doi: 10.1111/j.1365-3121.2006.00707.

Tectono-sedimentary evolution of lower to middle Miocene

half-graben basins related to an extensional detachment fault
(western Crete, Greece)
Markus Seidel,1 Eberhard Seidel1 and Bernhard Stockhert2
1
Institut fur Geologie und Mineralogie, Universitat zu Koln, Zulpicher Str. 49 b, D-50674 Koln, Germany; 2Institut fur Geologie, Mineralogie
und Geophysik, Ruhr-Universitat Bochum, Universitatsstr. 150, D-44801 Bochum, Germany

ABSTRACT
Crustal extension in the overriding plate at the Aegean
subduction zone, related to the rollback of the subducting
African slab in the Miocene, resulted in a detachment fault
separating high-pressure/low-temperature (HP-LT) metamorphic
lower from non-metamorphic upper tectonic units on Crete. In
western Crete, detachment faulting at deeper crustal levels was
accompanied by structural disintegration of the hangingwall
leading to the formation of half-graben-type sedimentary
basins filled by alluvial fan and fan-delta deposits. The
coarse-grained clastic sediments in these half-grabens are
exclusively derived from the non-metamorphic units atop the
detachment fault. Being in direct tectonic contact with HP-LT
metamorphic rocks of the lower tectonic units today, the basins
must have formed in the period between c. 20 and 15 Ma, prior
to the exposure of the HP-LT metamorphic rocks at the surface,
and juxtaposed with the latter during ongoing deformation.
Terra Nova, 19, 3947, 2007

Introduction
The island of Crete is a prominent
horst structure in the central fore-arc
of the Hellenic subduction zone,
which is governed by rollback of the
African slab. The geology of Crete
provides a nearly complete record of
the evolution of the plate boundary
between Eurasia and Africa during the
last 35 Myr.
The internal structure of the fore-
arc exposed on Crete is characterized
by a pile of nappes derived from
dierent paleogeographic zones (Sei-
del and Wachendorf, 1986). The nap-
pes are subdivided into the upper
tectonic units, lacking a Cenozoic
metamorphism, and the lower tectonic
units with a late Oligocene to early
Miocene high-pressure/low-tempera-
ture (HP-LT) metamorphism (Seidel
et al., 1982). The upper units (com-
prising from top to bottom the so-
called Uppermost Unit, Pindos Unit,
Tripolitza Unit) are separated from
the lower units (comprising the Phyl-
liteQuartzite Unit, Plattenkalk Unit)
by a low-angle normal detachment
fault (Seidel and Theye, 1993; Fasso-
ulas et al., 1994; Jolivet et al., 1994,
1996; Kilias et al., 1994), recently
referred to as the Cretan detachment
Correspondence: Dr Markus Seidel, Am
Lindbruch 29, D-41470 Neuss, Germany.
Tel.: +49-2137-915070; e-mail: markus.
seidel@gmx.net
(e.g. Ring et al., 2001a,b; Ring and
Reischmann, 2002). The lower tec-
tonic units were rapidly exhumed by
displacement along the low-angle nor-
mal detachment fault from a depth of
over 30 km within a few million years
in the mid-Miocene (Jolivet et al.,
1996; Thomson et al., 1998, 1999; Brix
et al., 2002) and had reached a posi-
tion in the upper crust at less than
about 10 km depth by c. 19 Ma
(Thomson et al., 1998). The rate of
exhumation requires rollback of the
subducting slab (e.g. Thomson et al.,
1998, 1999).
Both lower and upper tectonic units
are exposed in western Crete, predom-
inantly bound by late normal faults,
and partly covered by Neogene sedi-
ments deposited between c. 9 and
5 Ma (e.g. Keupp and Bellas, 2000).
Underneath these marine sediments,
huge masses of mainly breccias and
conglomerates are exposed in two
areas of western Crete (Fig. 1), which
must be older than 9 Myr. Here we
give an overview on the geometry and
depositional environment of these
basin lls and propose a simple tec-
tonic model to explain their formation
and present day structure.
Previous research and dating of the
basin fills
The Miocene breccio-conglomerates
were rst described by Aubouin and
Dercourt (1965), referring to les bre-
ches de la Crete occidentale. Seidel
(1968) uses the term Konglomerat
und Brekzienkalke (carbonate
conglomerates and breccia) and Kopp
and Richter (1983) report on synoro-
genetische Schuttbildungen (synoro-
genic detritus). The suggested
stratigraphic age of the breccio-con-
glomerates ranges from pre-Neogene
to middle Miocene (Freudenthal,
1969; Tataris and Christodoulou,
1969; Creutzburg et al., 1977; Kopp
and Richter, 1983; Kontopoulos
et al., 1996). A lower bound to the
depositional age is posed by clasts
bearing middle to late Eocene for-
aminifers, an upper bound by the
Tortonian (c. 9 Ma) marine sediments
(Frydas and Keupp, 1996; Frydas
et al., 1999; Keupp and Bellas, 2000)
in north-western Crete, which trans-
gressively overly the breccio-conglom-
erates. These marine Tortonian
sediments contain clasts from all units
of the Cretan nappe pile, including the
HP-LT metamorphic lower tectonic
units, and are in turn underlain by
coarse terrestrial sediments (Creutz-
burg, 1963; Freudenthal, 1969) con-
sisting predominantly of detritus
derived from the HP-LT metamorphic
PhylliteQuartzite Unit. This means
that the HP-LT metamorphic lower
tectonic units beneath the detachment
fault were subject to erosion c. 10 Ma,
at the latest. The same holds for the
breccio-conglomerates, as lithied
fragments of these materials are found

