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microbodies, microtubules, microfilaments,

Types of cell
Prokaryotic and Eukaryotic cells : Broadly speaking, the cells can be classified into two
categories simply prokaryotic and eukaryotic. They differ from each other in several
characteristics.

Prokaryotic cell Eukaryotic cell

1. Absence of well organised nucleus. 1. Nucleus well organised.

2. Nuclear membrane absent. 2. Nuclear membrane present.
DNA not associate with histones, hence no DNA associated with histones, chromosomes
3. 3.
chromosome formation. present.
4. ER, Golgi and Lysosomes absent. 4. All these organelles present.
5. Ribosomes of 70 S type. 5. Ribosomes of 80 S type.
Cell wall, at least the inner most layer made Cell wall, when present, of cellulose or
6. 6.
up of mucopeptide. hemicellulose or fungal cellulose or chitin.
Flagella submicroscopic and do not show 9 +
7. 7. Flagella show usual 9 + 2 structure.
2 structure.
8. No cytoplasmic streaming. 8. Cytoplasmic streaming may occur.
Mitochondria absent, Respiratory enzymes
9. 9. Mitochondria present.
located on the plasma membrane.
Chloroplasts absent, Photosynthetic lamellae
(Thylakoids) may be present. Chloroplasts present.
10. 10.
eg. Bacteria, Blue green algae eg. Other groups.
(cyanobacteria).
A plant cell differs from animal cells in several respects as detailed here under

Plant cell Animal cell

1. Presence of a cell wall. 1. Cell wall is absent.

2. Presence of plasmodesmata. 2. Plasmodesmata absent.
3. Microvilli and desmosomes absent. 3. Both present.
4. Plastids present. 4. Plastids absent.
5. Centriole absent in higher plants. 5. Centriole present.
Mitochondria generally tubule and
6. 6. Mitochondria cristae type.
intermediate type.
7. Ribosomes 70 S and 80 S type. 7. Ribosomes 55 S and 80 S type.
8. Vacuoles present. 8. Vacuole usually absent.
Structure of cell
Cell boundaries : Mucin and Sialic acid forms cell coat in animal cells. Cell coat of animal
cell is also called Glycocalyx.

Cell wall : Cell coat of plant cells is called cell wall. Robert Hooke discovered cell wall from
thin section of cork cell and published his results in Micrographia. It has following
components.

(1) Primary cell wall : Outermost layer, thin and elastic, composed of cellulose (b-D-
glucose), hemicellulose and pectin.

(2) Secondary cell wall : Rigid, thick and composed of cellulose, hemicellulose and pectin.
Secondary cell wall absent in meristem.

Primary wall (Thin) Secondary wall (Thick)

(1) Cellulose microfibrils are arranged in a

dispersed manner. (1) Microbrils are parallel to long axis of cell.

(2) Hemi-cellulose more (50%). Cellulose content (2) Hemicellulose less (25%). Cellulose content
low high.

(3) Primary cell wall have lipids (510%) and (3) Proteins and lipids either absent or very less.
proteins (5%).

(3) Tertiary cell wall : Found only in trachieds of Gymnosperms. Composed of

Hemicellulose and Xylan.

(4) Middle Lamella : It may be outer most layer of cell. Middle Lamellae composed of Ca
and Mg Pectates. Middle lamella is a binding layer or cementing layer between the two
adjacent plant cells. Due to its dissolution at maturity the ripe fruits become softens.

Lignin : Derivative of cellulose found in cell wall (xylem) make woody texture.

Suberin, fatty acids mixture, imperious to water

Cutin : Wax like substance, prevent loss of water, make cuticle.

Cell wall formation : Cell wall materials (cellulose, hemicellulose, pectin, lignin)
synthesized in Dictyosome and transported outside cell by microtubules. Materials of lipid
nature, like cutin and suberin are synthesized in sphaerosomes. Main component of cell wall
is cellulose. Cell wall formation and growth takes place by two methods

(1) Intussusception : Deposition of cell-wall material between the existing micro fibrils.
(2) Apposition : Deposition of layers.

