Carbohydrates are molecules composed of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen.

Fiber is

also a slow-releasing carbohydrate, but it cannot be broken down in the human body and

passes through the digestive tract undigested unless the bacteria that inhabit the gut break it

down. In humans, the storage molecule of carbohydrates is called glycogen and in plants it is

known as starches. Glycogen and starches are slow-releasing carbohydrates.

Lipids are also a family of molecules composed of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen, but

unlike carbohydrates, they are insoluble in water. The three main types of lipids are

triglycerides (triacylglycerols), phospholipids, and sterols.

Proteins are macromolecules composed of chains of subunits called amino acids.

Amino acids are simple subunits composed of carbon, oxygen, hydrogen, and nitrogen.

Cellular respiration is a process by which the stored chemical energy in nutrients is

transformed into cellular energy.

kilocalorie (Calorie) is the amount of heat generated by a particular macronutrient

that raises the temperature of 1 kilogram of water 1 degree Celsius.

Celiac disease is an autoimmune disorder caused by an abnormal reaction of cells in

the small intestine to a type of protein, called gluten.

Glycemic Index is a measurement of the effects of carbohydrate-containing foods on

blood-glucose levels.
 We commonly call the triacylglycerols in our food fats and oils. Fats are lipids

that are solid at room temperature, whereas oils are liquid. Cholesterol is perhaps the best

well known sterol. Though cholesterol has a notorious reputation, the body gets only a small

amount of its cholesterol through foodthe body produces most of it. Cholesterol is an

important component of the cell membrane and is required for the synthesis of sex hormones,

vitamin D, and bile salts.

A serious impact of excess fat is the accumulation of too much cholesterol in the

arterial wall, which can thicken the walls of arteries and lead to cardiovascular disease.

Omega-3 and omega-6 essential fatty acids help regulate cholesterol and blood clotting and

control inflammation in the joints, tissues, and bloodstream.

Saturated fatty acid is a fatty acid that contains the maximum number of hydrogen

atoms with no points of unsaturation.

Point of unsaturation is the place on a molecule where additional hydrogen atoms

can attach.

Unsaturated fatty acid is a fatty acid that is missing hydrogen atoms with one or

more point of unsaturation.

Any fatty acid that has only one double bond is a monounsaturated fatty acid. A

polyunsaturated fatty acid is a fatty acid with two or more double bonds or two or more

points of unsaturation. When the hydrogen atoms are bonded to the same side of the carbon

chain, it is called a cis (Trans) fatty acid.

 Amphiphilic is a compound that has both water-loving and fat-loving properties.

Phospholipids are ideal emulsifiers that can keep oil and water mixed.

Oxidation is defined as the loss of electrons between two substances via a chemical

reaction.

Nonpolar amino acids include alanine (Ala), leucine (Leu), isoleucine (Ile), proline

(Pro), tryptophan (Trp), valine (Val), phenylalanine (Phe), and methionine (Met). The side

chains of these amino acids are long carbon chains or carbon rings, making them bulky. They

are hydrophobic, meaning they repel water.

Polar amino acids are glycine (Gly), serine (Ser), threonine (Thr), cysteine (Cys),

tyrosine (Tyr), asparagine (Asn), and glutamine (Gln). The side chains of polar amino acids

make them hydrophilic, meaning they are water-soluble.

Acidic amino acids are negatively charged, hydrophilic amino acids and include

aspartic acid (Asp) and glutamic acid (Glu).

Basic amino acids are positively charged, hydrophilic amino acids and include lysine

(Lys), arginine (Arg), and histidine (His).

Denaturation refers to the physical changes that take place in a protein exposed to

abnormal conditions in the environment.

The most abundant protein in blood is the butterfly-shaped protein known as

albumin.
 Atoms and molecules such as superoxide that have unpaired electrons are called free

radicals.

An antioxidant is any molecule that can block free radicals from stealing electrons;

antioxidants act both inside and outside of cells.

Oxidative stress refers to an imbalance in any cell, tissue, or organ between the

amount of free radicals and the capabilities of the detoxifying and repair systems.

Hardening of the arteries, called atherosclerosis can lead to a heart attack. Vitamin E

reduces the oxidation of LDLs, and it was therefore hypothesized that vitamin E supplements

would protect against atherosclerosis. Oxidative stress plays a role in age-related loss of

vision, called macular degeneration, scientists do believe vitamin E in combination with other

antioxidants such as zinc and copper may slow the progression of macular degeneration in

people with early-stage disease.

The brains high glucose consumption makes it more vulnerable than other organs to

oxidative stress. Oxidative stress has been implicated as a major contributing factor to

dementia and Alzheimers disease. Some studies suggest vitamin E supplements delay the

progression of Alzheimers disease and cognitive decline, but again, not all of the studies

confirm the relationship.

Phytochemicals are chemicals in plants that may provide some health benefit.