 2006 Blackwell Publishing Ltd 39

Evolution of detachment-related Miocene half-graben basins M. Seidel et al. Terra Nova, Vol 19, No. 1, 3947
.............................................................................................................................................................
in the same period by extension in the
upper plate to the detachment fault,
which would mean within the time
span between c. 20 and 15 Ma (Burdi-
galianLanghian/Serravallian, i.e.
lower to middle Miocene, Fig. 2).

Geometry and sedimentary

Fig. 1 Generalized geological map of western Crete (modied from Creutzburg et al.,
1977 and Kopp and Ott, 1977; Trypali Unit included in the Plattenkalk Unit), west of
the Lefka Ori, showing the Neogene basins, the underlying tectono-stratigraphic
units, and the detachment fault. The Topolia basin is located in the surroundings of
the villages of Roka, Topolia and Kakopetros. The Lissos basin is located between
the villages of Paleochora and Lissos.
in the late Miocene terrestrial sedi-
ments. Biostratigraphy therefore
delimits the timing for the deposition
of the breccio-conglomerates to be-
tween c. 35 and 10 Ma.
Further time constraints are posed
by the thermal history of the HP-LT
metamorphic rocks of the Phyllite
Quartzite Unit in western Crete. The
PhylliteQuartzite Unit entered the
subduction zone between c. 36 and
29 Ma (Thomson et al., 1999) and
was metamorphosed at peak condi-
tions of about 400 C and 10 kbar
(Seidel and Theye, 1993), possibly 16
18 kbar (Jolivet et al., 1996), at
c. 23 Ma (Seidel et al., 1982). The
rocks cooled down to below 300 C
c. 19 Ma and nal cooling to below
60 C took place at c. 15 Ma (Thom-
son et al., 1998, 1999) indicating a
near-surface position of the Phyllite
Quartzite Unit at that time. During
the later stage of exhumation at tem-
peratures of below c. 300 C and
pressures of less than 34 kbar (Kus-
ter and Stockhert, 1997), correspond-
ing to a depth of less than c. 10 km,
the PhylliteQuartzite Unit underwent
intense deformation in the brittle eld
(Thomson et al., 1998, 1999), with a
very high density of low-to-moderate-
angle normal faults indicating signi-
cant horizontal extension related to
rollback (Thomson et al., 1999).
Based on the thermal history indicated
evolution of the basins
Detailed geological mapping (Figs 3
and 4) shows, that each of the basins is
bound by a WE-trending (high-an-
gle) normal fault at one side, thus
displaying a typical half-graben geom-
etry (e.g. Fig. 5a). The present days
distribution of the breccio-conglo-
merates suggests that the sedimentary
troughs extended for at least 10 km in
axial length and that the width was at
least 3 km for the Lissos basin and
8 km for the Topolia basin.
The Topolia half-graben is lled
with alluvial fan deposits covering an
outcrop area of about 15 km2 at
present (Fig. 3). The deposits reach a
by the isotopic ages (Seidel et al., thickness of more than 500 m. The
1982; Jolivet et al., 1996; Thomson particle size decreases with increasing
et al., 1998, 1999) this stage of hori- distance from the catchment; very
zontal extension of the Phyllite coarse-grained material with boulders
Quartzite Unit in the brittle eld after and blocks is characteristic of the
signicant decompression cannot have proximal facies. The thickness of the
commenced prior to c. 20 Ma, at the clastic wedge decreases towards
earliest. Although biostratigraphic the north, with decreasing dip of the
support is lacking, we propose that strata and decreasing grainsize, cor-
the half-graben basins and their lling responding to the direction of trans-
with breccio-conglomerates developed
