicle
A hair follicle is a special adaptation of stratified squamous epithelium.
Someday you may learn the names of all of its layers.
For now, the hair follicle is a tube of stratified squamous epithelium, invaginated
into the dermis, which gives rise to a dead keratin structure which is the familiar
hair.
This is a hair follicle.
hair shaft
hair follicle
dermis
Basic Histology -- Endothelium (A Simple
Squamous Epithelium)
Endothelium is the most familiar kind of simple squamous epithelium.
You will usually see endothelium on cross-section.
Nuclei seem to protrude into the lumen. The cytoplasm is so scanty that you
usually cannot see it.
This is the intimal surface of a large blood vessel..
the endothelium
Basic Histology -- Macrophages
Most of our tissues contain a generous supply of macrophages, cells responsible
for devouring particulate matter.
Don't expect to be able to distinguish macrophages most of the time.
Macrophages are easiest to see when they have devoured pigment, such as
carbon.
A regrettable synonym for macrophage is "histiocyte". Better is "mononuclear

phagocyte".
This is tissue from the chest of a smoker.
carbon-laden macrophages
Basic Histology -- Review: Cancer
Here is a chance to review some tumor histology.
See what you can find in this carcinoma. For one thing, there are areas where
mucus has accumulated ("mucus lakes") becasue the glands no longer know
where to send it. The mucus will be pale-pink as it contains some protein.
This is a lung cancer derived from mucus-producing cells.
bizarre nuclei (this is easy)
bizarre glands
mucus lakes
necrotic debris
Basic Histology -- Review: Cancer
Here is a chance to review some tumor histology.
See what you can find in this carcinoma. For one thing, there are areas where
mucus has accumulated ("mucus lakes") becasue the glands no longer know
where to send it. The mucus will be pale-pink as it contains some protein.
This is a lung cancer derived from mucus-producing cells.
bizarre nuclei (this is easy)
bizarre glands
mucus lakes
necrotic debris
Basic Histology -- Neutrophils in Loose

Connective Tissue
This is an easy slide from somebody with an infection.
Eosinophils are easier to see with a real microscope, but there's one here. You
can spot an eosinophil by its:
brilliant red cytoplasm

two-lobed nucleus
This is acutely-inflamed tissue containing lots of neutrophils.
Be sure you can see the collagen fibers. There are occasional red cells in the
tissue.
the neutrophils
the eosinophil in the center
a plasma cell right-of-center

Eosinophil: ee-oh-SIN-oh-fill (rarely ee-oh-SAWN-o-phil)
Roots:
eos: dawn
Basic Histology -- Review: Island of Langerhans

Groups of cuboidal cells without ducts or lumens are usually endocrine glands.
Try to find the island of Langerhans here.
If you can do this with confidence, you're well on your way to mastering medical
school histology.
This is pancreas.
the island of Langerhans

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Ed's Basic Histology Gallery

This page was last modified March 2, 2010.

This site introduces basic concepts of histology actively, without having to

If you become a doctor, you will need it to make sense of what's

simple columnar / cuboidal epithelium

stratified squamous epithelium

red blood cells

Click here if you hate studying histology.

Basic Histology -- Cells and Fibers

The standard tissue stain is composed of hematoxylin and eosin.

With your study partners, find:

Cells with nuclei

Thick collagen fibers

Areas composed mostly of ground substance

United States Pronunciations:

Basic Histology -- Cells in Relationship

With your study partners, find:

Don't worry right now about anything else on the slide.

Epithelium: EPP-ih-THEE-lee-um (unvoiced th)

Medical singular words that end in -a usually form plurals in -ae.

Basic Histology -- Some Large Cells

skeletal muscle cells ("skeletal muscle fibers")

collagen fibers between the muscle fibers

United States Pronunciations:

Skeletal: SKELL-uh-tull. Canadians say "skell-LEE-tull".

The Romans thought that a well-defined person's muscles seem to

Basic Histology -- More Epithelium and Fibrous

This is a mucus-producing gland. Remember the mucin is mostly carbohydrate,

With your study partners, find:

Epithelial cells, pale-staining, with relatively distinct borders.

Fibers between the glandular units.

A large blood vessel

Cytoplasm is more variable in its appearance. Protein-rich cytoplasm stains dark

This is a pancreatic island surrounded by other pancreatic cells.

the island of Langerhans

the nuclei of the island's functioning cells

the cytoplasm of the island's functioning cells

the nuclei of the island's capillaries

the digestive enzyme secreting units

the nuclei and cytoplasm of the cells of these units

United States Pronunciations:

Anyone saying "nuculus" or "nucular" will be pronounced dead and

Basic Histology -- Nuclei at Low Magnification

They appear as blue dots.

Do not expect all nuclei to be round.

With your study partners, find:

nuclei of the schwann cells

nuclei of the epineurium

Basic Histology -- Some Abnormally Large Nuclei

With your study partners, find:

the cancer, with its abnormal nuclei

the normal fibrous tissue, with its normal nuclei

Hotshots: More to find.

The largest cancer cell is dead, with its nucleus fragmented.

There is a blood vessel left-of-center.

Except in some cancer cells, nucleoli are always round.

With your study partners, find:

the nerve cell (HINT: It has abundant pink cytoplasm.)

With your study partners, find:

three big neurons

the nucleus and nuceolus of the one in the center

We call this a "tangential cut".

With your study partners, find:

the ganglion cell