TOWER NONLINEAR DYNAMIC RESPONSE OF CABLE-STAYED
BRIDGES UNDER GREAT EARTHQUAKE GROUND MOTION
Shehata Eldabie ABDEL RAHEEM
Candidate for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy
Supervisor: Dr. Toshiro HAYASHIKAWA
Division of Structural and Geotechnical Engineering
Introduction
Bridges are critical lifeline facilities and integral part of
local and national highway systems, which should
remain functional without damage after an earthquake
to facilitate the rescue and relief operations. In Japan,
the seismic vulnerability of highway bridges was made
dramatically evident by these structures failure in the
1995 Kobe earthquake. This earthquake provided a
stimulus to investigate highway bridges seismic
response, and emphasized the need to develop new
procedures and specifications to assess existing bridges
and to improve the seismic design of new bridges. Near
field ground motions developed in the Hyogoken Nanbu
earthquake were included in the 1996 Japanese design
codes. The earthquake resisting system should provide a
reliable and uninterrupted load path for transmitting
seismically induced forces into the ground and sufficient
means of energy dissipation and/or restraint to reliably
control seismically induced displacements.
The peculiarity of the structural behavior of cable-
stayed bridges naturally requires the adoption of
sophisticated dynamic analysis procedures. As a result,
the necessity has arisen to develop more efficient
analysis procedures that can lead to a comprehensive
understanding and a realistic prediction of the seismic
response and dynamic characteristics of bridge
structural systems to improve the seismic performance.
As consequence, using nonlinear dynamic analysis
procedures as part of a performance-based design
approach has become increasingly essential.
A new challenge to the earthquake engineering
community is to develop new technologies that could
improve bridges seismic performance. These new
technologies consist of new construction materials and
protective systems. Theoretical, experimental and field
evidences confirm the benefits of these cost-effective
technologies and their potential to reduce earthquake
losses in highway bridges. These technologies should be
further studied experimentally and analytically to
enhance their seismic performance.
It has been generally recognized that the interaction
between soil and structure can indeed affect the
response of structures, especially for those structures
founded on relatively flexible soil. The necessity of
incorporating soil structure interaction in the design of a
wide class of bridge structures has been pointed out by
several post earthquake investigations, experimental and
analytical, especially that have been constructed on
relatively soft ground, which results in a great demand
to evaluate the effects of soil-structure interaction on the
bridges seismic behavior and properly reflect it in a
seismic design to accurately capture the response,
enhance the safety level and reduce design costs.
Methodology
A nonlinear dynamic finite element technique is
developed to analyze the elastoplastic dynamic response
of frame structures under strong earthquake excitation.
A fiber flexural element is developed for
characterization of the steel tower; the element
incorporates both geometric and material nonlinearities,
which are vital to understanding the complex structural
mechanical behavior. The fiber flexural element
modeling is adopted to capture the spread of plastic
zone in individual element, which is physically
motivated from actual unaxial test data of structural
steel bars and give the instantaneous stiffness, making
the model ideal for iterative nonlinear analysis. A quite
general nonlinear dynamic soil structure interaction
formulation capable of accurately representing arbitrary
nonlinear nature of the contact between the foundation
and the surrounding soil has been demonstrated and its
implementation in a finite element nonlinear seismic
analysis is presented. An incremental iterative method
based on the Newmark direct integration method and
the Newton-Raphson method is employed for getting
the nonlinear dynamic equilibrium equations solution.
Seismic Response
A quite general nonlinear dynamic analysis is developed
for a realistic prediction of cable-stayed bridge tower
seismic performance, Figs. 1 and 2. One of the most
important decisions in carrying out proper analysis is to
select a design earthquake that adequately represents the
ground motion expected at certain site and in particular
the motion that would drive the bridge structure to its
critical response, resulting in the highest damage
potential. So an extensive series of seismic response
analyses using a wide range of recorded and simulated
ground motions are carried out. The ductility and base
shear demands due to near-fault and long duration
ground motions are compared. The stipulation of code
standard input excitation limitations and the present
calculated demands are discussed [1, 2].
A parametric study on dynamic characteristics of
steel tower is performed to investigate the influence of
different design aspects, such as damping mechanism,
input ground motion, initial construction imperfections
including geometric imperfection and residual stress,
Figs. 3 and 4 and tower modal shapes. The numerical
results show that the horizontal beam position
significantly affects the tower structural behavior, while
the initial construction imperfections due to fabrication
process of values within design range have slight
effects. The effects of the vertical excitation have highly
dependence on the damping scheme [3 5].
1
74.30 115.00 284.00 115.00 81.10 (a) Location and direction of isolation devices
8 x 11.5 = 92.00 34.50 34.50 8 x 11.50 = 92.00 31.00 8 x 11.50 = 92.00 34.50 34.50 8x 11.5 = 92.00

