L.

Modder
Biology 12
Name:__________
_________
Digestion 6
Date:___________
_________
IN A NUTSHELL
The body uses a variety of small molecules (amino acids, fatty acids, glucose)
for its metabolic needs. Food is mechanically and chemically broken down into
these molecules during digestion, after which they can be taken up by body cells
through the separate process of absorption.
Food travels in a one-way path from mouth to esophagus to stomach to small
intestine to large intestine to anus.
Organs and structures in the digestive system are specialized for specific
functions in digestion.
Digestive enzymes are specific hydrolytic enzymes that have a preferred
temperature and pH.
Proper nutrition is necessary to health.
DIGESTION: the mechanical and chemical breaking down of ingested food
into particles, then into molecules small enough to move through epithelial cells
and into the internal environment.
ABSORPTION: the passage of digested nutrients from the gut lumen into the
blood or lymph, which distributes them through the body.
ELIMINATION: the expulsion of indigestible residues from the body.

Order of Subtopics Covered:

1. What is Digestion
2. Parts & Function
a. Gastrointestinal Tract
b. Accessory Organs

What is Digestion:
Digestion is EXTRACELLULAR process (occurs OUTSIDE of cells) involving the
Pg BREAKDOWN of food into small (SOLUBLE) molecules (molecules include amino
172 ACIDS, nucleotides, FATTY acids, simple SUGARS).
Food Molecule .
PROTEIN AMINO ACID
FATS FATTY ACIDS
CARBOHYDRATES SIMPLE SUGARS
 This process is mainly CHEMICAL with some MECHANICAL components.
o Digestion: CHEMICAL breakdown of food. (this is the strict definition, but we will
include MECHANICAL breakdown too).
o Absorption: MOVEMENT of the products of digestion from the TRACT to the
BLOOD.
Parts & Function of the Gastrointestinal Tract:
Food passes through the GASTROINTESTINAL tract, a tube that runs through the
Pg 172- body, and that is connected to the OUTSIDE at both ends (MOUTH and anus).
178
1) Mouth:
Function: RECIEVES food & uses BOTH chemical and mechanical digestion.
The following occurs here:
i) CHEWING (physical breaking down of FOOD - MECHANICAL digestion)
a.k.a. MASTICATION is accomplished using 32 TEETH, and
COORDINATED movements of the TONGUE and oral muscles.
o Control of these movements is under both VOLUNTARY and involuntary
control (merely introducing food to the mouth can initiate some muscular
CONTRACTIONS).
ii) MOISTENING: There are three sets of SALIVARY GLANDS that produce
saliva:
(1) parotid (below ears)
(2) sublingual (below tongue)
(3) submandibular (under lower jaw).
o When you chew food, you moisten and lubricate it with saliva. Saliva
contains WATER, WATER, and SALIVARY AMYLASE.
iii) STARCH BREAKDOWN: Salivary amylase is a hydrolytic enzyme that
breaks down starch in the presence of WATER. Starch is broken down to
MALTOSE (a disaccharide of glucose).
Thus, digestion begins in the mouth, even before the food is swallowed. Once
food has been chewed, it is called a BOLUS.
Swallowing: reflexes are activated when the bolus reaches the BACK of the
mouth. A complex set of coordinated movements of the tongue, soft PALATE,
and epiglottis moves the food into the ESOPHAGUS.
2) Pharynx: Passageway or region between oral CAVITY and esophagus.
Function: Contains EPIGLOTTIS a flap that covers the GLOTTIS, or opening
of trachea therefore directs food during SWALLOWING.

3) Esophagus: The conducting TUBE that connects the mouth to the STOMACH.
Function: moves the mass of food (BOLUS) to the stomach. The following
occurs here:
i) PERISTALSIS (a rhythmic WAVE of contractions that push the food in ONE
direction) pushes food downwards to stomach
o Made up of 2 types of SMOOTH muscle (circular and LONGITUDINAL).

o Site of CARDIAC (ESOPHAGEAL) Sphincter: Allows food to enter

STOMACH & prevents backflow it relaxes during SWALLOWING,
letting bolus pass.
4) Stomach: A J-shaped organ with thick, deeply FOLDED walls made of 3 layers
of MUSCLE; it lies between the esophagus and the DUODENUM.
Function: Receives bolus and uses both mechanical and chemical digestion
to produce CHYME. The following occurs here:
i) PROTECTION: Acidic environment kills MICRO-ORGANISMS that may be
ingested.
ii) STORAGE: J-shape allows organ to STORE food without putting pressure
on the PYLORIC sphincter.
iii) PHYSICAL BREAKDOWN: of swallowed food (mechanical) .
o Weak: food, gastric juice and PEPTIDES cause gastric WAVES from
FUNDUS (top) to PYLORUS (bottom) of stomach (approx. Every 20
seconds).
o Strong: Peristaltic WAVES force chyme toward PYLORIC SPHINCTER,
causing backflow and vigorous MIXING
o Pyloric sphincter OPENS slightly controlling RATE of CHYME that enters
the duodenum with each wave.
iv) CHEMICAL digestion PROTEIN digestion begins.
o GASTRIC GLANDS secrete gastric jucies:
(1) PEPSINOGEN: Inactive enzyme that is activated by
(2) HCL: Activates pepsinogen
(3) MUCUS: protects the stomach lining from acidic secretions.
o Once activated pepsinogen becomes PEPSIN an enzyme that breaks
down PROTEINS into polypeptides.

