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International Journal of Obesity (1998) 22, 980987
1998 Stockton Press All rights reserved 03070565/98 $12.00
http://www.stockton-press.co.uk/ijo
OBJECTIVE: This study examined the effects of covert alterations in the energy density (ED) of mixed, medium fat
(MF) diets on ad libitum food and energy intake (EI), subjective hunger and body weight in humans.
DESIGN: Randomised cross-over design. Subjects were each studied three times (factorial design), during 14 d,
throughout which they had ad libitum access to one of three covertly-manipulated MF diets.
SUBJECTS: Six healthy men, mean age (s.e.m.) 30.0 y (12.76 y), mean weight 71.67 kg (19.80 kg); mean
height 1.79 m (0.22 m), body mass index (BMI) 22.36 (2.60) kg/m2, were studied. The fat, carbohydrate (CHO) and
protein in each diet (as a proportion of the total energy) and energy density (ED) were, low-ED (LED), 38:49:13%;
373 kJ/100 g; medium-ED (MED), 40:47:13%; 549 kJ/100 g; high-ED (HED), 39:48:13%; 737 kJ/100 g. Subjects could alter
the amount but not the composition of foods eaten. They were resident in (but not conned to) a metabolic suite
throughout the study.
RESULTS: Solid food intake decreased as ED increased, giving mean values of 2.84, 2.51 and 2.31 kg/d, respectively.
This was insufcient to defend energy balance, since energy intake increased with increasing ED (F (2,10) 16.08;
P < 0.001) giving mean intakes of 10.12, 12.80 and 16.17 MJ/d, respectively. Rated pleasantness of food (measured on
visual analogue scales) was not signicantly different between diets nor was subjective hunger different between the
LED, MED and HED diets, respectively. Diet signicantly affected body weight (F (2,10) 4.62; P 0.038), producing
changes of 71.20, 0.02 and 0.95 kg, respectively, by day 14.
CONCLUSION: Dietary ED can inuence EI and body weight, since changes in amount eaten alone are insufcient to
defend energy balance, when subjects feed on unfamiliar diets and diet selection is precluded. Comparison with our
previous studies suggest that there was compensation in solid food intake when ED was altered using mixed diets (as
in this study) compared to previous studies which primarily used fat or CHO to alter dietary ED.
Keywords: carbohydrate; fat; energy; macronutrients; food intake; appetite; energy density; humans
Introduction This may not be the case since two recent studies
found that the increased consumption of modied low
fat (LF) foods decreases fat but not energy intake (EI),
Increased fat intake is considered to be a major factor
in free-living consumers.7,8 These results suggest that
in Western society, predisposing individuals to gain
while dietary fat intake may be a risk factor for weight
weight. Indeed, government reports now suggest that
gain, substantial weight loss is unlikely to be achieved
in order to limit weight gain, people should speci-
simply by increasing the consumption of LF food
cally attempt to reduce dietary fat intake (for example,
products.
see Ref. 1). The evidence that fat somehow bypasses
The majority of studies that compare the effects of
appetite control and that changes in fat intake are a
high fat (HF) and LF diets on appetite and indices of
major factor underlying secular trends in body weight
energy balance, confound diet composition with ED,
appears to be compelling.2 6
since dietary fat content and ED tend to co-vary.
The food industry has responded to dietary recom-
These studies have not therefore assessed whether
mendations regarding fat, by producing a large
the excess EI induced by consumption of HF diets is
number of food products which are `low' or `lower-
a macronutrient-specic effect. Two studies have
fat' foods. These foods are not always foods which are
compared the effects of isoenergetically-dense HF
low in energy density (ED) or in the case of some
and LF diets on EI. When the ED of HF and LF
`lower fat' foods, low in absolute fat content. Despite
diets was very similar, the effect of fat in promoting
this fact, some consumers appear to have developed
excess EI was not apparent.9,10 These ndings have
the perception that in order to lose weight, a person
led to the suggestion that the effects of fat in promot-
simply needs to reduce their total dietary fat intake.
ing excess EI is simply a non-nutrient specic effect
of dietary ED.11 However, many experts would agree
Correspondence: RJ Stubbs, The Rowett Research Institute, that the effects of diet composition on feeding beha-
Greenburn Road, Bucksburn, Aberdeen, AB21 9SB, UK.
Received 22 August 1997; revised 12 March 1998; accepted viour cannot be simply reduced to a question of
22 May 1998 whether dietary fat or ED promotes excess EI.
Energy density of mixed diets and energy intake
RJ Stubbs et al
981
Other studies which have compared the effects of mass index (BMI) 22.36 (2.60) kg=m2) were recruited
isoenergetic (1.0 1.5 MJ) macronutrient loads on by advertisement. They were normal weight, non-
subjective hunger, have found protein to be the most smoking, non-trained, healthy men, who were not
satiating macronutrient.12 14 Differences between iso- taking any medication. Subjects were resident in, but
energetically-dense HF and high carbohydrate (HC) not conned to, the metabolic suite, since they could
diets are detectable, but tend to be more subtle than come and go as they pleased. They also had ad libitum
when fat contributes disproportionately to dietary ED access to a diet that was of a xed composition per run
(for example, see Ref. 15). A consideration of the and so were not strictly free-living in the true sense of
literature suggests, that under ecological conditions, the phrase.
