1

Introduction
1.1 CONTROL SYSTEM

A system is a combination of devices and components connected together by some form of regular
interactions to act together and perform a certain objective. The system may be physical, biological,
economic and the like.

The term control means to regulate, to direct or to command. Thus, a control system may be defined
as a combination of devices and components connected or related so as to command,
direct or regulate itself or another system.

Control systems are used in many applications, for example, the control of temperature, liquid level,
position, velocity, flow, pressure, acceleration, etc.

Let us consider the driving system of an automobile. Speed of the automobile is a function of the
position of its accelerator. The desired speed can be maintained by controlling pressure on the
accelerator pedal. If the speed of the vehicle is to be increased, the driver has to increase pressure on
the pedal. Fig. 1.1(a) shows the diagrammatic representation of a typical Driving system.

The input to the system is force, called the command signal, on the accelerator pedal. The command
signal is applied to the accelerator pedal which has various linkages and connections with the
carburetter. When the fuel is burnt, the engine causes the vehicle to increase its speed. The output at
variable speed is called controlled output because the signal has caused a control on the speed of the
vehicle.

Fig.1.1(a) Driving system of an automobile

Thus, the controlled output of the above driving system can be depicted as in Fig. 1.1(b).

Fig. 1.1(b) Control system of an automobile

Increase or decrease of the output, that is, the speed as the output is achieved by increase or decrease
in the input, that is, the fuel input to the engine through carburetter.
Change in the output signal requires a proportionate change in the input signal. This proportionate
change is compared with reference input by a comparator, which is also called an error detector.

1.2 BASIC COMPONENTS OF A CONTROL SYSTEM

The basic components of a control system can be represented by:

1. reference input element which causes the command signal;

2. feedback element which produces the feedback signal;
3. error detector;
4. controller;
5. controlled system; and
6. output signal, that is, the controlled output.

These components are shown in the form of a system block diagram as in Fig. 1.2 and are described as
follows.

Fig. 1.2 Basic components of a control system

1. Reference Input Elements: These constitute the position of feedback control system that
establishes the relationship between the command and a certain reference input.
2. Command: Command is a deliberately introduced signal established by some means,
external to and independent of the feedback control system under consideration.
3. Reference Input: It is a signal established as a standard of comparison for a feedback
control system by virtue of its relation to the command.
4. Error Detector: It is an element in which one system variable (feedback signal) is
subtracted from another variable (reference signal) to obtain third variable (error signal). It
is also called comparator.
5. Feedback Element: Feedback signal is a function of the controlled output which is
compared with the reference signal to obtain the actuating signal.
6. Error Signal: It is an algebraic sum of the reference input and the primary feedback.
7. Controller: The controller is an element that is required to generate the appropriate
control signal.
 8. Output Forcing Function: It is the condition that is varied as a function of the actuating
signal so as to change the value of the controlled variable.
9. Controlled System: It is a body, process or machine of which a particular condition is to
be controlled, for example, a spacecraft, reactor, boiler, CNC machine, etc.
10. Controlled Variable: It is a variable that is directly measured and controlled. Disturbance
is an input other than command that tends to affect the value of controlled variable.
11. Output Elements: These are the elements that establish the relationship between directly
controlled variable and indirectly controlled variable.

1.3 CLASSIFICATION OF CONTROL SYSTEM

(i) Open-loop control system and closed-loop control system:

The systems in which output has no effect on the control action are called open-loop control systems.
In other words, the output is neither measured nor fed back for comparison with reference point. For
example, let us consider a washing machine in which soaking, washing and rinsing in the washer
operates on the time basis. The machine does not measure the output signal, that is, cleanliness of
clothes. Such open-loop control systems can be used in practice, if the relationship between input and
output is known and there are no external or internal disturbances.

