ABSTRACT

For large (500 MW and above) turbo-generator excitation systems, the direct
current required by the rotating field winding increases considerably (up to 10 KA or
so). In such cases, the brush-gear design becomes more complicated and the
reliability of the turbo generator operation decreases. The only promising solution of
feeding the field winding of large turbo generators is the brushless excitation system.
In view of its many advantages, the brushless excitation system is employed in almost
all large turbo generators being designed and manufactured these days.

The Automatic voltage regulator (AVR) is an essential part of the operation of

a modern electrical power system. It is at the heart of the excitation control systems
around which the remaining equipment operates. The central function of the AVR is to
maintain constant generator terminal voltage under conditions of changing load.
There are, however, a number of other functions which are required from the AVR, if
a large generator is to operate satisfactorily under all operational conditions.

The rapid developments in the field of semiconductor technology brought

about the introduction of the transistor amplifier and the thyristor output amplifier,
which have increased the speed of response and improved the overall system
performance. Subsequently, the discrete component operational amplifier has been
replaced by integrated circuit equivalents.

This work will address the features in new excitation control which ensure a
desired performance to a specific plant.

Keywords: turbo generator, brushless excitation system, Automatic voltage

regulator (AVR), Semiconductor technology.

1
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
ABSTRACT

CHAPTER 1 4
OVERVIEW OF NTPC

CHAPTER 2 19
SYNCHRONOUS MACHINES THEORY
2.1 Elementary Concepts 20
2.2 Elementary Synchronous Machines 20
2.3 Brief Constructional Details Of Synchronous Machines 23
2.3.1 Thermal Station 23
2.3.2 Hydro Electric Station 23
2.3.3 Diesel Run Generators 23
2.4 Turbo-Generators 24
2.5 Hydro Generators 26
2.6 Complete Phasor Diagram Of Cylindrical Rotor Synchronous Generator 26
2.7 Operating Charts For Large Generators 28
2.7.1 Turbo-Generator Chart 28

CHAPTER 3 34
EXCITATION SYSTEMS FOR SYNCHRONOUS MACHINES
3.1 D.C. Exciters 35
3.2 Static Excitation 36
3.3 Brushless Excitation 37
3.3.1 The Pilot Exciter 38
3.3.2 The Main Exciter 39
3.4 Brushless Excitation System For 500MW 41
3.4.1 Brushless Excitation 41
3.4.2 Design Features 41
3.4.3 Rectifier Wheels 42
3.4.4 3-Phase Main Exciter 42
3.4.5 3-Phase Pilot exciter 43
3.4.6 Cooling Of Exciter 43
3.4.7 Measuring & supervisory systems 43

CHAPTER 4 54
THE VOLTAGE REGULATOR
4.1 Historical Review 55
4.2 System Description 56
4.3 The Regulator 57
4.4 Auto Follow-up Circuit 58
4.5 Manual Follow-up 58
4.6 Balance Meter 58
4.7 AVR Protection 59
4.8 Thyristor Converter Protection 59

2
 4.9 Fuse Failure Detection Unit 60
4.10 The Digital AVR 60
4.11 Machine Directly Connected To An Infinite Busbar 61
4.12 Machine Connected To An Infinite Busbar Through A Generator Transformer
65
4.13 Exact Construction For Action Of An AVR 66
4.14 The AVR In The Control Of Steady State Stability 67
4.15 The Main Advantages of DAVR 71
4.15.1 The DAVR has the following functions 71
4.15.2 V / Hz Limiter 72
4.15.3 Field Current Maximum Limiter 72
4.15.4 Inductive Stator Current Limiter 72
4.15.5 Capacitive Current Limiter 73
4.15.6 Load Angle Limiter 73
4.15.7 Adaptive Power System Stabilizer (PSS) 73
4.16 Excitation System 75
4.16.1 Pulse Generation And Amplification 75
4.16.2 Thyristor Bridge 76
4.16.3 Monitoring and Protection 76
4.17 DAVR Operation 76