Carotenoids are one type of phytochemical. Phytochemicals also include indoles, lignans,

phytoestrogens, stanols, saponins, terpenes, flavonoids, carotenoids, anthocyanidins, phenolic

acids, and many more. They are found not only in fruits and vegetables, but also in grains,

seeds, nuts, and legumes.

Selenium aids in the regeneration of glutathione and oxidized vitamin C. Selenium as

part of glutathione peroxidase also protects lipids from free radicals, and, in doing so, spares

vitamin E. selenium deficiency is linked to an increased risk of cancer.

As with selenium, manganese, iron, copper, and zinc are essential cofactors for

enzymes involved in detoxifying free radicals. In the proper doses they allow for optimal

detoxification of free radicals. In excess and when not bound to proteins, manganese, iron,

and copper actually accelerate the production of free radicals.

Consuming too much calcium at any one time, be it from diet or supplements, impairs

not only the absorption of calcium itself, but also the absorption of other essential minerals,

such as iron and zinc.

Collagen is a strong, fibrous protein made up of mostly glycine and proline amino

acids.

Calcitriol (vitamin D3) is the active hormone produced from vitamin D. Parathyroid

hormone and calcitriol act in a concert to increase calcium levels in the blood, while

calcitonin does the opposite and decreases blood calcium levels. These hormones maintain

calcium levels in the blood in a range between 9 and 11 milligrams per decilitre. The greatest

positive influence on calcium absorption comes from having an adequate intake of vitamin D.

nutritional rickets is a childhood bone disease caused by a lack of vitamin D. It is

characterized by soft, weak bones that are susceptible to fracture. In adults, vitamin D

deficiency causes a similar disease called osteomalacia.

Other Essential Micronutrients for Bone Health: Phosphorous, Magnesium,

Fluoride, and Vitamin K.

Phosphorus is the second most abundant mineral in the human body. Eighty-five

percent of it is housed in the skeleton. In addition to serving as a primary mineral in the

skeleton, phosphorus in the form of phosphate is a component of the backbones of RNA and

DNA, the cellular energy storing molecule, adenosine triphosphate (ATP), and phospholipids.

Because phosphorus is present with calcium in mineralized bone, it is somewhat regulated in

parallel to calcium.

Approximately 60 percent of magnesium in the human body is stored in the skeleton,

making up about 1 percent of mineralized bone tissue. Observational studies link magnesium

deficiency with an increased risk for osteoporosis. A magnesium deficient diet is associated

with decreased levels of parathyroid hormone and the activation of vitamin D, which may

lead to an impairment of bone remodelling.

Fluoride is known mostly as the mineral that combats tooth decay. It assists in tooth

and bone development and maintenance. Fluoride combats tooth decay via three mechanisms:

1. Blocking acid formation by bacteria

2. Preventing demineralization of teeth

3. Enhancing remineralization of destroyed enamel

Vitamin K refers to a group of fat-soluble vitamins that are similar in chemical

structure. They act as coenzymes and have long been known to play an essential role in blood

coagulation. Without vitamin K, blood would not clot. Vitamin K is also required for

maintaining bone health. It modifies the protein osteocalcin, which is involved in the bone

remodelling process.

Osteoporosis is the excessive loss of bone over time. Osteopenia is the lower than

normal bone mass. A T-score compares a persons BMD to an averaged BMD of a healthy

thirty-year-old population of the same sex. T-score of 1.0 or above indicates normal BMD.

A person with a T-score between 1.0 and 2.5 has a low BMD, which is a condition

referred to as osteopenia. A person with a T-score of 2.5 or below is diagnosed with

osteoporosis. Type 1 osteoporosis is commonly characterized by wrist and spine fractures.

Type 2 osteoporosis is also called senile osteoporosis and typically occurs after the age of

seventy.

The mechanism by which diets high in phosphate could cause a decrease in bone

health is the following: a high dietary intake of phosphate leads to an increase in blood

phosphate levels. High levels of phosphate in the blood stimulate the release of parathyroid

hormone (PTH), which in turn stimulates bone resorption and calcium is lost from the bone.

When calcium intake is adequate, it shuts off PTH release, but when calcium intake is

inadequate and phosphate intake is high, bone health suffers.

 Metabolism is defined as the sum of all chemical reactions required to support

cellular function and hence the life of an organism. Metabolism is either categorized as

catabolism, referring to all metabolic processes involved in molecule breakdown, or

anabolism, which includes all metabolic processes involved in building bigger molecules.

Vitamins Important for Metabolism and for Blood Function and Renewal

Thiamine (B1) is especially important in glucose metabolism. It acts as a cofactor for

enzymes that break down glucose for energy production. Thiamine plays a role in the

synthesis of ribose from glucose and is therefore required for RNA, DNA, and ATP

synthesis. The brain and heart are most affected by a deficiency in thiamine. Thiamine

deficiency is beriberi.

