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Rachael L DiSantostefano 1 Background: Pneumonia poses a significant risk in patients with moderate to severe chronic
Hao Li 1 obstructive pulmonary disease but data are limited on the disease phenotypes most susceptible
David Hinds 1 to pneumonia.
Dmitry V Galkin 2 Methods: Cluster analysis using a data-driven recursive partitioning algorithm was employed
David B Rubin 2 using baseline data from two pooled one-year randomized exacerbation trials (n=3,255) of
fluticasone furoate/vilanterol or vilanterol alone to identify distinct patient groups at greatest
1
Worldwide Epidemiology,
2
Respiratory Clinical Development, risk of pneumonia or serious (hospitalization or death) pneumonia.
GlaxoSmithKline, Research Triangle Results: Five clusters were identified. Patients at greater risk of first pneumonia had more severe
Park, Durham, NC, USA obstruction (forced expiratory volume in one second/forced vital capacity ,46%) and either a
body mass index ,19 kg/m2 (hazard ratio 7.8, 95% confidence interval 4.713.0; n=144) or a
pneumonia history and greater comorbidities (hazard ratio 4.8, 95% confidence interval 3.07.7;
n=374) relative to the cluster with the lowest pneumonia risk (reference; n=1310). Multiple
comorbidities and use of psychoanaleptics also contributed to an increased risk of pneumonia in
more obstructed patients. Independent of cluster, use of inhaled corticosteroids was associated
with pneumonia (hazard ratio 1.89, 95% confidence interval 1.252.84) and serious pneumonia
(hazard ratio 2.92, 95% confidence interval 1.406.01).
Conclusion: Cluster analysis can identify patient populations at risk for serious safety outcomes
and inform risk management strategies to optimize patient management. The greatest risk for
pneumonia was in subjects with multiple pneumonia risk factors.
Keywords: chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, inhaled corticosteroids, long-acting
2-agonists, pneumonia, cluster analysis
Introduction
Community-acquired pneumonia results in greater morbidity and mortality in patients
with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) than in those without the disease.1
The annual incidence of community-acquired pneumonia in the COPD population
is estimated to be 22.4 episodes per 1,000 patients,2 and age, severity of COPD, and
presence of comorbidity further increase the risk of hospitalization with community-
acquired pneumonia. Findings further suggest an increase in pneumonia when COPD
is treated with inhaled corticosteroids (ICS), although ICS also reduce the rates of
Correspondence: Rachael L moderate or severe exacerbations of COPD.3 The mechanism by which ICS increase
DiSantostefano
GlaxoSmithKline, 5 Moore Drive,
the risk of pneumonia is unclear, but may relate to reducing the inflammatory response,
Research Triangle Park, Durham, including neutrophils, in the respiratory tract.4
NC27709 USA
Tel +1 919 483 2100
Fluticasone furoate/vilanterol (FF/VI) is a new once-daily ICS/long-acting
Email rachael.l.disantostefano@gsk.com 2-agonist (LABA) combination (FF/VI 100/25 g, BREO ELLIPTA,
submit your manuscript | www.dovepress.com International Journal of COPD 2014:9 457468 457
Dovepress 2014 DiSantostefano etal. This work is published by Dove Medical Press Limited, and licensed under Creative Commons Attribution Non Commercial (unported,v3.0)
http://dx.doi.org/10.2147/COPD.S60498
License. The full terms of the License are available at http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/3.0/. Non-commercial uses of the work are permitted without any further
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DiSantostefano etal Dovepress
Table 1 Characteristics and variables considered in initial cluster Table 2 Pneumonia, serious pneumonia, and fatal pneumonia
analysis events with FF/VI and VI
Characteristic/variable: class Characteristic/variable: specific n (%) FF/VI FF/VI FF/VI VI
Spirometry Post-bronchodilator FEV1 L 50 g/ 100 g/ 200 g/ 25g
Post-bronchodilator FEV1% predicted 25 g 25 g 25 g (n=818)
FEV1% reversibility (n=820) (n=806) (n=811)
Post-bronchodilator FEV1/FVC ratio Pneumonia
Post-bronchodilator FVC% predicted Subjects 48 (5.9) 51 (6.3) 55 (6.8) 27 (3.3)
Demographics Age (years) Events 54 58 65 28
Sex Serious pneumonia
BMI (kg/m2) Subjects and events 24 (2.9) 25 (3.1) 23 (2.8) 8 (,1)
Smoking (current/former) Fatal pneumonia
Smoking pack-years Subjects and events 0 1 7* 0
Race African American/African heritage Note: *One subject in the 200/25 treatment group experienced a fatal exacerbation
American Indian/Alaska Native of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, and was noted to have concurrent
pneumonia at the time of death.