68.00

68.00
36.00

36.00

Zero length

Zero length
Zero length

Zero length

Zero length
34.00 34.00

Fig. 1. General view of cable-stayed bridge (m)

13.00
3.50
2.40
Case II Case III Case IV

5.00
(b) Rotation isolation device design (Case IV).
17.00

III

20.00
2.70
Elastomeric pad

24.00
IV Viscoelastic materials
14.50
II

14.504

Shear pin

Tower leg
68.00

68.00
Horizontal beam
Horizontal

Tower leg
48.00 beam
37.50

Z
36.50
I

Viscoelastic materials
Elastomeric pad
1.50

Y
Elastomeric pad Viscoelastic material
X
18.00 Fig. 5 Passive energy dissipation control system
Fig. 2. Steel tower of cable-stayed bridge
viscoelastic type connection at certain locations, Fig. 5.
Imperfection Imperfection
amplitude amplitude The connection isolators are designed to dissipate a
Displacement
large portion of the earthquake input energy in
connection details that deform and yield during an
earthquake. Since the deformation and yielding are
concentrated in the device at selected connections of
tower structure, damage to other element may be
reduced; or a typically concentration of inelastic
Moment & Curvature

behavior at tower horizontal beam using low relative

strength and stiffness through insertion of low yield
Shear material, since the horizontal beam is easy to inspect
and repair if necessary, the primary structure will
(a) out-plane m ode (b) in-plane m ode (c) measured aspects position
remain elastic, thus eliminating permanent damage and
minimizing the extent of retrofit. A nonlinear dynamic
Fig. 3 Initial geometric imperfection pattern of tower analysis investigation of the steel tower model with the
y proposed energy dissipation systems is carried out and
cr
compared to the response obtained for the tower with its
cr y original configuration [6, 7].
The calculated results clarify the effectiveness of the
y cr
: Tension proposed energy dissipation system in reducing
: C om pression
structural elements forces and control tower primary
cr/(2-y/cr)

structure ductility demand for economical earthquake

(a) O uter section
Fig. 4 Residual stress distribution through tower cross section
Energy Dissipation Control System
Seismic forces reduction of steel tower using passive
energy dissipation system is investigated. The design of
passive energy dissipation system should be able to
provide supplemental damping to significantly reduce
tower structural response to ground motion and
dissipation a large portion of earthquake input energy
through inelastic deformations in certain positions,
which could be easily retrofitted after damage. Two
effective energy dissipation concepts are suggested by
providing effective energy dissipation device of new
resistant design. The implementation of proposed
energy dissipation systems in tower structures enables a
predominant elastic behavior of the main structure
(b) Inner stiffner under severe earthquakes that depends upon the
connection stiffness or yield level. A substantial
reduction of the seismic response of the isolated tower
is attained in comparison to that of the original tower.
The low yield material energy dissipation system
demonstrates its effectiveness for earthquake hazards
through its capability achieving the concentration of
inelastic behavior at tower horizontal beam and
reducing and possibly eliminating plastic behavior of
primary tower structures as yield level decreases. The
low yield material technique could add supplemental
damping primarily by material hysteresis and increase
structure flexibility as the horizontal beam yield early
attains, in terms tower structural system ability to reflect
a portion of earthquake input ground motion increases.
2
Soil Structure Interaction Sand
1 Clay