CHAPTER 5 81
THE POWER SYSTEM STABILISER 81
5.1 Basic Concepts 82
5.2 Principles Of PSS Operation 83

CONCLUSION 85

BIBLIOGRAPHY 87

APPENDIX 89
APPENDIX - A 90
LIST OF SYMBOLS
APPENDIX B 92
LIST OF FIGURES

3
 CHAPTER 1
OVERVIEW OF NTPC

4
 CHAPTER 1

OVERVIEWOF NTPC

NTPC - THE NUMERO UNO POWER UTILITY

Powering Indias Growth

National Thermal Power Corporation (NTPC Ltd.), Indias largest

power generating company with an installed capacity of 26,404MW has been

marching ahead in its mission of providing reliable and quality power to the
nation. Setup in 1975 as a central power utility to establish large power
generating station that can keep pace with the fast growing energy demand,
today, by contributing over 28% of the nations total power generation, NTPC
lights up every fourth bulb in the country.
A prime mover of power development in the country, it has earned
laurels for project implementation, operation and maintenance, which stand at
par with international standards. In a remarkable achievement, the recently
concluded Business Today-Hewitt associate best employers survey 2006
ranked NTPC the third best among 220 major companies. Powered by a
committed and dedicated workforce of over 23,000, the corporations
continuous efforts to augment its installed capacity and improve manpower
utilization have been its Man-MW ratio improves consistently.
From a mere 1.22 billion units of power generation in 1982-83, the
company reached 170.88 billion units in 2005-06. Its financial record of
accomplishment speaks volumes of the success of the corporation in the
infrastructure sector. NTPC has maintained an unbeaten record of profitability
since start of its operations. The company registered a sales turnover of
Rs.287507 million during 2005-06 and recorded a profit of Rs. 58202 million.
NTPC has forayed in the Hydro sector in a big way. The corporation is
already executing 800 MW Koidam Hydro Power Project in Himachal Pradesh.
Feasibility and detailed project report for 600 MW Loharinag pala and 520MW
Tapovan Vishnugad Hydro Project in Uttaranchal is underway.

5
 As part of growth strategy for business development, NTPC has entered
into new areas of power distribution, power trading, mining, joint ventures etc.
NTPC is committed to achieve the status of 75,000 MW plus company by the
year 2017, integrating its long-term strategy with the ninth, tenth and eleventh
five-year plants. Firm in its commitment, NTPC is playing a pivotal role in
powering Indias growth.
NTPC has power generating capacity in all the four major regions of the
country. NTPCs first coastal based thermal power project, Simhadri Thermal
Power Project is providing power in plenty to beneficiary to state Andhra
Pradesh.

THE EMERGING NEW FORCE ON INDIAS POWER HORIZON

Setting a New Benchmark
Crowning NTPCs superlative saga of power, Simhadri Thermal Power
Project comes alive on the power map of the country. Spread over an area of
3,384 acres near Paravada in Visakhapatnam District of Andhra Pradesh, the
1000MW Simhadri Thermal Power Project has two units of 500MW capacity
each. Racing against time in project implementation, the Simhadri Thermal
Power Project has set a new benchmark for green-field project of this size and
earned the distinction of being the only power project in the country to
commission the first 500MW unit in record time of 39 months from the date of
main plant order, a feat that will probably remain unsurpassed. The entire
power generated from this power station will be supplied to Andhra Pradesh
State Electricity Board had signed a Power Purchased Agreement with NTPC
on February 4, 1997. The Simhadri Thermal Power Project is providing
bountiful power to Andhra Pradesh.