Asian Abbreviations: FF/VI, fluticasone furoate/vilanterol; VI, vilanterol.
Mixed
White
COPD history Duration of COPD (years)
increasing from left to right (Figure 2A and C). Relative to
COPD type (chronic bronchitis
and/or emphysema) cluster 1 (reference), HRs for the time to first pneumonia in
History of exacerbation #1 versus $2 requiring oral clusters 25 ranged from a 2.2-fold increased risk of first
(past year) corticosteroids and/or antibiotics pneumonia in cluster 3 versus cluster 1 to a 7.8-fold increased
#1 versus $2 requiring risk of first serious pneumonia in cluster 5 versus cluster 1
hospitalization 0, 1, 2, .2 or more
(Figure 2B and D).
Medical history Targeted medical conditions*
Vaccination for influenza
(yes versus no) Patient clusters
Vaccination for pneumonia The clusters identified comprised the following: patients
(yes versus no) with poorer lung function (FEV1/FVC,46.05%) and lower
Medications at baseline/initiated ATC classification**
prior to randomization
BMI ,19 kg/m2 (cluster 5); patients with poorer lung func-
Laboratory investigations Blood urea nitrogen tion, normal BMI and prior history (cluster 4) or no history
Eosinophils (cluster 3) of pneumonia; and patients with better lung
Hemoglobin function in receipt (cluster 2) or not in receipt (cluster 1)
Lymphocytes
Neutrophils
of psychoanaleptics (89% antidepressants). There were
Red blood cells significant baseline differences between clusters assessed
White blood cells by demographics, spirometry, COPD history, or COPD type
Randomized treatment VI 25 g (Table 3) and comorbidities or concomitant medications
FF/VI treatment (50/25 g,
(Table 4). There were no clinically significant differences
100/25 g, 200/25 g)
in laboratory measures across clusters (data not shown).
Notes: *Targeted medical conditions: cardiovascular history/risk, vascular disorders,
metabolism disorders, history of pneumonia, cardiac disorders, eye disorders, arrhythmia; Patients with the greatest risk of pneumonia and seri-
**medications were coded based on the ATC of interest. Some medications have more
ous pneumonia (cluster 5) predominantly had a history of
than one indication and were categorized in more than one therapeutic class (eg, aspirin
for pain relief versus cardiovascular disease prevention). Because the reasons for taking emphysema, the highest prevalence of current smoking,
the medications were not collected systematically, the classification was based on the
ATC classes and not on the underlying indication for an individual patient. It is possible
the greatest extent of reversibility, and were more likely to
that some medications were counted in more than one ATC category. Medication classes have experienced at least two exacerbations in the prior year
included in the analysis included: antihistamines, antihypertensives, antithrombotics,
diuretics, diabetes medications, psychoanaleptics, psycholeptics, agents acting on the compared with those in other clusters. Patients in cluster 5
reninangiotensin system (eg, angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitors, angiotensin II also had considerably fewer comorbidities than other clusters
agonists), antihemorrhagics, antianemic preparations, beta-blockers, cardiac therapies,
calcium channel blockers, lipid-modifying agents, anti-inflammatory and antirheumatic and were in receipt of the fewest concomitant medications.
products, medications for bone diseases (including muscle pain), antihemorrhagics, and Patients in clusters 4 and 2 showed higher rates of comorbid-
vasodilators.