Fig. 2 Cartoon showing a schematic cross-section of the Hellenic subduction zone
and the southern Aegean region (southern margin of the Aegean microplate) for early
to middle Miocene times. The supra-detachment basins are situated in the
hangingwall of the detachment fault. They are formed by crustal extension driven
by the rollback of the subducting African slab.

40  2006 Blackwell Publishing Ltd

Terra Nova, Vol 19, No. 1, 3947
.............................................................................................................................................................
Fig. 3 Geological map of the Topolia basin.
port (Fig. 5b). Also, the roundness of
clasts increases with increasing dis-
tance from the source area.
The structure and sedimentary
characteristics indicate that the allu-
vial fan complex was formed by de-
brisow and subordinate waterlaid
deposits (Fig. 5a). The debrisow fa-
cies comprises very poorly sorted,
matrix-supported, pebble, cobble and
Fig. 4 Geological map of the Lissos basin.
 2006 Blackwell Publishing Ltd
M. Seidel et al. Evolution of detachment-related Miocene half-graben basins
boulder gravel, in general lacking
discernible bedding because of amal-
gamation of the individual debrites
and absence of internal fabric (Fig. 6).
The waterlaid deposits of the distal
parts of the alluvial fan (Fig. 7) are
attributed to sedimentation from a
network of braided distributary chan-
nels as observed on active, modern fan
surfaces (Koster and Steel, 1984) or
locally to recessional sheetooding
with non-catastrophic discharge
resulting in braided-stream-like
coarse gravel lags as proposed by
Blair (1999a). The basin lls are clas-
sied as fanglomerates and corres-
pond to a sedimentological model for
alluvial fans fed by huge masses of
clastic material (e.g. Koster and Steel,
1984; Miall, 1996; Blair, 1999a,b).
A high degree of compaction and
cementation after deposition is indi-
cated by the microstructure of the
breccio-conglomerates of the Topolia
alluvial fan complex, investigated by
SEM and cathodoluminescence micro-
scopy (Seidel, 2003). Cement strati-
graphy allows to dierentiate three
stages of the diagenetic evolution, that
can be correlated with the geological
history of western Crete since the mid-
Miocene, as schematically depicted in
Fig. 8.
In the Lissos half-graben in south-
western Crete, the fault scarp related
wedge of sediments comprises subaer-
ial and marine debrisow and turbi-
dite deposits (Fig. 9a). The fault
scarps active in the middle Miocene
were exposed near sea level. The
coastal alluvial fan, with its deeper
water facies (Fig. 9b), shows a thick-
ness of more than 250 m.
The clastic wedges of both the
Topolia and the Lissos basin result
from a large number of mass ows
episodes (Fig. 10), with multi-point
41
Evolution of detachment-related Miocene half-graben basins M. Seidel et al. Terra Nova, Vol 19, No. 1, 3947
.............................................................................................................................................................
(a) Fig. 5 (a) Schematic block diagram visu-
alizing the structure of the Topolia basin
in the middle Miocene, the drainage
basin and the depositional features of
the alluvial fans dominated by debris-
ow processes. The fault-scarp of a
major normal fault separates the hang-
ingwall block (basin oor) from the
footwall block (mountain range) from
which the clastic sediments were derived
(catchment area). (b) Simplied vertical
sections of the Topolia alluvial fan
complex depicting facies and stratigra-
phy for: (A) a radial cut; (B) a proximal
cross-fan cut; (C) a distal cross-fan cut.