(3) Pits : Pits are formed in lignified cell wall. Deposition of lignin occurs throughout the cell
wall leaving some small thin walled areas called pits. Pits are generally formed in pairs in cell
wall of adjacent cells. Two pits of a pair are seperated by a thin membrane called pit
membrane (composed of middle lamella). Plasmodesmata (Cytoplasmic strands) are present

across. There are two types of pit pairs.

(a) Simple pits : Diameter of a pit cavity is same throughout its length.

(b) Bordered pits : Diameter of pit cavity increases from inside to outside. In such pits, pit
membrane have thickening composed of suberin called Torus. Torus function like a valve to
regulate the flow of materials.

Functions of the Cell Membrane

Both eukaryotic cells, including plant cells and animal cells, and prokaryotic cells, e.g.
bacteria, are enclosed by a cell membrane.

A cell membrane is a thin structure that is also known as the plasma membrane.

The main functions of the cell membrane are:

to maintain the physical integrity of the cell - that is to mechanically

enclose the contents of the cell, and also

to control the movement of particles e.g. ions or molecules, into and out of
the cell.

Lists of functions of a cell membrane ( = plasma membrane) can include various numbers of
functions because particles can move across the membrane in several different ways,
including diffusion via ion channels, active transport via membrane pumps, endocytosis (into
the cell) and exocytosis (out of the cell). Some lists count these different transport
mechanisms as different functions while other lists count "transport of materials" as one
function of the cell membrane.
Table of Functions of the Cell Membrane:
Functions of the Cell Membrane

1. Mechanical Structure A cell membrane encloses and defines the cell. There are
(a) Defines / encloses different ways to express this, e.g.
the Cell
The cell membrane maintains the physical
integrity of the cell. It's most obvious in the
cases of animal cells (because they don't have
cell walls) that the cell membrane holds the cell
together by enclosing the cytoplasm and
organelles within it.

The cell membrane forms a barrier between

the inside of the cell and the environment
outside the cell - enclosing cytoplasm and any
organelles within the cell, and enabling different
chemical environments to exist on each side of
the cell membrane.

The cell membrane physically separates the

intracellular components (e.g. organelles in
eukaryotic cells) from the extracellular
environment.

The 3 points listed above say much the same thing.

(b) Re. Cytoskeleton In many cases the cell membrane also helps to hold the
cytoskeleton (which is within the cell) in place. This is is
achieved by some proteins in the cell membrane attaching to
some cytoskeletal fibres and helps to define and maintain the
shape of the cell.

(c) Extracellular In many cases (but not all, e.g. not in the case of single celled-
Matrix organisms) the cell membrane interacts with the cell membrane
of adjacent cells e.g. to form plant and animal tissues.

(c) Protection The cell membrane protects the cell from some harmful
chemicals in its external environmemt.
It also protects the cell from loss of useful biological
macromolecules held within the cell by its plasma membrane.

2. Selective Permeability The cell membranes that enclose cells (inside the cell wall in
the cases of plant cells and prokaryotic cells) are selectively
permeable. That is, the structure of these membranes is such
that they allow certain particles, incl. e.g. molecules, - but not
 others - to pass through the membrane, hence into or out of the
cell.

(This cell membrane function is one of several functions that

facilitate the transport of materials needed for survival of the
cell, others include "active transport", "exocytosis" and
"endocytosis".)

3. Active Transport Cell membranes, also known as "plasma membranes", can

allow active transport of specific molecules across the cell
membrane in either direction, i.e. either into or out of the cell.

That is - cell membranes can allow some particular

molecules to move against a concentration gradient e.g.
from a lower concentration outside the cell to a higher
concentration inside the cell, or vice-versa. Active transport
(movement against the concentration gradient) requires, that is
it uses, energy.

See the pages about diffusion, osmosis and active transport for
more information.

