CHAPTER 1: THE ORIGIN AND STRUCTURE OF THE EARTH

ORIGIN OF THE UNIVERSE

A. PLATO
For 2000 years, the minds of astronomers were shackled by a pair of ideas. The Greek
philosopher Plato argued the heavens were perfect. Because the only perfect geometrical shape is
a sphere, which carries a point on its surface around in a circle, and because the only perfect motion
is uniform motion.
Plato concluded that all moon in the heavens must be made up of combinations of circles
turning uniform rates. The idea was called uniform circular motion.
B. ARISTOTLE
Platos student Aristotle argued that Earth was imperfect and lay at the centre of the universe.
Such a model is known as a geocentric universe. His model contained 55 spheres turning at
different rates and different angles to carry the seven known planets (the moon, Mercury, Venus,
the sun, Mars, Jupiter and Saturn) across the sky.

Ancient astronomers believed that Earth did not move because they saw no parallax,
the apparent motion of an object because the motion of the observer. To demonstrate
parallax, close one eye and cover a distant object with your thumb held at arms length,
left. If Earth moves, ancient astronomers reasoned, you should see the sky from different
location at different times of the year, and you should see parallax distorting the shapes of
the constellations. They saw no parallax, so they concluded Earth could not move. Actually,
the parallax of the stars is too small to see with the unaided eye.

C. GALILEO GALILEI
He was a pivotal figure in the development of modern astronomy, both because of his
contributions directly to astronomy. Because of his discovery of telescope, he provided the crucial
observations that proved and strengthen the Copernican hypothesis.

D. NICOLAUS COPERNICUS
Copernican heliocentrism is the name given to the astronomical model developed Nicolaus
Copernicus and published in 1543. It stated that the sun is the centre of the universe, motionless,
with Earth and the other planets rotating around it in circular paths modified by epicycles and
uniform speeds.

NS 1: EARTH AND LIFE SCIENCES MANAOG, MJD (2016)

 Also according to Copernicuss observations, the moon has mountains, valleys and craters
similar to those of Earth.
He also observed that the sun has imperfections dark blemishes called sun spot. (In referred
that the Sun rotates approximately once per month around an axis roughly perpendicular to the
eliptic plane. Eliptic plane is defined as the apparent path of the sun on celestial sphere over the
course of a year.

Figure 1. (Left) Illustration of the geocentric model - Aristotle; (Right) Heliocentric Model of
Nicolaus Copernicus

THE BIG BANG THEORY

It is a scientific theory that explain the origin of the universe.
The Big Bang Theory was proposed by Edwin Hubble is considered the most plausible theory
explaining the origin of the universe.
Hubble proposed that the universe began as a very hot and dense fireball called Ylem. This
prehistoric mass contained all the energy and matter that is now present in the universe.
Million years later, the fireball exploded with great violence that the outer space become filled
with materials in the form of torrent of gases containing protons, electron and neutrons with some
alpha particles immersed in a vast ocean of radiation.
The explosion marked the birth of the universe. After its explosion, the Ylem expanded and
cooled and subatomic particles joined together forming the simplest element hydrogen. This
NS 1: EARTH AND LIFE SCIENCES MANAOG, MJD (2016)
explains why the entire universe is rich in hydrogen. Helium was also formed as a result of nuclear
explosion or fusion. As the expansion continued, local concentrations of gases keep on moving in
space. Each concentration forms in response to its own gravitational force. These concentrations
of gases condensed and formed to galaxies.
The galaxies fragmented into massive blobs forming protostars. The protostars, under the
influence of their gravitational and centrifugal forces, gave away smaller masses of gas that formed
the protoplanets.
The protoplanets similarly produced protosatellites. Thus, the cooling, condensing and
contracting process led to the formation of the stars, planets and moon that we see in the sky.

CONTRADICTION TO THE BIG BANG THEORY:

Too much energy
o Most of the universe is empty space: a vacuum which is defined as a volume
containing no particles, force fields, nor waves. By definition a vacuum has no
energy. However, the Big Bang theory requires both in its early phases and in its
later phases that the vacuum must have some energy.

o The law of conservation of energy demands that energy cannot be created nor
destroyed.

Too complex, too early

o The universe has too many large structures, to be created in 10-20 billion years.
We know the rate of expansion, thus we can get a rough estimate on how long it
would take for them to form. In order for these to form, it would take about 100
billion years.

Ex nihilo is a Latin term that translated means out of nothing. It was an idea
presented by St. Augustine that became Church doctrine. It is his philosophical explanation
of how God created everything out of nothing, which interestingly enough can be applied to
the big bang as well. Where did everything contained in the big bang come from and why did
it bang in the first place?

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Scientists now believe in a new theory:
According to Albert Einstein, the universe is a space-time continuum.

1. Closed Universe (Looks like a sphere)

Travel far enough and you always come back to the starting point. Gravity will pull back
galaxies toward the centre of the universe and will slow down, stop, and then reverse
direction causing a new Big Bang.
2. Open universe (looks like a saddle)
Galaxies continue racing outward and therefore the universe continue to expand forever.
Open universe will leads to total emptiness.

3. Flat Universe
When traveling in a straight line you will never return to your starting point. This is the
shape of our universe according to the latest observations.

***The universe will expand forever, but more slowly all the time

REFERENCES:
Petersen, J.F., Gabler, R.E. et al (2016). The Origin and Structure of the Solar System and Earth System.
Earth and Life Sciences. Cengage Learning Philippine Edition. Rex Book Store, Inc, (RBSI). Sampaloc,
Manila, Philippines.
Aquino, M.D., Valdoz, M.P., Mariano, J.J.M. et al (2013). The Universe. Science Links Worktext in
Science and Technology. Cengage Learning Philippine Edition. Rex Book Store, Inc, (RBSI). Manila,
Philippines.

NS 1: EARTH AND LIFE SCIENCES MANAOG, MJD (2016)