Abbreviations: ATC, Anatomic Therapeutic Category; COPD, chronic obstructive ity and concomitant medication.
pulmonary disease; BMI, body mass index; FEV1, forced expiratory volume in
Patients in cluster 3 were predominantly male and had
one second; FVC, forced vital capacity; FF/VI, fluticasone furoate/vilanterol;
VI, vilanterol. COPD for the greatest amount of time, but were the least likely
46.05 <46.05
19 <19
Pneumonia history
No Yes
No Yes
A B
Hazard ratio for 1st pneumonia
Incidence of 1st pneumonia
20 18.75 25
relative to cluster 1
15 20
10.96 15
(%)
10 7.98
5.13 10
7.8
5
2.52 5 4.8
1.0 3.1 2.2
0 0
r1
r2
r3
5
1
er
er
r
te
te
te
te
te
te
te
te
st
st
s
s
s
lu
lu
lu
lu
lu
lu
lu
lu
lu
lu
C
C
C D
pneumonia relative to cluster 1
Hazard ratio for 1st serious
20
Incidence of 1st serious
25
(95% confidence interval)
pneumonia (%)
15 20
15
10 9.03
6.42 10 10.1
7.7
5 2.94 2.02 5 3.2
0.92 1.0 2.4
0 0
r1
r2
r3
r4
r5
r1
r2
r3
r4
r5
e
te
te
st
st
st
st
st
st
st
st
s
lu
lu
lu
lu
lu
lu
lu
lu
lu
lu
C
C
Figure 2 Incidence (A and C) and hazard ratios (B and D) for first pneumonia (A and B) and first serious pneumonia (C and D) by cluster.
to have experienced an exacerbation requiring hospitalization smokers, and greatest proportion of reversible patients.
in the prior year; this cluster was primarily differentiated Forty-three percent of subjects in cluster 2 were also using
from the other clusters on the basis of poorer lung function psycholeptic medications, over half of whom were exposed
and the absence of other defining characteristics. to benzodiazepines (Table S1).
Cluster 2 subjects were predominantly female, in addition Cluster 1 (the reference population) contained the great-
to having a higher prevalence of comorbidity (and typically est number of patients overall, and were more likely to be
the highest receipt of concomitant medication). This cluster Hispanic or Latino and more likely to have a history of
contained the fewest Hispanic and Latino patients, had the COPD characterized by bronchitis than patients in the other
least impaired lung function, greatest proportion of current clusters.
p sychiatric and neurological disorders can have impairment may have had a confounding effect by classing together
in both the perception of symptoms and the seeking of health morbidities, and perhaps does not adequately reflect the
care, and may be more likely to smoke.17 Patients with COPD complexity of COPD (eg, a single factor versus multiple
who smoke have a higher prevalence of depression and are factors contributing to risk of pneumonia).
at greater risk of developing depression than those who do It is also notable that only a minority of patients were
not.18 Depressive symptoms are known to pose a greater risk vaccinated for pneumonia (range across clusters, 4%9%) or
of exacerbation, exacerbation-related hospitalization, and influenza (range 19%23%). Vaccination rates were highest
death in COPD.19 for cluster 4, which had a higher level of obstruction, pneu-
Patients taking psychotropic medications are also at monia history, and more frequent comorbidities relative to
risk for aspiration pneumonia because of dysphagia14,17 other clusters. Cluster 4 patients included disproportionate
and relaxation of lower esophageal sphincter tone that can numbers from the USA, suggesting that greater vaccination
aggravate gastroesophageal reflux.20 The most common class rates and comorbidities in this cluster could relate to differ-
of psychotropic drugs used by patients in these studies was ences in health systems and lifestyle or nutrition relative to
benzodiazepines, which were estimated to be dispensed to other regions. Imbalances in geographic distribution across
nearly one third of patients with COPD in a Canadian study.21 other clusters support this possibility. The low vaccination
A recent nested case-control and survival analysis in a popu- rates in these COPD study patients suggests a modifiable
lation-based cohort indicated that benzodiazepines increase risk of pneumonia exists that can be further addressed within
the risk of pneumonia by nearly 50%,22 although an earlier clinical practice settings and by vaccine uptake strategies.