4. Bulk Transport: Exocytosis is the process by which a cell moves the contents of
Exocytosis and secretory vesicles out of the cell via the cell membrane.
Endocytosis
Endocytosis is the opposite process by which the contents of
secretory vesicles are moved into the cell via the cell
membrane.

5. Markers & Signalling Proteins called surface protein markers embedded in the cell
(for communication membrane identify the cell, enabling nearby cells to
with other cells & the communicate with each other.
external environment)
Cell membranes often include receptor sites for interaction
with specific biochemicals such as certain hormones,
neurotransmitters and immune proteins. In this way the cell can
recognize and process some signals received from the
extracellular environment.

6. Metabolic Activities Plasma membranes include as part of their structures certain

proteins and enzymes that are involved in some of the
 metabolic processes of the cell.

Cytoplasm Definition

Cytoplasm is the semi-fluid substance of a cell that is present within the cellular
membrane and surrounds the nuclear membrane. It is sometimes described as
the nonnuclear content of the protoplasm. All the cellular contents in
a prokaryote organisms are contained within cell's cytoplasm. In eukaryote
organisms, the nucleus of the cell is separated from the cytoplasm. Cytoplasm is
a thick and semi-transparent fluid. The cytoplasm was discovered in the year
1835 by Robert Brown and other scientists.

The cytoplasm is made of 70% - 90% water and is colorless usually. Most of the
cellular activities occurs in the cytoplasm. Metabolic pathways like glycolysis and
cellular processes like cell division take place in the cytoplasm. The outer clear
and glassy layer of the cytoplasm is called the ectoplasm or the cell cortex and
the inner granular mass is called the endoplasm. In plants cells, a process known
as cytoplasmic streaming takes place where there is movements of the
cytoplasm around the vacuoles.
Characteristics of Cytoplasm

General Characteristics of Cytoplasm:

Cytoplasm is the fluid substance that fills the space between the cell
membrane and the cellular organelles.

Cytoplasm shows differential staining properties, the areas stained with

the basic dyes are the basophilic areas of the cytoplasm and is termed as
ergatoplasm for this material.

It is heterogenous mixture of opaque granules and organic compounds

which gives it its colloidal nature.

The peripheral zone of cytoplasm is thick and jelly-like substance, known

as the plasmogel. The surrounding area of the nuclear zone is thin and
liquefied in nature and is known as the plasmosol.

The physical nature of cytoplasm is colloidal. It has a high percentage of

water and particles of various shapes and sizes are suspended in it.

It also contains proteins, of which 20-25 percent are soluble proteins

including enzymes.

Also, certain amount of carbohydrates, inorganic salts, lipids and lipoidal

substances are found.
 The plasmogel part of the cytoplasm is capable of absorbing water and
removing it, according to the cells need.

The stomatal guard cell present in the leaves exhibit this property.

An organized system of fibrers can be observed by specific staining

techniques.

Chemically cytoplasm contains 90% water and 10% include a mixture of

organic and inorganic compounds in various proportions.

Functions of cytoplasm are as follows:

1. Cytoplasm is the site of many biochemical reactions that are vital and crucial for
maintaining life.

2. The cytoplasm is the place where the cell expands and growth of the cell takes place.

3. The cytoplasm provides a medium for the organelles to remain suspended.

4. The cytoskeleton of the cytoplasm provides shape to the cell and it also facilitates
movement.

5. It also aids in the movement of the different cellular elements.

6. The enzymes in the cytoplasm metabolize the macromolecules into small parts, so
that it can be easily available for the other cellular organelles like mitochondria.

7. The cytoplasm is a means of transport for genetic material.

8. It also transports the products of cellular respiration.

9. The cytoplasm acts as a buffer and protects the genetic material of the cell and also
the cellular organelles from damage caused due to movement and collision with other
cells.

10. The cytoplasmic organelles are specialized structures that haves its own functions like
cellular respiration, protein synthesis,etc.

11. The cytoplasmic inclusions are non-soluble molecules, they are seen floating in the
cytoplasm, they act as stored fats and sugars that are ready for celllular respiration.