6
UNIQUE FEATURES
Simhadri Thermal Power Project has many firsts
The Simhadri Thermal Power project is the first coastal coal fired
thermal power project of NTPC.
The biggest intake well in the country has been installed inside the Bay
of Bengal to draw seawater for use in CW system as make up water.
Two Natural Draft Cooling Towers of 165 Mtrs height each are the
biggest in Asia and sixth biggest in the world.
First coal-based project of NTPC from which entire power is allocated
to the home state.
Simhadri project has created new benchmark of excellence by
commissioning the first 500 MW units in 39 months and second 500
MW units in 45 months.
The most modern project in India having the state of the art control and
instrumentation system.

PROJECT LOCATION
Where Past Glory Turns into a Powerful Future
Paravada mandal in Visakhapatnam District has the pride of being the
location for Simhadri Thermal Power Project. The project is approximately 40
km from Visakhapatnam City and is approachable by NH-5 via Elamanchilli -
Visakhapatnam road and further from Paravada to Vadacheepurupalli by road.
The nearest railway station is Duvvada on the Howrah - Chennai main line.

GENESIS
Down Memory Line
The project name Simhadri comes from Simhadri, the hill top temple
of Lord Varaha Lakshmi Narasimha Swamy, which is 16 km from
Visakhapatnam. The project was originally conceived by the erstwhile Andhra
Pradesh State Electricity Board, which submitted a feasibility report to the
CEA in March 1994. Subsequently, the Government of Andhra Pradesh

7
entrusted the project to NTPC. After completing the topographical survey, geo-
technical investigation, demography and socio-economic surveys, NTPC
obtained techno-economic clearance from the CEA in September 1996. The
Public Investment Board of Government of India gave its approval for the
project in July 1997.

A CHALLENGE TURNS INTO MEGA REALITY

A Dream Come True
Setting up of the Simhadri Thermal Power Project, a fast-track project,
has been a daunting task. A total of 3,384 acres of land has been acquired for
construction of this project. A great deal of courage to take bold decisions,
transform concepts into real tasks, sound material, contractual, financial and
man power management helped in commissioning the project well ahead of
schedule.
For achieving speedy implementation, NTPC adopted a unique
packaging concept at the project. The entire project works were executed under
12 packages as compared to earlier concept of 45 to 48 packages. The main
plant turnkey contract was awarded to Bharat Heavy Electricals Ltd., in
November 1998. The scope of the main plant turnkey contract include design
manufacturing, engineering, civil construction, erection, testing and
commissioning.
The massive task of installation of the project started with site leveling
works on December 6, 1998. The site leveling involved massive earth filling to
the tune of more than 82 Lakh Cubic Mtr, which was completed in 16 months
against a schedule of 17 months. This is the first coastal based green-field
project, where additional works were required to be done due to massive earth
filling and deeper foundations as well as preparing of structural designs that
were suited for high wind zone and saline atmosphere to give protection for
various structures, piping and equipment.
The entire construction, erection and commissioning works have been
executed ensuring quality and efficiency. As the works progressed, the project

8
has set new benchmarks in project implementation by achieving several major
milestones well ahead of schedule. One of the major milestone achievements is
Unit-I boiler light up on November 6, 2001 in 35 months, which was national
record.
The bigger intake well has been constructed offshore of the Bay of Bengal
for drawing sea water for using in the CW system for condenser cooling as make
up water. A 275 Mtr tall chimney, which has been built for wide dispersal of flue
gases, is now towering over the area. Two natural draft cooling towers with a
height of 165 Mtr, which are the biggest in Asia and the sixth biggest in the
World, have been constructed. Synchronisation of the first 500 MW Unit in a
record time of 39 months is a challenge turned into mega reality through hard
work, innovation, determination and courage in the face of odds for the entire
NTPC team. Today, the project stands as a mammoth power complex.