Fig. 1.3 Elements of an open-loop control system

Feedback control systems are also referred to as closed-loop control systems. In a closed-loop, the
actuating error signal, which is the difference between the input signal and the feedback signal
(output signal), is fed to the controller so as to reduce the error and bring the output of the system to
the desired value. Such a system has already been shown in Fig. 1.2. It is desirable that a closed-loop
system is insensitive to external disturbances and internal variations in system parameters.

The operation of a system may be controlled externally or automatically (by the system itself). When
the control action of a system is independent of the output, the system is said to be an OPEN- LOOP
control system. However, if the control action is somehow dependent on the output, the system is
called a CLOSED-LOOP or FEEDBACK control system.

Fig. 1.4 shows an open-loop and a closed-loop system. In a closed-loop system the output is fed back
and compared with the input so that any necessary corrective action may be taken. The open- loop
system, however, relies for its action on the settings of its components.
Fig. 1.4 Open-loop and closed-loop system

Some examples of open-loop and closed-loop control systems are as follows:

1. Traffic-light systems vary in operation. Some systems are closed-loop and some are open-
loop. In the open-loop type, there is a timing mechanism which is set to switch the lights at
regular intervals, irrespective of the volume of traffic. In the closed-loop type, however, the
amount of traffic passing through the junctions is monitored (electronically or otherwise),
and the duration of the red and green conditions are adjusted for each part of the
junction accordingly.
2. An example of the action of an open-loop system is a car-wash machine in which all cars
receive the same amount of washing irrespective of how dirty they are. Here, the output is
the cleanliness of the cars, which corresponds to a given setting of the machine (amount of
water and washing time). A human being, however, who washes cars, automatically makes
sure that the dirtier cars receive more attention than others. Car washing by a responsible
human being is therefore a closed-loop control system. An ordinary washing machine is an
open-loop system.
3. A refrigerator is a closed-loop system. Its temperature is measured by a thermostat which
turns the motor ON when the temperature rises above the desired value and turns the motor
OFF when the temperature again reaches the desired value.
4. The lighting of a room is an open-loop system. Once the light is turned on, it will stay on
(until it is switched off ) irrespective of whether the room is dark or light.

The differences between an open-loop system and a closed-loop system are shown in Table 1.1.

Table 1.1 Differences between Open-loop and Closed-loop System

Open-loop System Closed-loop System

(a) No feedback used. (a) Feedback is there for comparison

between desired output and reference input.
 (b) Open-loop system are generally (b) Closed-loop system can become
stable. unstable under certain conditions.

(c) Their accuracy is determined by (c) They are more complex. Complicated
the calibration of their elements. to construct and costly.
Simple to develop and cheap.

(d) Affected by non-linearities in the (d) Adjusts to the effects of non-linearities

system. present in the system.

Examples: Washing machine, fixed Examples: Servomotor control, generator

time traffic control system, room output voltage control system, and so on.
heater, etc.

(ii) Linear and non-linear control systems: A linear system is one which obeys the principle of
superposition. The principle of superposition states that the response produced by simultaneous
application of two different forcing functions is the sum of individual responses.

Non-linear systems do not obey the principle of superposition.

(iii) Time-invariant and time-varying control systems: Time-invariant control system is one
whose parameters do not vary with time. The response of such a system is independent of the time at
which input is applied.

A time-varying system is one in which one or more parameters vary with time. The response depends
on the time at which input is applied. A space vehicle control system where mass decreases with time
as fuel it carries is consumed during flight is an example of a time-varying system.

(iv) Continuous and discrete control systems: In continuous control systems all system
parameters are functions of continuous time, t. A discrete time control involves one or more variables
that are known only at discreet instants of time.

(v) Single input-single output (SISO) and multi input-multi output (MIMO) control
systems: A system with one input and one output is called single inputsingle output control system.
In other words there is only one command and one controlled output.

A system with multiple inputs and multiple outputs is called multi input-multi output control system.
For example, boiler drum level control, robot arm control and so on.
(vi) Lumped parameter and distributed parameter control systems: Control systems that
can be described by ordinary differential equations are lumped parameter control systems whereas
distributed parameter control systems are described by partial differential equations.