12. The cytoplasm and the proteins prevent the grouping of organelles in place due to
gravity, that would impede their function.

Endoplasmic reticulum
Endoplasmic reticulum is a continuous membrane, which is present in both plant
cells, animal cells and absent in prokaryotic cells. It is the membrane of network
tubules and flattened sacs, which serves a variety of functions within the cell.
The space, which is present in the endoplasmic reticulum, is called as the
lumen.

A diagram of Endoplasmic Reticulum

Endoplasmic Reticulum Definition

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It can be defined as a eukaryotic organelle, which forms a network of tubules,

vesicles and cisternae within the cells. There are two regions of the Endoplasmic
reticulum, which differ in both structure and function. One region is called as
rough Endoplasmic reticulum, as it contains ribosome attached to the
cytoplasmic side of the membrane and they are the series of flattened sacs. The
other region is called as smooth Endoplasmic reticulum as it lacks the attached
ribosome and they are tubule network.
Endoplasmic Reticulum Function
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The major functions of Endoplasmic reticulum are:

1. It is mainly responsible for the transportation of proteins and other

carbohydrates to another organelle, which includes lysosomes, Golgi
apparatus, plasma membrane, etc.
 2. They play a vital role in the formation of the skeletal framework.

3. They provide the increased surface area for cellular reactions.

4. They help in the formation of nuclear membrane during cell division.

5. They play a vital role in the synthesis of proteins, lipids, glycogen and
other steroids like cholesterol, progesterone, testosterone, etc.

Endoplasmic Reticulum Structure

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Endoplasmic reticulum is an extensive membrane network of cisternae (sac-like

structures), which are held together by the cytoskeleton. The phospholipid
membrane encloses a space, the lumen from the cytosol, which is continuous
with the perinuclear space.

The surface of the rough endoplasmic reticulum is studded with the protein
manufacturing ribosome, which gives it a rough appearance. Hence it is referred
as a rough endoplasmic reticulum.

The smooth endoplasmic reticulum consists of tubules, which are located near
the cell periphery. This network increases the surface area for the storage of key
enzymes and the products of these enzymes.

Rough endoplasmic reticulum synthesizes proteins, while smooth endoplasmic

reticulum synthesizes lipids and steroids. It also metabolizes carbohydrates and
regulates calcium concentration, drug detoxification, and attachment of
receptors on cell membrane proteins.

Endoplasmic reticulum varies extensive extending from the cell membrane

through the cytoplasm and forming a continuous connection with the nuclear
envelope.
A structure of Endoplasmic reticulum

Structure of a smooth Endoplasmic reticulum

Structure of a Rough Endoplasmic reticulum

Plant Cell Endoplasmic Reticulum

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In plant cell, the endoplasmic reticulum acts as a port for the entry of proteins
into the membrane. It also plays a vital role in the biosynthesis and storage of
lipids. There are number of soluble membrane, which are associated with the
enzymes and the molecular chaperones. The general functions of the
endoplasmic reticulum in plant cell are protein synthesis and maturation.
Endoplasmic reticulum of plant cell possesses some additional functions, which is
not found in animal cells. The additional function involves cell to cell
communication between specialized cells and also it serves as a storage site for
proteins. Endoplasmic reticulum of plant cell contains enzymes and structural
proteins, which are involved in the process of oil body biogenesis and lipid
storage. In plants, the endoplasmic reticulum is connected between the cells via
the plasmodesmata.
Animal Cell Endoplasmic Reticulum
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In animal cells, the endoplasmic reticulum is a network of sacs, which play a vital
role in manufacturing, processing and transporting different types of chemical
compounds for use of both inside and outside of the cell. It is connected to the
double-layered nuclear envelope, which provides the pipeline between the
nucleus and the cytoplasm of a cell.In animal cells, the endoplasmic reticulum is
a multifunctional organelle, which synthesis the membrane lipids, proteins and
also regulates the intracellular calcium.