(b)
sources leading to numerous coales-
cing alluvial fans and fan-delta lobes
respectively. The interngering sedi-
mentary facies and the internal struc-
ture of the deposits lead to
characterization as alluvial fan, sub-
marine steep-faced slope and basin-
plain environments (Figs 11 and
12a,b), with typical features of a
slope-type fan delta (e.g. Westcott
and Ethridge, 1980; McPherson et al.,
1987; Choe and Chough, 1988; Ne-
mec, 1990; Postma, 1990; Prior and
Bornhold, 1990).

Provenance of clasts
Careful eld investigations and the
microscopic examination in thin sec-
tions of more than 250 samples have
shown that the components of the
breccio-conglomerates are exclusively
derived from the non-metamorphic
tectonic units atop the Cretan detach-
ment fault. Predominant clasts are
lagoonal limestones, biomicrites, bio-
sparites, slightly recrystallized lime-
stones, dolomitic limestones,
dolomites and dedolomites with
microfacies and fossil assemblages
corresponding to members of the
Tripolitza Unit. Minor clasts of radi-
olarites, micritic limestones with radi-
olarians (pelagic limestones),
calcarenites (turbiditic limestones),
sandstones and limestones with chert
are probably derived from the Pindos
Unit. The same holds for mm-sized
clasts made up of quartz, phyllosili-
cates and epidote or fragments of
metamorphic rocks (Cretaceous and
Paleogene ysch in the Pindos unit). A
few fragments of marble (Seidel, 2003)
Fig. 6 Huge clast (between the white arrows) in a matrix-rich debrisow deposit. The possibly represent the Uppermost
dimensions of the clast are c. 105 65 cm. Topolia gorge, roadside, c. 50 m south of Unit, situated atop the Pindos unit
the trac lights at the southern entrance of the tunnel. and otherwise not preserved in