Shear modulus ration & Damping

Gravel
A finite element model to study the soil-foundation-
superstructure interaction effects on the seismic
response of a cable-stayed bridge tower supported on G/G0
0.5
spread footing foundation is presented, where an
incremental iterative technique is adopted for a more h
realistic analysis of the nonlinear soil-foundation
superstructure interaction. Two different modeling 0
approaches of simplified soil lumped parameter and
10 -6 10 -5 10 -4 10 -3 10 -2 10 -1
Winkler soil foundation models for soil foundation Strain
interaction are considered. These models take into Fig. 7 Strain-dependent soil material nonlinearity
account tower geometry, pier flexibility and the
presence of a massive foundation. The interaction
between the soil and the structure is simulated with
translational, rotational and their coupling springs
system through simplified lumped parameter model, as
shown in Fig. 6, while the soil nonlinearity including
material nonlinearity of strain dependant (rigidity and
damping), as illustrated in Fig. 7, and geometrical
nonlinearity by base mat uplift is considered through
Winkler model, Figs. 8 and 9. Soil yielding under the + 17.27
foundation and along the embedded depth is modeled + 5.40

through Hardin-Drnevich model to express nonlinear

soil characteristics, Fig. 10. The contact nonlinearity
induced by the uplift of the foundation is integrated in - 11.23

gap model. Radiation damping associated with wave - 18.73

propagation is accounted for implicitly through viscous

damping, while the energy dissipation through soil
material nonlinearity is explicitly modeled. The Fig. 8 Mathematical model of Winkler soil foundation
interaction effects generated by the normal and Gap element
tangential resistance of the soil against all active sides
of the footing are taken into account [8 11].
The results show that a massive rigid foundation could Soil nonlinearity element
activate high frequency translational motion of input
ground motion and generates foundation-rocking
responses. The simplified lumped parameter model
analysis provides a good prediction for peak responses,
but overestimates the acceleration response, and the Fig. 9 General concept of uplift and sliding modeling
uplift force at the anchor between superstructure and
pier is underestimated. The predominant contribution to
1 1
the vertical response at footing base comes from m ax
G0 G

massive foundation rocking rather than from the vertical H ysteresis curve
excitation. The permanent settlement is found to be the
less significant; he rocking vibration dominates lateral
soil bearing stresses along the pier embedded depth. The r
underlying soil bearing stress is significantly increases
due to footing base uplift. S keleton curve