study suggested that this risk was related to concomitant Although the evidence is not consistent, the GOLD (Global
opioid use.23 Aside from the aspiration risk cited, it has been Initiative for Chronic Obstructive Lung Disease) consensus
suggested that benzodiazepine-related pneumonia may be document25 and Centers for Disease Control and Prevention26
due to immunosuppression that is mediated via activation of recommend that influenza and pneumonia vaccination be
gamma-aminobutyric acid A receptors on macrophages.24 offered to every COPD patient, where vaccination is more
Another important aspect related to increased risk effective in older patients, severe COPD patients, and those
of pneumonia identified in this analysis is the presence with comorbid cardiovascular disease. Despite the increased
of multiple comorbidities. The presence of a history or risk of risk of pneumonia in these groups, the patients with greatest
cardiovascular disease and the incidence of coronary artery risk of pneumonia are also those who receive the greatest
disease and cardiac, metabolic, or vascular disorders was benefit of ICS, including those with increased obstruction
highest in clusters 2 and 4, in whom the risk of pneumonia and low BMI.6
was greater than in both cluster 1 (the reference population) Treatment allocation was balanced across clusters, which
and cluster 3. Both congestive heart failure and peripheral would be expected due to randomization. There was a small
vascular disease are independent risk factors for the occur- imbalance in cluster 5, with a slight underrepresentation of
rence of community-acquired pneumonia.2 Similarly, both FF/VI 100/25 g (17.4%) and overrepresentation of FF/VI
cardiovascular disease and diabetes place patients with 200/25 g (31.3%), compared with the 25% expected. This
COPD at an increased risk of hospitalization for pneumonia. variation likely resulted due to chance because this was the
This would suggest that an increased risk of pneumonia smallest of the clusters (n=144), but could have contributed
would be most likely to be present in subjects with comorbid to the observed increased risk of pneumonia. Based on the
cardiovascular disease treated with FF/VI versus vilanterol. benefit-risk profile,5 the 200/25 dose of FF/VI was not pro-
However, in other analyses of the data utilized here (not gressed for registration in COPD.
shown), subjects with comorbid cardiovascular disease Regardless of cluster, there is an approximate two-fold
treated with FF/VI had a numerically lower risk for occur- increase in the relative risk of pneumonia and a nearly three-
rence of pneumonia when compared with subjects with no fold increase of serious pneumonia among patients treated
comorbid cardiovascular disease treated with vilanterol. The with FF/VI relative to vilanterol; however, the absolute risk
definition of comorbid cardiovascular disease used in this of pneumonia is greatest among those who benefit most from
analysis was a prior or current diagnosis of coronary artery FF/VI (eg, clusters 4 and 5).6 Risk factors that put individu-
disease, myocardial infarction, arrhythmia, congestive heart als at greatest risk of pneumonia (eg, low BMI, increased
failure, hypertension, cerebrovascular accident, diabetes airflow obstruction, multiple morbidities, and prior history
mellitus, or hypercholesterolemia. This broad definition of pneumonia) can be collectively assessed when making
treatment decisions. If the greatest risk of pneumonia had ICS/LABA such as FF/VI, balancing the risks and benefit
been found among patients with modest benefit from FF/VI, in the individual patient.
the benefitrisk profile may merit a bronchodilator alone
(eg, vilanterol) rather than FF/VI, to maintain a positive Author contributions
benefitrisk profile. RLD and DBR conceived the analysis; RLD, HL and DH
Cluster analysis is a useful tool to examine heterogeneous conducted the analysis; all authors interpreted the results,
diseases such as COPD27 and has been employed to aid in the developed the manuscript, and approved the final draft for
identification of distinct clusters or phenotypes of COPD,28 submission.
including those at greater risk of mortality.29,30 Interestingly,
there is some overlap in the phenotypes identified as being Disclosure
at greater risk of mortality and pneumonia, including those This work was supported by GlaxoSmithKline (protocol
with multiple comorbidities and moderate to severe airflow number WEUKBRE6624). Editorial support in the form of
limitation29,30 and those with severe airflow limitation with development of an outline and first draft under the guidance
low BMI.29 Cluster analysis differs principally from sub- of the lead author, collation of author comments on subse-
group analysis in that it seeks to first maximize differences quent drafts, referencing, copyediting, and generation of
between groups of patients using a data-driven algorithm tables and figures was provided by Geoff Weller, Gardiner-
and then identify multiple characteristics which define those Caldwell Communications (Macclesfield, UK). Funding for
patients. In comparison, subgroup analysis first defines this support was provided by GlaxoSmithKline. All authors
patients by individual characteristics one at a time. are employees of and hold shares in GlaxoSmithKline.
This analysis benefited from a large dataset representing
a broad international patient population, which is an impor- References
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Supplementary materials
46.05 <46.05
18.78 <18.78
Pneumonia history
No Yes
No Yes
FEV1 % predicted
41.95 <41.95
BMI (kg/m2)
19.38 <19.38
Pneumonia history
No Yes