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Terra Nova, Vol 19, No. 1, 3947 M. Seidel et al. Evolution of detachment-related Miocene half-graben basins
.............................................................................................................................................................
contact of both units is suggested by
the map scale structure (see Figs 3 and
4). Also, an unequivocal undisturbed
sedimentary contact between the brec-
cio-conglomerates and underlying
rocks of the Tripolitza Unit was not
identied. At the western ank of cape
Elides, west of Lissos, the basin lls
cover Cretaceous dolomites and lime-
stones with rudists, probably part of
the Tripolitza Unit. It cannot be
excluded that the Cretaceous rocks
represent huge olistholites (cf. Fig. 9a,b),
however.
Aubouin and Dercourt (1965) re-
Fig. 7 Two intercalations (white arrows) of sand- to mudstone beds (lithied port that they nowhere observed a
dolomite sands) in conglomerates of the Topolia alluvial fan complex, Topolia sedimentary contact between the brec-
gorge. Hammer for scale. cio-conglomerates and the Phyllite
Quartzite Unit; these authors describe
the contact as a fault zone. Kopp and
Richter (1983) propose that the basin
lls together with the Tripolitza and
the Pindos Unit were thrust onto the
PhylliteQuartzite Unit. In the scope
of actual tectonic models, the fault
zone between PhylliteQuartzite Unit
and the upper non-metamorphic
units, including the basin lls, is inter-
preted as a low-angle normal fault. In
the present study, the contact between
the breccio-conglomerates and the
PhylliteQuartzite Unit was found to
be always tectonic, either a subhori-
zontal fault plane (interpreted as a
Fig. 8 Sketch visualizing the diagenetic evolution of the Topolia alluvial fan complex,
showing a cross-section and an enlarged vug. The diagenetic history is deduced from low-angle normal fault) or a steeper
combined electron microprobe analysis and cathodoluminescence microscopic and younger normal fault.
observations. The dierent cement generations reect changes in the diagenetic
environment. Stage A: Meteoric-vadose stage during sedimentation. Debrisows are Characteristics of the fault contacts
triggered by heavy rainfalls. Meteoric water migrates into the sediments of the with the lower tectonic units
subaerial alluvial fan. First generation of calcite cement is precipitated, represented by
(micro-)stalactitic cement at the lower side of the clasts and meniscus cement in Where ever observed in tectonic con-
between the clasts. At this stage, the ground water table is below the base of the tact with the breccio-conglomerates,
Topolia alluvial fan complex, and compaction of the sediment commences. Stage B: the rocks of the PhylliteQuartzite
Meteoric-phreatic stage during burial. Sea level rises in the late Tortonian. Ground Unit are brecciated. The brecciated
water, possibly mixing with sea water, percolates into the sediment. The second zone reaches a thickness of tens of
generation of calcite cement precipitates. It is enriched in Mn and Fe (indicating meters, with a structure resembling
reducing conditions). Phase C: Meteoric-vadose stage at the onset of uplift. Oxygen that of exploded rocks described by
rich meteoric-vadose water starts to predominate, leading to precipitation of the third Coney (1980) as characteristic of the
generation of calcite cement, which is only locally developed. Phase D: Meteoric tectonically crushed material at
vadose stage during main stage of uplift with erosion and carstication. The lithied detachment zones in the Cordilleran
sediment is subject to erosion. Rivers cut deep valleys into the fanglomerates. Vadose metamorphic core complexes of
silt is washed into the vugs and covers the latest cement generation.
North America. Another typical fea-
ture of the detachment breccia is the
ferruginous alteration (Coney, 1980;
Davis and Hardy, 1981), with frac-
western Crete. The most important ture- and vug-lling iron oxides. In
Basal deposits and contacts to the
outcome of the provenance study is western Crete, the iron oxides in the
underlying units
that clasts derived from the HP-LT detachment breccia formed at low
metamorphic units below the detach- The contact between the Miocene temperatures of c. 35 C (Seidel,
ment fault are systematically lacking breccio-conglomerates and the Pindos 2003; Seidel et al., 2005) at a very late
in the Miocene breccio-conglomerates Unit is covered by debris or tectoni- stage. Limonite clasts in Tortonian
of western Crete. cally obscured, but a sedimentary conglomerates (Kopp and Ott, 1977)

 2006 Blackwell Publishing Ltd 43

Evolution of detachment-related Miocene half-graben basins M. Seidel et al. Terra Nova, Vol 19, No. 1, 3947
.............................................................................................................................................................
(a) Fig. 9 (a) Schematic diagram showing
the middle Miocene half-graben, the
catchment (footwall uplands) and the
depositional features of the coastal allu-
vial fans in the surroundings of Lissos.
The upper parts of the ancient alluvial
fans are dominated by subaerial debris-
ow processes. The lower parts reveal a
variety of submarine slope processes,
including slides, debrisows and turbid-
ity currents. (b) Simplied radial cross-
section of Lissos slope-type fan delta
illustrating the dierent depositional
settings and facies types. Coarse detritus
(rockfall and debrisow deposits) is
deposited predominantly in proximal
areas, near to the steep-faced slope
formed by a fault scarp exposed at sea
level. Slides within the unlithied sedi-
(b)
ments have destroyed the primary struc-
tures at places. At some locations,
olistoliths caused by long-lasting sli-
ding processes on the surface of the
gentle inclined lower slope are embed-
ded in the ne-grained distal turbidite
successions.

give evidence of a pre-Tortonian

genesis of the massive iron-
oxyhydroxides.