Soil profile +17.27 Fig. 10 Hardin-Drnevich model and Masings Rule

Depth (m) N Value
10 30 50 +11.03
-2.400 B N = 4 C = 2.2 Summary and Conclusions
AC2 N = 4 C = 2.4
-10.90 The trend for cable-stayed bridges recently is to use
-15.60 AC2 N = 5 C = 4.8 high strength materials and therefore more slender
-17.70 AS3 N = 8 = 26 stiffening girders combined with the rapid increase in
span length. This structural synthesis provides a
AC3 N = 7 C = 4.3
valuable environment for the nonlinear behavior due to
-27.70
KL
-29.40 Dc1 N = 19 C = 11.4 material nonlinearities and geometrical nonlinearities of
-35.50 KR the structure relatively large deflection on the stresses
KC Dg1 N = 40 = 36
and forces. The loss of life and extensive property
KV damage suffered during the 1994 Northridge and 1995
Fig. 6 Soil profile and soil lumped parameter model Hyogoken Nanbu earthquakes led to an increased
3
awareness concerning the response of highway bridges
subjected to earthquake ground motions and emphasized
the need for research to provide new procedures and
specifications.
An analytical model of cable-stayed bridges tower is
developed to understand accurately the precise three-
dimensional nonlinear dynamic response of the bridge
structural systems and to improve their seismic
performance precisely. An earthquake modeling is
examined and dynamic characteristics, such as natural
frequencies, mode shapes and seismic response under
near-fault strong excitation is determined. To simulate
the tower earthquake response, a three-dimensional
nonlinear finite element model is established based on
design drawings. A fiber flexural element is developed
for tower characterization incorporates both geometric
and material nonlinearities sources. A suite of recorded
and simulated standard ground motion records are used
for the time history analysis. Analytical parametric
study on dynamic characteristics of steel tower is
performed to investigate the individual influence of
different design aspects, such as damping mechanism,
vertical ground motion, allowable initial construction
imperfections including geometric imperfections and
longitudinal residual stresses; and tower modal shapes.
The vertical ground motion effect has highly
dependence on damping scheme.
Structural control systems provide an additional
mechanism to meet multiple performance objectives,
particularly in the presence of severe ground motions.
The design of a structure/controller system should
involve a through understanding of how various types of
controllers enhance structural performance. Effective
energy dissipation concepts, to improve the bridges
seismic performance and to provide damage control and
post-earthquake functionality, are suggested by:
providing effective energy dissipation device of new
viscoelastic type connection at certain locations; or a
typically concentration of inelastic behavior at tower
horizontal beam using low relative strength and stiffness
through insertion of low yield material. For the model of
the hypothetically installed with proposed energy
dissipation systems, the efficiency of new viscoelastic
connection and low yield material dissipative
mechanism to protect seismically isolated tower
structure from the near-source ground motions is
examined. The calculated results prove the effectiveness
of proposed energy dissipation systems in reducing
structural elements forces and control tower
displacement for seismic design.
Furthermore, A quite general nonlinear dynamic soil
structure interaction analysis methodology is developed
to estimate seismic response characteristics of cable-
stayed bridges tower with spread foundation. This
methodology includes the effect of the soil flexibility
underlying the foundation and its associated geometric
and hysteretic damping. Due to rocking response of a
spread foundation under a strong near-field ground
motion that may result in the foundation uplift and the
underlying soils yield, both of strain-dependent material
nonlinearity and geometrical nonlinearity by base mat
uplift are considered. Soil parameters values that are
considered in the design process are used to observe the
effect of soil nonlinearities upon the tower-pier seismic
response. Numerical results indicate that considering
soil foundation interaction and soil nonlinearities can
reduce force response quantities of the physical tower
model. The soil yielding below the foundation and uplift
at the interface have significantly contribution to
foundation rocking response. The footing soil bearing
stress dramatically increases due to footing base uplift.
References
[1] Abdel Raheem, S. E. and Hayashikawa, T.: Dynamic
analysis of cable-stayed bridge tower under level II earthquake
ground motion, Steel Construction Engineering, (submitted).
[2] Abdel Raheem, S. E. and Hayashikawa, T.: Nonlinear
behavior of cable-stayed bridges tower under level II
earthquake ground motion, International Workshop on
Structural Health Monitoring of Bridges/Colloquium on
Bridge Vibration, Kitami, 1-2 September 2003 (in press).
[3] Abdel Raheem, S. E. and Hayashikawa, T.: Parametric
study on steel tower seismic response of cable-stayed bridges
under great earthquake ground motion, Journal of Structural
Mechanics and Earthquake Engineering, JSCE, Vol. I-63, No.
731, pp. 1-17, 2003.
[4] Abdel Raheem, S. E. and Hayashikawa, T.: Construction
imperfections effects on steel tower dynamic response of
cable-stayed bridge under great earthquake, Journal of
Construction Steel, JSSC, Vol. 10, pp. 355-362, 2002.
[5] Abdel Raheem, S. E., Hayashikawa, T. and Sato, K.:
Effect of frameworks on dynamic behavior of steel towers of
cable-stayed bridge under great earthquake ground motions,
Journal of Structural Engineering, JSCE, Vol.48A, pp.359-
368, 2002.
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passive energy dissipation system, Journal of Structural
Engineering, JSCE, Vol.48A, pp.863-874, 2002.
[7] Hayashikawa, T. and Abdel Raheem, S. E.: Steel tower
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dissipation system, Proceeding of the 7th International
Conference on STEEL & SPACE STRUCTURES, Singapore,
pp.191-198, 2-4 October 2002.
[8] Abdel Raheem, S. E., Hayashikawa, T. and Hashimoto,
I.: Effects of soil-foundation-superstructure interaction on
seismic response of cable-stayed bridges tower with spread
footing foundation, Journal of Structural Engineering, JSCE,
Vol.49A, pp. 475-486, 2003.
[9] Abdel Raheem, S. E., Hayashikawa, T. and Hashimoto,
I.: Study on foundation flexibility effects on steel tower
seismic response of cable-stayed bridges under great
earthquake ground motion, Journal of Construction Steel,
JSSC, Vol. 10, pp. 349-354, 2002.
[10] Hayashikawa, T., Abdel Raheem, S. E. and Hashimoto, I.:
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interaction model of cable-stayed bridges tower, Proceedings
of 13th. World Conference on Earthquake Engineering,
Canada, 1-6 August 2004 (abstract submitted).
[11] Abdel Raheem, S. E. and Hayashikawa, T.: Soil structure
interaction effect on seismic response of cable-stayed bridges
tower, Proceeding of the 1st International Conference of Civil
Engineering Science (ICCES1), Assiut, Egypt, 7-8 October
2003 (in press).