PROJECT COST & FINANCING

Value for Money
The Simhadri Thermal Power Project is being constructed at a cost of
Rs.3650.79 Crore. The project is being financed with debt equity ratio of 70:30
and it is funded to a large extent by Japanese Bank for International Co-operation
(JBIC ) loan of 65.168billion Japanese yen in four tranches (First tranche 19.817
billion Japanese Yen. Second tranche 12.194 billion Japanese Yen and third
tranche of 27.473 billion Japanese Yen) equivalent to 2,250 Crore and the
balance funds have been arranged by NTPC through internal resources and
market borrowings.

COAL LINKAGE & TRANSPORTATION

Fuel System
The primary fuel of coal for the project is being sourced from Talcher of
Mahanandi Coalfields in Orissa. 5.79 million tones of coal would be required
annually for the project. The coal will be moved to the project site by the rail

9
route from Talcher in Orissa through Talcher Sambalpur - Titlagarh
Vizianagaram - Visakhapatnam route.
Construction of railway siding with associated rail line have already been
completed well in advance. The first phase of railway siding of 21 km length
with the take off point at Duvvada Railway Station has been completed. The
railway siding has an improved track structure. The project has also started
receiving coal at the site from December 12, 2001 itself much before
synchronisation of the units. Coal Handling plant, coal conveyor system, coal
mills etc., have been made ready to achieve coal firing immediately after
synchronization. The second phase of the railway siding will be connected with
the siding line of Visakhapatnam Steel Plant at Jaggayapalem which is 5.6 km
from Duvvada.

SEA WATER FOR CW SYSTEM

Harnessing Natures Bountry
For the first time in the history of NTPC, sea water, which is available in
abundance, is being used for cooling water requirements. A closed loop cycle
cooling water system using seawater for make up water is implemented at
Simhadri.
Seawater is drawn from an intake well pump house constructed at 700 Mtr
offshore of Bay of Bengal. The intake well is located at Tikkavanipalem about 5
km from the plant site. Two pumps with a Capacity of 9100 cubic Mtr per hour
(one working & one standby) to meet the make up water requirement for 2 X 500
MW units have been installed. This is the biggest intake well in the country,
which is constructed using the unique Caision Well sinking technology. A 700
Mtr long approach jetty from the shore to intake well has been constructed to
connect the pump house.
Make-up water from the seawater intake pump shall be pumped to the
desilting basin in the plant through two pipelines of 1300 NB each and clear
water from the de-silting basin will be further taken to CW pump house through
intake channel by gravity. The most important aspect of seawater pipes is that

10
these pipes are protected from corrosion and degradation by coating with
polyurethane. The requirement of seawater for make up would be 9100 cubic Mtr
per hour.

SWEET WATER REQUIREMENT

The Vital Element
Sweet water requirement for boilers and other plant equipment as well as
drinking water shall be met from Yeleru main canal, which is about 11 km from
the main plant. Sweet water pump house has been constructed near Tadi village
to pump fresh water from Yeleru canal. Sweet water will be drawn by gravity to
the de-silting basin and into the pump house. As the Yeleru canal would be
closed for carrying out the annual maintenance work, as in-plant reservoir
equivalent to two months of sweet water requirement has been constructed in the
plant area. The approximate fresh water requirement is 600 cubic metre per hour.

ASSOCIATED TRANSMISSION NETWORK

Reaching Out
Power will be evacuated from the station through 400 KV double circuit
lines of APTRANSCO. From the Simhadri Thermal Power Station power is
being evacuated to Vizag pooling Sub-station at Kalapaka, which is the biggest
in Asia. Further it is being evacuated through 400 KV double circuit Vizag -
Vemagiri- Nunna line of approximately 390 km and 400 KV double circuit
Vizag Khammam -Hyderabad line of approximately 590 km.