GOLGI APPARATUS
Golgi apparatus was discovered in the year 1898 by an Italian biologist Camillo
Golgi. It was on of the first cellular organelles to be discovered and observed in
detail due to its large size. The term Golgi apparatus was used in 1910 and in
1913 it first appeared in the scientific literature.

With the aids of special staining techniques the Golgi bodies were seen as
densely stained region of the cytoplasm under the optical microscope. Under the
electron microscope the Golgi apparatus is seen to be composed of stacks of
flattened structures which contains numerous vesicles containing secretory
granules. The newly synthesized proteins, found in the channels of the rough
endoplasmic reticulum are moved to the Golgi body where the carbohydrates are
added to them and these molecules are enveloped in a part of the Golgi
membrane and then the enveloped molecules leave the cell. The Golgi apparatus
hence acts as the assembly factory of the cell where the raw materials are
directed to the Golgi apparatus before being passed out from the cell.
Golgi Apparatus Definition

The Golgi complex is referred to as the manufacturing and the shipping center of
the eukaryoric cell. The Golgi apparatus or the Golgi body or Golgi complex or
Golgi is a cellular organelle present in most of the cells of the eukaryotic
organisms. The Golgi bodies were identified by an Italian biologist Camillo Golgi
in the year 1897 and was maned after him in the year 1898. The Golgi complex
is responsible inside the cell for packaging of the protein molecules before they
are sent to their destination. This organelles helps in processing and packaging
the macromolecules like proteins and lipids that are synthesized by the cell, It is
known as the 'post office' of the cell. The major function of the Golgi body is to
modify , sort and package the macromolecules. It also helps in transportation of
lipids around the cell and the creation of lysosomes.
Golgi Apparatus Structure

The Golgi apparatus is a major organelle in most of the eukarytoic cells.

They are membrane bound organelles, which are sac-like. They are found
in the cytoplasm of plant and animal cells.

The Golgi complex is composed of stacks of membrane-bound structures,

these structures are known as the cisternae. An individual stack of the
cisternae is sometimes referred as dictyosome.

In a typical animal cell, there are about 40 to 100 stacks. In a stack

there are about four to eight cisternae.
 Each cisternae is a disc enclosed in a membrane, it possess special
enzymes of the Golgi which help to modify and transport of the modified
proteins to their destination.

The flat sacs of the cisternae are stacked and is bent and semicircular in
shape.

Each group of stacks is membrane bound and its insides are separated
from the cytoplasm of the cell.

The interaction in the Golgi membrane in responsible for the unique shape
of the apparatus.

The Golgi complex is polar in nature.

The membranes of one end of the stack is different in composition and

thickness to the membranes at the other end.

One end of the stack is known as the cis face, it is the 'receiving
department" while the other end is the trans face and is the "shipping
department". The cis face of the Golgi apparatus is closely associated with
the endoplasmic reticulum.

Golgi Apparatus Function

1. The cell synthesize a huge amount of variety of macromolecules. The main

function of the Golgi apparatus is to modify, sort and package the
 macromolecules that are synthesized by the cells for secretion purposes or
for use within the cell.

2. It mainly modifies the proteins that are prepared by the rough

endoplasmic reticulum.

3. They are also involved in the transport of lipid molecules around the cell.

4. They also create lysosomes.

5. The Golgi complex is thus referred as post office where the molecules are
packaged, labelled and sent to different parts of the cell.

6. The enzymes in the cisternae have the ability to modify proteins by the
addition of carbohydrates and phosphate by the process of glycosylation
and phoshphorylation respectively.

7. In order to modify the proteins the golgi complex imports substances like
nucleotides from the cytosol of the cell. The modifications brought about
by the golgi body might form a signal sequence. This determines the final
destination of the protein.

8. The Golgi complex also plays an important role in the production of

proteoglycans. The proteoglycans are molecules that are present in the
extracellular matrix of the animal cells.

9. It is also a major site of synthesis of carbohydrates. These carbohydratres

includes the synthesis of glycoasaminoglycans, Golgi attaches to these
polysaccharides which then attaches to a protein produced in
the endeoplasmic reticulum to form proteoglycans.