- Presences of POLYPEPTIDES in stomach and stomach STRETCH

RECEPTORS cause the release of the hormone GASTRIN.
- Gastrin stimulates the release of MORE gastric juices.
5) Small Intestine: A 20 FOOT long tube made of three portions: DUODENUM,
JEJUNUM, and ILIUM.
Function: responsible for MOST of the chemical digestion that occurs and,
later, ABSORBS nutrients. The following occurs here:
In Duodenum (1st 25 cm of small intestine)
i) NEUTRALIZING CHYME: presence of acidic chyme in duodenum causes
the release of SECRETIN;
o Secretin stimulates the PANCREAS to produce SODIUM BICARBONATE
(NaHCO3) which neutralizes the acidic chyme (pH = 8.5)
ii) PHYSICAL DIGESTION:
o Segmentation: CONTRACTIONS of circular muscles TRAP chyme in small
portion of S.I. and allows MIXING to occur.
 o Peristalsis: coordinated contraction of circular and longitudinal muscle in the
direction of the LARGE intestine that PROPELS chyme down the TRACT.

iii) CHEMICAL DIGESTION: by digestive juices from the INTERSTITIAL

GLANDS of the duodenum itself and the LIVER & PANCREAS.
o The presence of fatty acids and amino acids in the duodenum causes it to
release CCK. CCK stimulates the release of digestive enzymes and bile
from the PANCREAS & LIVER.
o Digestive enzymes that work in the duodenum are:
(1) BILE: from LIVER helps to emulsify lipids into fat DROPLETS.
(2) TRYPSINOGEN: from PANCREAS is ACTIVATED in duodenum;
active form is
(3) TRYPSIN: digests PROTEIN into polypeptides
(4) PANCREATIC AMYLASE: from pancreas digests STARCH into
maltose
(5) LIPASE: from pancreas digests FAT DROPLETS into fatty acids and
glycerol.
(6) PEPTIDASE: from duodenum digests POLYPEPTIDES into amino
acids.
(7) MALTASE: from duodenum digests MALTOSE into glucose.
In Jejunum and Illeum
iv) ABSORPTION: of nutrients from remaining 3 METERS of digestive tract into
the circulatory/lymph system.
o Walls contain VILLI and MICROVILLI to increase the surface area for
absorption.
o Secretory cells are located in INTERSTITIAL crypts (valleys between
VILLI ) and have a mainly GLANDULAR function, secreting MUCUS and
other substances.
o Each Villi contains BLOOD vessels and LYMPH vessels (a.k.a. a
LACTEAL).

o ABSORPTION takes place across the wall of each villus this can
happen ACTIVELY or PASSIVELY. Recall that active transport across
cell membranes requires ATP. The nutrient can now enter the blood or
the lymphatic system, depending on what type it is.
- Minerals, SALTS, water soluble VITAMINS (vitamins C, B) and
water (mainly PASSIVE)
- AMINO ACIDS & GLUCOSE (actively absorbed)
- REALLY SHORT chain fatty acids are absorbed directly into the
blood.
- Fatty acids and glycerol are absorbed across the villi, are
RECOMBINED into FAT molecules (CHYLOMICRONS) in the
epithelial cells of the villus. The fats then move into the LACTEAL
of each villus and enter the LYMPHATIC system. Chylomicrons
prevent fat from COALESCING (coming together) in the blood.
- Fat Soluble Vitamins (vitamins D, A, K) are moved with FAT
molecules into lacteals.
6) Large Intestine: Smaller tube (1.5 m long) that receives unabsorbed, undigested
material from small intestine.
Function: Reabsorption and production of feces. The following occur here:
i) REABSORPTION of WATER (approx. 2L per DAY).
ii) Inhabited by E.COLI bacteria, which further break down undigested material
and produce VITAMINS, AMINO ACIDS, and GROWTH FACTORS.
iii) PRODUCTION OF FECES
Walls contain MUCUS secreting EXOCRINE glands.
3 parts:
(1) Ascending COLON
(2) Transverse colon
(3) DESCENDING colon (+ SIGMOID colon)

7) Rectum:
Function: Feces STORAGE; STRETCH receptors sense fullness of rectum.