ENVIRONMENT MANAGEMENT
Clean Power, Green Power
NTPC being the largest power utility in the country shares the concern for
environmentally sustainable growth of the sector. Every aspect of environmental
protection has been considered and optimum solutions arrived in the
implementation of the project. A Closed Cycle Cooling System has been
installed to cut down thermal pollution. Electrostatic precipitators with over

11
99.91 percent efficiency have been installed to minimise the discharge of ash into
the atmosphere. The balance flue will be discharged into a very tall chimney of
275 metre height for the purpose of dissipation of flue gases and to ensure that
the density of pollutants remain well below the laid down norms.
A separate effluent treatment plant is being constructed for treating and re-
circulation of plant effluent water. About Rs.300 crore is provided for meeting
the environment action plan activities of the project. Ash bricks have been used
extensively in the construction of buildings in the plant and the township. Dry fly
ash evacuation system is being provided to collect dry ash based industries.
Conscious of the need for greening the surrounding NTPC lays great emphasis
on tree plantation in and around the project. A 100 metre white green belt is
being developed around the plant. So far 5 lakh trees have been planted.

12
PROJECT PROFILE
Approved Capacity : 1000 MW (2x 500 MW)
Location : Parawada Mandal,
Visakhapatnam, A.P.
Project Cost : Rs.3650.79 crore
Source of Finance : JBIC loan and internal resources
Fuel Requirement : 5.04Million tones of coal per hour
Mode of Transportation : By rail
Sweet water requirement : 600 cubic meters per hour
Source : Yeleru
Sea water requirement : 9100 cubic mater per hour
Source : Bay of Bengal
Land requirement : 3384 Acers
Main plant turnkey package : Awarded to BHEL November23, 1998
Evacuation : Through 400KV system of TRANSCO
400KV Double circuit Vizag -Vemagiri, Nunna line
400KV Double circuit Vizag - Khammam line
400KV Double circuit Khammam Hyderabad
400KV Double circuit Vizag Gajuwaka(PGCIL)
line.

Commissioning Schedule : 500MW Unit I march 2002

Synchronised on Feb 22, 2002 ahead of schedule

500MW Unit II December 2002

Synchronised on Aug 24, 2002 ahead of schedule

13
14
15
16
17
18
 CHAPTER 2
SYNCHRONOUS MACHINES
THEORY

19
 CHAPTER 2
SYNCHRONOUS MACHINES THEORY

INTRODUCTION
2.1 Elementary Concepts

Faradays law, e = d/dt, describes quantitatively the induction of

voltages by a time varying magnetic field. Electromechanical energy

conversion takes place when change in flux is associated with mechanical
motion. All, generators work on principle that When there is a relative motion
between conductor & magnetic field an emf is induced in the conductor. This is
also called dynamically induced emf & its direction is given by Flemings right
hand rule.
In rotating machines voltages are generated in windings or group of coils by
rotating these windings mechanically through a magnetic field, by mechanical
rotating a magnetic field past the winding, or by designing the magnetic circuit
so that the reluctance varies with the rotation of rotor. By any of these methods
the flux linking of a specific coil is changed cyclically, and a voltage is
generated. A group of such coils interconnected so that their generated voltages
all make a positive contribution to the desired result is called an armature
winding. These coils are wound on iron cores in order that the flux path
through them may be as effective as possible. The magnetic circuit is
completed through the iron of the other machine member, and exciting coils, or
field windings, are placed on that member to act as the primary sources of flux.

2.2 Elementary Synchronous Machines

Preliminary ideas of generator action can be gained by discussing the
armature induced voltage in the very much simplified ac synchronous generator
shown in Fig.1.1. The armature winding, consists of a single coil of N turns, is
indicated in cross section by two coil sides a & -a placed diametrically
opposite narrow slots on the stator. The conductors forming these coil sides are

20
parallel to the shaft of the machine and are connected in series by end
connections which are not shown. The rotor is turned at a constant speed by a
source of mechanical power connected to its shaft. Flux paths are shown by
dotted lines.