10.The Golgi involves in the sulfation process of certain molecules.

11.The process of phosphorylation of molecules by the Golgi requires the

import of ATP into the lumen of the Golgi.
Function of Lysosomes
Lysosomes are simple tiny spherical sac-like structures evenly distributed in the cytoplasm
Each lysosome is a small vesicle surrounded by a single membrane and contains powerful
enzymes. These enzymes are capable of digesting or breaking down all organic materials.

Discovery::

Christian De Duve first observed these organelles in animal cells in 1949 by cell
fractionation studies and Novikoff (1960) suggested that they are derived from pinocytic
vesicles.
Structure of Lysosomes
The structural components of the lysosome play iimportant roles in observation of what is
the lysosome's function

Irregular,sac like structure bounded by a single membranes.

Under Electron microscope they appear dense and finely granular , with
about 50 types of hydrolytic enzymes.

In animal cells they are usually spherical

They are polymorphic in nature particularly regarding tje particle size and
irregularities of its internal structure.This polymorphism suggests that
lysosomes are highly dynamic in nature and lights up on what is the
lysosome's function.

polymorphism is caused by association of different materials with the

primary lysosome.

some important facts of lysosomes:

Lysosomes serve as intracellular digestive system, so they are also known

as digestive bags.
 They destroy any foreign material which enter the cell such as bacteria or
virus.

Lysosomes also remove the worn out and poorly working cellular
organelles by digesting them to make way for their new replacements.
Since they remove cell debris, they are also known as scavengers,
cellular housekeepers or demolition squads.

Lysosomes form a kind of garbage disposal system of cell

During breakdown of cell structure, when the cell gets damaged,

lysosomes burst and the enzymes eat up their own cells. So, lysosomes
are also known as suicide bags of a cell.

Function of Lysosomes - Hydrolytic Enzymes

the different types of hydrolytic enzymes present helping us to understand lysosomes
functions are as follows:

Hydrolases------- acting odn ester bonds, e.g. Phospholipase A1,

phospholipase A2

Hydrolases--- -----actingon glycosyl compounds, e.g. Lysozyme,

neruraminidase etc

Hydrolases ------- acting on peptic bonds. e.g. Carboxyepetidase,

dipeptidase etc

Hydrolases --------acting on acid anhydrites ,e.g. Inorganic

pyrophosphatase

HYdrolases -------acting on other C-N bonds,e.g. aminoacid

napthylamidase

HYdrolases------- acting on acid anhydrites ,e.g, inorganic pyrophosphates

Hydrolases--------acting on P- N bonds, e.g. phosphoamidase

Hydrolases-------- acting on S--N bonds,e.g. Heparin sulfamidase

Types of Lysosomes:
There are basically four types of lysosomes present: which co-relates with what is the the
lysosome's function