Tectonic model
A simple tectonic model for the evo-
lution of western Crete between c. 20
and 10 Ma and the related half-gra-
bens are shown in Fig. 13. During
progressive crustal extension, caused
by rollback of the subducting plate,
strain became localized into a low-
angle normal detachment fault cutting
through the nappe pile down to a
depth of more than 30 km. At some
stage during progressive extension, the
hangingwall to the low-angle detach-
ment fault underwent minor
stretching, leading to the formation
of WE-trending half-grabens lled by
coarse-grained clastic sediments. As
shown by the spectrum of clastic
components, exclusively rocks of the
upper tectonic units constituting the
hangingwall to the low-angle normal
fault were subject to erosion at that
stage, while the HP-LT metamorphic
lower tectonic units in the footwall of
the detachment fault were not yet
exposed in the source area. Today, in
places, the Neogene clastic sediments
Fig. 10 Lithied debrisow deposit near Lissos. The grain size of the clasts is highly deposited in the half-grabens rest
variable; bedding and a preferred orientation of the clasts are not discernible; the immediately on HP-LT metamorphic
debrisow is matrix-rich. rocks of the PhylliteQuartzite Unit

44  2006 Blackwell Publishing Ltd

Terra Nova, Vol 19, No. 1, 3947
.............................................................................................................................................................
Fig. 11 Vertical log through a ne-grained sequence of the submarine part of the
Lissos fan delta, recorded at the western ank of cape Elides. The column shows a
number of ning upward sequences, partly succeeded by limestones or mudstones.
(stage 3 in the tectonic model in
Fig. 13). The tectonic contact devel-
oped in the nal stage of extension
when the hangingwall to the low-angle
detachment fault had been extremely
thinned and disintegrated, and the
HP-LT metamorphic units of the
footwall became exposed. In their
recent study on the evolution of the
 2006 Blackwell Publishing Ltd
M. Seidel et al. Evolution of detachment-related Miocene half-graben basins
Neogene basins in the area of Crete,
van Hinsbergen and Meulenkamp
(2006) arrive at similar conclusions
on the tectonic processes.
Conclusions
The lower to middle Miocene basins
in western Crete developed as half-
grabens by disintegration of the hang-
ingwall to the low-angle normal fault,
referred to as Cretan detachment. The
characteristic basin-and-range-type
structure is dominated by subparallel
fault-block mountains separated by
broad alluvium lled half-grabens. At
the time of deposition of the breccio-
conglomerates, the bounding normal
faults did not cut through the detach-
ment fault; the HP-LT metamorphic
lower tectonic units were not yet
exposed at the surface and subject to
erosion. This is demonstrated by the
clastic components being exclusively
derived from the non-metamorphic
upper tectonic units in the hanging-
wall of the detachment fault. The
Miocene clastic sediments and the
exhumed HP-LT metamorphic units
were juxtaposed later along normal
faults active during progressive hori-
zontal extension.
Acknowledgements
The nancial support by the Deutsche
Forschungsgemeinschaft (grants SE 282/
15, STO 196/14, PP 1006-ICDP) and the
University of Cologne is gratefully
acknowledged. We thank Prof. G. Kosta-
kis and E. Mistakidou (Technical Univer-
sity of Chania) for technical support and
Prof. G.H. Davis (University of Arizona)
for reprints.
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Received 10 October 2005; revised version
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