there is a hierarchy in the satiating efciencies of the
macronutrients protein (most satiating), carbohydrate
(CHO) and fat (least satiating).16 This hierarchy may
be over-ridden by changes in dietary ED, since we Study design
have recently shown that subjects can spontaneously Each subject was studied three times in 16 d during
overeat on high-CHO (HC) diets which are high in treatments which began with 2 d equilibration on a
ED.17 A much more complex picture of the way diet designed to standardise energy and macronutrient
human subjects respond to different controlled (and intakes at 1.6 basal metabolic rate (BMR), as
often covert) manipulations of the nutrient content described previously.17 The ED of these meals were,
and=or ED of the diet is thus beginning to emerge. on average 600 kJ=100 g. During the subsequent 14 d,
Walls and Koopmans18 have found that in rodents, the subjects had continuous ad libitum access to one
compensatory responses were greater when rats were of three covertly manipulated diets, which were low
given intravenous infusions of mixed nutrients, than (LED), medium (MED) or high-energy density (HED)
when either fats or glucose were given alone. Com- (Table 1). The proportion of energy derived from
pensatory responses were greater for glucose than fat. protein, CHO and fat was the same on each diet.
This effect has been found in humans.19 Campbell et Each dish was made in three versions, corresponding
al20 observed marked (albeit incomplete) compensa- to the LED, MED and HED regimes. The ED of each
tory responses for covert alterations in the ED of food type increased on going from the LED to HED
mixed, liquid diets in lean but not obese subjects. version of the same food. The order of diets was
These observations, together with the above discus- randomised in a counterbalanced design across sub-
sion, suggest that subjects may compensate to a jects. The energy and macronutrient composition of
greater extent for variations in the ED of mixed each time of the diet, the diet recipes, three-day
diets than when the ED of the diet is altered primarily rotating menu and instructions for preparation of the
using fat or CHO. foods, can be obtained by contacting the authors. The
This study therefore examined subjects' responses means of anthropometric measurement, food prepara-
to variations in the ED (but not the composition) of tion, presentation and food intake measurements have
mixed diets, under the same experimental conditions been described in detail previously.17
that we have used to examine responses to ED Subjects completed subjective hunger, appetite and
manipulations of the diet by primarily using fat,5,6 palatability ratings 15 min after each meal as
CHO17 or isoenergetically dense HF and HC diets.10 described by Hill and Blundell.21 There was a mini-
mum period of one week between treatments, during
which subjects had access to free food. The subjects
entirely determined their own daily activity regimes.
Materials and methods We did not therefore ensure that physical activity was
strictly controlled across treatments, although subjects
reported that they did not change their normal routines
Subjects during the course of the study. The study was
Six healthy men (mean (s.e.m.) age 30.00 (12.76) y; approved by the Grampian Health Board and Univer-
weight 71.67 (19.80) kg; height 1.79 (0.22) m; body sity of Aberdeen Joint Ethical Committee.
Table 1 Average composition of dietary treatments expressed as water, dry matter, energy and nutrient composition for the high
(HED), medium (MED) and low-energy density (LED) diets
Water Dry matter Energy Protein Fat CHO Sugar Starch NSP % % %
(g) (g) (MJ) (MJ) (MJ) (MJ) (g) (g) (g) Protein CHO Fat
Food and drink (g) 4075 3410 3663 1.77 0.219 356.3
s.e.m. (215) (166) (199)
Water (g) 3513 2718 2819 3.93 0.055 308.8
s.e.m. (194) (140) (173)
Solid food (g) 2839a 2506 2304 3.93 < 0.01 192.3
s.e.m. (637) (550) (540)
Energy (MJ) 10.19a,c 12.80 16.17 13.23 < 0.002 1165.2
s.e.m. (0.41) (0.59) (0.60)
Protein (MJ) 1.35a,c 1.68 2.11 13.63 < 0.001 145.9
s.e.m. (0.05) (0.08) (0.08)
Fat (MJ) 3.80a,b 5.03 6.23 13.46 < 0.001 466.8
s.e.m. (0.15) (0.23) (0.23)
CHO (MJ) 4.97a,c 6.00 7.64 7.64 < 0.002 546.4
s.e.m. (0.20) (0.28) (0.28)
Sugar (g) 135a,b 173 192 8.15 0.008 14.74
s.e.m. (5) (8) (8)
Starch (g) 154a,c 167 265 20.34 < 0.001 19.06
s.e.m. (8) (10) (12)
NSP (g) 20a,b 13 14 14.85 0.001 1.546
s.e.m. (1) (1) (1)
a
Indicates a signicant difference between LED and HED diets; b indicates a signicant difference between LED and
MED diets; cindicates a signicant difference between MED and HED diets; CHO carbohydrate; NSP non-starch
polysaccharides.
Energy density of mixed diets and energy intake
RJ Stubbs et al
983
Figure 1 Mean (s.e.m.) daily intake of food and energy for the
six subjects on the three dietary treatments. ANOVA conrmed
the treatment effect was signicant at P < 0.002.
Discussion