Primary lysosome

Heterophasome/ digestive vacuole

Autophagosome /cytolysosome/ autophagic vacuole

residual bodies / telolysosome/ Dense bodies

Functions of Lysosomes:in detail

The following can be groupesd together as the functions of Lysosomes

A ) CELLULAR DIGESTION
Lysosomal enzymes degrade proteins into dipeptides and carbohydrates onto
monosaccharides.Sucrose and polysaccharides are not digested and remain in the lysosomal
vacuoles.
B ) AUTOPHAGY :
By the process of autophagy lysosomes constantly remove cellular components like
mitochondria etc. Cytoplasmic organelles become surrounded by smooth endoplasmic
reticulum and lysosomes attach with it and discharge their contents into autophagic vacuole
and the organelle is digested. Autophagy isa general; property of eukaryotic cells.
C) DEVELOPMENTAL PROCESSES :
Many developmental processes involve shedding or remodelling of tissues with removal of
whole cells and extracellular material.It is observable in tadpole metamorphosis ( regression
of tail) or in developmental processes like regression of Wolffian /Mullerian ducts
D) EXOCYTOSIS
Contents of the primary lysosome mat be released int the medium by exocytosis and it
occurs during replacement of cartilage by bone during development where osteoclasts
release lysosomal enzymes.It can also occur in bone remodelling under influence of
parathyroid hormone .Crinophagy refers to the process by which secretory granules
produced in excess are removed by lysosomes.
E)ENDOCYTOSIS :
Lysosomes may fuse with vesicles or vacuoles formed by endocytosis and release their
enzymes into it for digestion.The material for digestion may be food (protozoa) or a foreign
body like parasite .The products of digestion are absorbed and assimilated leaving
undigested which are released outside by exocytosis.
F)ROLE IN GERM CELLS ANFD FERTILIZATION :
The acrosome in spermatozoa may be considered as a special lysosome containing protease
and hyaluronidase along with acid phosphatase .The lysosome in Ova help in digestion of
stored food
G) LYSOSOME IN DISEASES:
Lysosomes are involved in many diseases like rheumatoid arthritis, silicosis, acute
inflammatory responses,anorexia, myocardial infraction, different storage diseases etc.
GERL SYSTEM:
GERL system refers to the the interconnected system involving the Golgi, endoplasmic
reticulum and the Lysosome which together regulate the secretory activities of the Golgi
and ER as well as modification of secretory products.
Significance of Lysosome

In WBC or leucocytes: Cells of leucocytes digest foreign protens, bacteria

and virus

In autophagy: During starvation, the lysosomes digest stored food

contents such as proteins, fats and glycogen of the cytoplasm and supply
the necessary amount of energy to the cell.

In fertilization: The lysosomal enzymes present in the acrosome of the

sperm cells digest the limiting membrane of the ovum. Thus, the sperm is
able to enter the ovum and start fertilization.

RIBOSOMES:
Proteins are necessary for the cells to perform cellular functions. Ribosomes are
the cellular component that make proteins from all amino acids. Ribosomes are
made from complexes of RNAs and proteins. The number of ribosomes in a cell
depends on the activity of the cell. Ribosomes are freely suspended in the
cytoplasm or attached to the endoplasmic reticulum forming the rough
endoplasmic reticulum. On an average in a mammalian cell there can be about
10 million ribosomes.

When the ribosomes are attached to the same mRNA strand, this structure is
known as polysome. The existence of ribosomes is temporary, after the synthesis
of polypeptide the two sub-units separate and is reused or broken up. Amino
acids are joined by the ribosomes at a rate of 200 per minute . Therefore small
proteins can be made quickly but two or three hours are needed for proteins
which are as large as 30,000 amino acids.
The ribosomes present in the prokaryotes function differently in protein
production than the ribosomes of the eukaryote organisms. The ribosomes of
bacteria, archea and eukaryotes differ significantly from each other in structure
and RNA sequences. The differences in the ribosomes allows the antibiotc to kill
the bacterial ribosome by inhibiting the activity of the bacterial ribosomes, the
human ribosome sramin unaffected. The ribosomes of the eukaryotic cellas are
similar to the ribosomes of the bacterial cells, showing the evolutionary origin of
the organelle.

Ribosomes Defintion
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Ribosomes are small particles, present in large numbers in all the living cells. They are
sites of protein synthesis. The ribosome word is derived - 'ribo' from ribonucleic acid and
'somes' from the Greek word 'soma' which means 'body'. The ribosomes link amino acids
together in the order that is specified by the messenger RNA molecules. The ribosomes
are made up of two subunits - a small and a large subunit. The small subunit
reads the mRNA while the large subunit joins the amino acids to form a chain of
polypeptides. Ribosmal subunits are made of one or more rRNA (ribosomal RNA)
molecules and various proteins.
Characteristics of Ribosomes
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Characteristics of ribosomes:
 Typically ribosomes are composed of two subunits: a large subunit and a small
subunit.

The subunits of the ribosome are synthesized by the nucleolus.

The subunits of ribosomes join together when the ribosomes attaches to the
messenger RNA during the process of protein synthesis.