Riboflavin (B2) is an essential component of flavoproteins, which are coenzymes

involved in many metabolic pathways of carbohydrate, lipid, and protein metabolism.

Riboflavin deficiency sometimes referred to as ariboflavinosis.

Niacin (B3) is a component of the coenzymes which are involved in the catabolism

and/or anabolism of carbohydrates, lipids, and proteins. In contrast to other vitamins, niacin

can be synthesized by humans from the amino acid tryptophan in an anabolic process

requiring enzymes dependent on riboflavin, vitamin B6, and iron. Niacin deficiency is

commonly known as pellagra and is characterized by diarrhea, dermatitis, dementia, and

sometimes death.
 Pantothenic Acid (B5) forms coenzyme A, which is the main carrier of carbon

molecules in a cell. Acetyl-CoA is the carbon carrier of glucose, fatty acids, and amino acids

into the citric acid cycle.

Pyroxidine (B6) is the coenzyme involved in nitrogen transfer between amino acids

and therefore plays a role in amino-acid synthesis and catabolism. Vitamin B6 is a required

coenzyme for the synthesis of hemoglobin. A deficiency in vitamin B6 can cause anemia.

This means each red blood cell has less capacity for carrying oxygen, resulting in muscle

weakness, fatigue, and shortness of breath.

Biotin is required as a coenzyme in the citric acid cycle and in lipid metabolism. It is

also required as an enzyme in the synthesis of glucose and some nonessential amino acids.

Folate is a required coenzyme for the synthesis of the amino acid methionine, and for

making RNA and DNA. Therefore, rapidly dividing cells are most affected by folate

deficiency. A consequence of folate deficiency is macrocytic, also called megaloblastic,

anemia. Macrocytic and megaloblastic mean big cell, and anemia refers to fewer red blood

cells or red blood cells containing less hemoglobin. Macrocytic anemia is characterized by

larger and fewer red blood cells. It is caused by red blood cells being unable to produce DNA

and RNA fast enoughcells grow but do not divide, making them large in size. Folate

deficiency is causally linked to the development of spina bifida, a neural-tube defect that

occurs when the spine does not completely enclose the spinal cord.

Cobalamin (B12) contains cobalt, making it the only vitamin that contains a metal

ion. Cobalamin is an essential part of coenzymes. It is necessary for fat and protein
catabolism, for folate coenzyme function, and for hemoglobin synthesis. In children and

adults cobalamin deficiency causes macrocytic anemia.

Minerals Important for Metabolism and for Blood Function and Renewal

Magnesium deficiency is linked to increased risk for cardiovascular disease.

Red blood cells contain the oxygen-carrier protein hemoglobin. It is composed of four

globular peptides, each containing a heme complex. In the centre of each heme, lies iron. If

iron level is low hemoglobin is not synthesized in sufficient amounts and the oxygen-carrying

capacity of red blood cells is reduced, resulting in anemia.

A zinc deficiency in infants and children blunts growth.

The development of goiter may often be the most visible sign of chronic iodine

deficiency.

Selenium is a cofactor of enzymes that release active thyroid hormone in cells and

therefore low levels can cause similar signs and symptoms as iodine deficiency.

Copper is a cofactor of enzymes essential for iron absorption and transport. More

severe copper deficiency can cause anemia from the lack of iron mobilization in the body for

red blood cell synthesis.

 Manganese is a cofactor for enzymes involved in glucose production

(gluconeogenesis) and amino-acid catabolism in the liver. Manganese deficiency is

uncommon.

Body mass index (BMI) are used to indicate whether an individual may be

underweight (with a BMI less than 18.5), overweight (with a BMI over 25), or obese (with a

BMI over 30). BMI = [weight (kg)] height (2 )

Anorexia nervosa, more often referred to as anorexia, is a psychiatric illness in

which a person obssesses about their weight and about food that they eat. Anorexia results in

extreme nutrient inadequacy and eventually to organ malfunction.

Bulimia is a psychiatric illness characterized by frequent episodes of eating large

amounts of food followed by purging.

Binge-Eating Disorder is a non-psychiatric disorder characterized by periodic losses

of control over eating.

Blood pressure readings consist of two numbers. The top number measures systolic

pressure (when the heart contracts) and the bottom number measures diastolic pressure (when

the heart is at rest). The key blood pressure numbers to keep in mind are:

Ideal. 120 over 80 or below

Prehypertension. Higher than 120 over 80 and lower than 139 over 89
 Hypertension. Greater than 139 over 89

Formerly known as juvenile or childhood-onset diabetes, Type 1 diabetes is an

autoimmune condition in which the pancreas does not produce insulin. Formerly known as

adult-onset diabetes, Type 2 diabetes results when the pancreas produces enough insulin

initially, but the body is unable to use the hormone properly (insulin resistance).