(vii) Deterministic and stochastic control systems: A control system is deterministic if the
response is predictable and repeatable. If not, the control system is a stochastic control system which
involves random variables and parameters.

(viii) Static and dynamic systems: A system is called dynamic or time dependent if its present
output depends on past input, whereas, a static system is the one whose current output depends only
on current input.

To use/understand a control system efficiently, we must learn how to:

1. Develop mathematical system descriptions and reduce them to block diagram forms :
(Modelling/ Mathematical Representation);
2. Manipulate and solve the resulting system equations;
3. Design system to satisfy general performance specifications and
4. Evaluate our results by analytical and simulation studies.

It is thus important that we become familiar with a variety of electrical and mechanical
configurations.

1.4 SERVOMECHANISM, REGULATOR AND PROCESS CONTROL

Servomechanism is an automatic control system in which the controlled variable value is forced to
follow the variations of reference value, instead of regulating a variable value to set point. Take, for
example, an industrial robot arm. It is also called tracking control system.

Regulator is a feedback control system in which controlled variable is maintained at a constant value
inspite of external load on the plant. The reference input or command signal although adjustable, is
held constant for long period of time. The primary task is then to maintain the output at the desired
value in the presence of disturbances. Examples are regulation of steam supply in steam engine by fly-
ball governor, thermostat control of home heating systems, regulation of the voltage of an alternator,
frequency controller and speed controller and so on.

Process control refers to control of such parameters as level, flow, pressure, temperature and acidity
of process variables. A particular parameter has only one desired value. The control system is required
to ensure that the process output is maintained at the desired level inspite of external disturbances
which affect the process.

1.5 EXAMPLES OF CONTROL SYSTEMS

1. Temperature control system: The temperature of an electric furnace is measured by a

thermometer which is an analog device. The analog data (temperature) is converted into digital data
by A/D (Analog to Digital) converter. The digital equivalent data of temperature is fed to digital
controller where it is compared with desired temperature and if there is any error, the controller
sends out a signal to heater through an amplifier and relay to bring the temperature of the furnace to
the desired value.
As shown in Fig. 1.5, the temperature of an electric furnace is measured by a temperature sensor
(thermocouple) and the output of the transducer is amplified and applied to an error- detector
(comparator). The output of the comparator drives a relay which makes the heating system either ON
or OFF. By this way the temperature of the furnace is controlled as per desired value (set point).

Fig. 1.5 Temperature control system

Fig. 1.6 Robot hand control system

2. Robot hand grasping force control system: Fig. 1.6 shows the schematic diagram of a
grasping force control system using force sensing and slip sensing device.

If the grasping force is too weak, the robot hand will drop the mechanical object and if it is too strong,
the hand may crush and damage the object. In the system shown in Fig. 1.6, the grasping force is
preset at moderate level before the hand touches the mechanical object. The hand picks up and raises
the object with preset grasping force. If there is slip in the raising motion, it will be observed by the
slip sensing device and a signal will be sent back to the controller which will then increase the
grasping force. In this way, a reasonable grasping force can be realised that can prevent slipping but
will not damage the mechanical object.

3. Speed control system: James Watt developed and used his flyball generator for controlling the
speed of a steam engine (see Fig. 1.7). It is recognised as the first automatic feedback controller used
in an industrial process.
A centrifugal Watt-governor uses the lift of the rotating ball as speedometer. The supply of steam is
automatically controlled as speed tends to increase or decrease beyond the set point.

In Fig. 1.7 position of the valve controls the opening of the steam supply to the engine, thus regulating
the speed. For a desired speed position, the valve is fixed to a set point. An increase or decrease of
speed of rotation will cause an increase or decrease in the opening of the valve, thereby causing the
variation in steam supply resulting in automatic control of speed.

Fig. 1.7 Speed control system

4. Pressure control system: Fig. 1.8 shows a pressure control system of a furnace. Here the
pressure inside the furnace is automatically controlled by causing a change in the position of the
damper.