8) Anus:
Point of ELIMINATION of feces.
 Names & Function of Accessory Organs:

1) Pancreas: Large ORGAN below stomach.

Function: both endocrine and EXOCRINE functions. It produces:
i) Hormones: INSULIN and GLUCAGON which are involved in the regulation
and METABOLISM of carbohydrates and blood SUGAR.
o Insulin causes glucose in the blood to be TAKEN UP by cells (i.e. lowers
blood [glucose]).
o Glucagon is ANTAGONISTIC in function to insulin it has the effect of
raising blood glucose concentrations.
ii) Pancreatic Juice: produced by the EXOCRINE portion of the pancreas (98 %
of pancreas). Contains:
(1) Watery SODIUM bicarbonate secretions that are ALKALINE (pH = 8) to
neutralize acid chyme in DUODENUM, creating an environment suitable
for pancreatic ENZYMES.

*This process removes H+ from the chyme, reducing the acidity and
thus HARM to the duodenum, ACTIVATE enzymes. *
(2) HYDROLYTIC (digestive) enzymes are released and are responsible for
the digestion of most large MOLECULES in the diet.

ESP. pg 2) Liver: Largest GLAND in the body & receives blood from heart via HEPATIC
180-181
ARTERY and from the small intestine via HEPATIC PORTAL VEIN.
Function: exocrine and CHECKING blood before it is delivered to body;
these functions include:
i) Destroys RED BLOOD CELLS.
ii) Converts HEMOGLOBIN from old RBCs into BILE which EMULSIFIES fats
o Produces up to 1.5L of BILE per day.
o Bile leaves via HEPATIC DUCT and can go directly to duodenum or is
STORED in the gallbladder.
o Bile emulsifies FAT thereby producing smaller DROPLETS, making them
more readily DIGESTED by the water-soluble pancreatic LIPASES:
 Bile is 97% water with some bile SALTS, pigments, NaCl and H2CO3.
Bile salts are SOLUBILIZING agents, have polar and NON- polar groups,
and can thus mix with both FATS and water, increasing the solubility of
fat.
iii) DETOXIFIES the blood - deactivation of HORMONES, drugs and toxins
iv) Controls blood GLUCOSE levels: too much store as glycogen; too little
release as glucose
v) Breaks down AMINO acids UREA.
vi) Makes blood PROTEINS from amino acids.
vii) Interconversions of NUTRIENTS (eg. Carbs<--> fats)
viii)Manufacture of CHOLESTEROL
ix) Storage of VITAMINS & IRON.

3) Gall Bladder: organ of storage.

Function: Stores and CONCENTRATES bile.
CCK initiates gallbladder CONTRACTIONS, causing bile to enter duodenum.
Gallstones from the excess removal of H2O from stored bile, and are painful if
they block the COMMON bile duct. Jaundice may also result if bile flows back
into the BLOOD.
Comprehensive Summary of DIGESTIVE ENZYMES
the breakdown of food (fats, carbohydrates, proteins) into molecules small enough to
be absorbed requires the action of specific enzymes
each enzyme has specific site where it works, and a specific pH range in which it
can operate
all are hydrolytic enzymes that catalyze a reaction of the substrate with water.

The Principal Digestive Enzymes!

Source & Enzyme Substrate preferred Product Site of Action

(what they act on!) pH (Where they work)
SALIVARY GLANDS
Salivary Amylase Starches neutral (~7) maltose Mouth
STOMACH
Pepsin Proteins acidic (3) peptides Stomach
PANCREAS
Pancreatic Amylase Starches alkaline maltose Small Intestine
(~7.5-8.5)
Lipase Fats alkaline FAs & Small Intestine
glycerol
Trypsin Polypeptides alkaline peptides Small Intestine
Chymotrypsin Poly & oligopeptides alkaline amino Small Intestine
acids
Carboxypeptidase Polypeptides alkaline amino Small Intestine
acids
Deoxyribonuclease DNA alkaline nucleotides Small Intestine

Ribonuclease RNA alkaline nucleotides Small Intestine

LIVER
Bile (emulsifies) Fat Globules alkaline smaller fat Small Intestine
globules
SMALL INTESTINE
Aminopeptidase Polypeptides alkaline amino Small Intestine
acids
Tripeptidases Tripeptides alkaline amino Small Intestine
acids
Dipeptidase Dipeptides alkaline amino Small Intestine
acids
Maltase Maltose alkaline glucose Small Intestine
Lactase Lactose alkaline glucose & Small Intestine
galactose
Sucrase Sucrose alkaline glucose & Small Intestine
fructose
Enterokinase Trypsinogen alkaline Trypsin Small Intestine
Phosphateses Nucleotides alkaline sugars, Small Intestine
bases,
phosphates