Ribosomes along with a transfer RNA molecule (tRNA), helps to translate the
protein-coding genes in mRNA to proteins.

Ribosome Structure
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Ribosomes in a cell are located in two regions of the cytoplasm.

They are found scattered in the cytoplasm and some are attached to the
endoplasmic reticulum.

When the ribosomes are bound to the ER there are known as the rough
endoplasmic reticulum.

The bound and the free ribosomes are similar in structure and are invloved in
protein synthesis.

Ribosomes are tiny particles about 200 .

Ribosomes are composed of both RNA and proteins.

About 37 - 62% of RNA are made up of RNA and the rest is proteins.

Ribosome is made up of two subunits. The subunits of ribosomes are named

according to their ability of sedimentation on a special gel which the Sevdberg
Unit.

Prokarytotes have 70S ribosomes each subunit consisting of small subunit is of

30S and the large subunit is of 50S. Eukarytotes have 80S ribosomes each
consisting of small (40S) and large (60S) subunit.

The ribosomes found in the chloroplasts of mitochondria of eukaryotes consists of

large and small subunits bound together with proteins into one 70S particle.

The ribosomes share a core structure which is similar to all ribosomes despite
differences in its size.

The RNA is organized in various tertiary structures. The RNA in the larger
ribosomes are into several continuous insertion as they form loops out of the core
structure without disrupting or changing it.

The catalytic activity of the ribosome is carried out by the RNA, the proteins reside
on the surface and stabilize the structure.
 The differences between the ribosomes of bacterial and eukaryotic are used to
create antibiotics that can destroy bacterial infection without harming human
cells.

Ribosome Function
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The main functions of ribosmes are :

They assemble amino acids to form specific proteins, proteins are essential to
carry out cellular activities.

The process of production of proteins, the deoxyribonucleic acid produces mRNA

by the process of DNA transcription.

The genetic message from the mRNA is translated into proteins during DNA
translation.

The sequences of protein assembly during protein synthesis are specified in the
mRNA.

The mRNA is synthesized in the nucleus and is transported to the cytoplasm for
further process of protein synthesis.

In the cytoplasm, the two subunits of ribosomes are bound around the polymers
of mRNA; proteins are then synthesized with the help of transfer RNA.

The proteins that are synthesized by the ribosomes present in the cytoplasm are
used in the cytoplasm itself. The proteins produced by the bound ribosomes are
transported outside the cell.
Bacterial Ribosome
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Prokaryotic ribosomes
In a bacterial cell there are about 10,000 ribosomes which make upto 30% of the
weight of the cell. The bacterial ribosomes are present free in the cytoplasm. The
bacterial ribosome sediments as 70S particle which is composed of 30S and a
large subunit is of 50S. The small subunit of the prokarytoic ribosome functions
in the association with messenger RNA during translation and decoding. The
large subunits of the ribosomes function as peptidyl transferase center and it is
the site of peptide bond formation. The structure of bacterial ribosome is made up of
over 50 proteins and three large domains of RNA molecule. They are the site of protein
synthesis.

Plant Cell Ribosome

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Plant cell do have ribosomes and they are composed of proteins and ribosomal RNA. The
ribosomes in a plant cell are found in the cytoplasm, the surface of the rough
endoplasmic reticulum, the mitochondria and on chloroplasts. There are two types of
ribosomes - free ribsomes and attached ribosomes. The attached ribosomes are bound to
the surface of the endoplasmic reticulum and they are the site for protein synthesis.
Synthesis of proteins also occurs in the free ribosomes.
Animal Cell Ribosome
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Ribosomes are proein builders of the cll. They are found in many place in the cytoplasm.
They might be sseen freely floatin gin the cytoplasm and they are seen attached to the
endoplasmic reticulum. Ribsomes of animal cells are also made of two subunits large
(60S) and small (40S. When there is need for proteins ina cell, the mRNA is produced in
the nucleus and is sent to the cell and the ribosomes. The two subunits of the ribsomes
come together at the time of protein formation and combine with the mRNA molecule
and hence the proteins are synthesized.