The pressure inside the furnace is measured by pressure gauge. In case the pressure increases or
decreases beyond a desired value, the controller and the actuator will cause a change in the position of
the damper. The damper will increase or decrease the path of hot air to chimney to maintain the
desired pressure.

1.6 FEEDBACK CONTROL SYSTEM

Feedback control is now a basic feature of modern industry. In present-day technological society, in
order to utilise natural resources some form of control is needed.

Control engineering is primarily concerned with controlling industrial processes and natural
resources, and forces of nature purposefully and for the benefit of mankind.
Fig. 1.8 Pressure control system

Early machine and equipment used for control were primarily, manually operated type, requiring
frequent adjustments so as to maintain and/or achieve the desired performance.

Advanced technology made revolutions in the procedure used for system analysis and design.
However, the fundamental theory to study system performance has not changed over the years.

It is true that we design many complex systems using sophisticated computer control concepts for
process control, space vehicle guidance and similar applications. But such complex system design
requires routine design of control mechanism for items like temperature control, speed control,
voltage regulation, and so on.

Let us consider some more examples of control systems which we commonly encounter.

A forced air gas furnace is used for the purpose of heating the interior of a building. Depending on the
temperature level to be maintained in the building, the gas inlet to the furnace has to be turned on or
off with the help of a temperature sensor placed for control purpose. A blower fan is also used to force
the warm air to circulate inside the room.

When the room temperature drops below a preset reference level, measured by a temperature sensor
like a thermostat, a relay is actuated to switch on the furnace fire. Subsequently, a blower fan is
switched on to circulate the hot air. The blower fan runs till the heat is dissipated and then turns off
automatically.

Now, consider the control problems associated with learning to drive a motor car. At the beginning
the driver must learn about the functions of various mechanisms provided for controlling the vehicle
and the way the car responds under all conditions.

One would learn that frequent and abrupt application of the brake or the accelerator on slippery road
should be avoided, since it results in the wheels sliding and loss of control of the vehicle. Control
inputs are provided by the accelerator, steering wheel and the brake system.
Inputs are obtained through the drivers senses. The drivers brain, his feet and arms are used to
adjust the control mechanism by which these changes are made to influence the vehicles motion. The
fundamental controllers are the brakes, the steering mechanism and the accelerator.

The overall control system can become unstable as a result of skidding and hence total loss of control
due to excessive speed on icy/muddy roads.

It can be seen that we are surrounded by control system applications. All large scale chemical and
industrial processes and automated production facilities depend heavily upon control technology.

REVIEW QUESTIONS

1.1 Define a control system. Represent a control system by a block diagram.

1.2 Give examples of an open-loop control system and a closed-loop control system. State their
differences.

1.3 Represent in block diagram form, the control system used in automatic control of speed of a steam
turbine.

1.4 Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of an open-loop and closed-loop control system. Give
one example of each control system.

1.5 What is a feedback control system? Give two examples to show the use of systems, from our daily
life.

1.6 State, giving reasons, whether the following are open-loop or closed-loop control systems:

1. The room heater or a hot-air blower used to heat a room in winter.

2. The refrigerator.
3. The air-conditioning system used in electric trains.
4. The traffic control system used in road crossings in typical Indian cities.
5. Maintenance of normal body temperature of a human being.
6. Control of the speed of a motor vehicle by its driver depending upon road condition.
7. The room air-conditioner.

1.7 Human being is said to be the best example of an automatic control system, explain.
1.8 Traffic at the road crossings are controlled using signal lamps (Red, Yellow, Green). Represent
through block diagram a closed loop traffic flow control system.

1.9 Define the following terms: System, Control system, feedback, closed loop system, open loop
system, error detector, comparator, linear and nonlinear control system, controller, servomechanism.

1.10 The following are examples of open-loop systems:

1. A room heater.
2. A traffic light control system.
3. A domestic washing machine.
4. A street light system.
How will you change each of them into closed-loop systems?

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Form Factor rms 3.26
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