Fig.2.1 elementary synchronous generator

The radial distribution of the air gap flux density B is shown in Fig. 2.2a
as a function of space angle around the air gap periphery. The flux-density
wave of practical machines can be made to approximate a sinusoidal
distribution by properly shaping the pole face. As the rotor revolves, the flux
waveform sweeps by the coil sides a & -a. The resulting coil voltage
(Fig.2.2b) is a time function having the same waveform as the spatial
distribution B. The coil voltage passes through a complete cycle of values for
each revolution of the 2-pole machine of Fig.2.1. Its frequency in cps is same
as the speed of the rotor in rps i.e., the electrical frequency is synchronized
with the mechanical speed, and this is the reason for designation synchronous
machine.

21
 When a machine has more than 2 poles, it is convenient to concentrate
on a single pair of poles and to recognize that the electric, magnetic, and
mechanical conditions associated with every other pole pair are repetitions of
those for the pair under consideration. For this reason it is convenient to
express angles in electrical degrees or electrical radians rather than in
mechanical units. One pair of poles in a p- pole machine or one cycle of flux
distribution equals 360 electrical degrees or 2 electrical radians. Since there
are P/2 complete wavelengths or cycles in one complete revolution, it follows
that

e is angle in electrical units.

m is mechanical angle.
The coil voltage of a P-pole machine passes through a complete cycle
every time a pair of pole sweeps by, or P/2 times each revolution. The
frequency of the voltage wave is therefore

Synchronous generators are 3-phase machines, because of the

advantages of 3-phase systems for generation, transmission, and heavy-power
utilization. An elementary 3-phase 2-pole machine with 1 coil per phase is
shown in fig. 2.3a. The 3 phases are designated by letters a, b and c.

22
2.3 Brief Constructional Details Of Synchronous Machines
The synchronous generators may be classified according to the prime
mover use.

2.3.1 Thermal Station

Here high speed steam turbines are used. Therefore the generators are
named as turbo generators (non-salient pole rotor).

2.3.2 Hydro Electric Station

Here generators are driven by low speed hydraulic turbines, they are
named as hydro generators. (salient pole rotor).

2.3.3 Diesel Run Generators

Diesel engine driven generators running at 1500 rpm with 4-poles are
used for particular application such as theatres, hospitals etc. where the power
capacity is only few KVA.
In all ac machines, the armature winding is provided in stator member
and field system is provided on the rotor member. The use of a rotating field
system is almost universal, since it permits stationary armature on which the
windings are more readily braced and insulated for high voltages, while slip-
rings carrying large currents at high potential differences are avoided. Field

23
winding on the rotor makes it light and therefore low centrifugal force & higher
rotor speeds are possible and higher outputs are achieved. Stationary armatures
can be covered more effectively than a rotating one. The dc excitation for the
field system, of course, requires a pair of slip-rings but the power involved is
small.

2.4 Turbo-Generators
The ratings are as high as 1000MW at 3000 rpm for 50Hz. In India
500MVA at 3000 rpm are adopted. All 3 generators are star connected with
armature winding on stator and field winding on the rotor. The stator winding
are of double layer & chorded to reduce harmonics. The phase spread is 60
electrical degrees. With large turbo-generators the armature mmf may reach
300KAt/pole & thus to avoid high core & tooth saturation a long air gap is
necessary (100mm or more in 500MVA machine).
For turbo alternators the electric & magnetic loading is high. The
diameter of rotor is about 1.2m producing a peripheral speed of 188.5 m/s at
3000rpm & length must be in order of 10mm/MVA. A 500MVA generator thus
have core length of 5m & shaft length of 12m. The outside diameter of stator
core is 3m & outer casing is about 4m.
Through small generators below 500MVA are cooled by forced air, for
generators of capacity 500MVA & above have hydrogen cooling. Hydrogen
cooling is provided since it has several advantages when compared with air.
Use of hydrogen cooling reduces windage loss & noise because of its low
density (about 1/14th of air). It has 14 times specific heat than air & 1.5 times
heat transfer capacity that facilitate quick heat dissipation. It has 7 times greater
thermal conductivity, thus reducing temperature gradient.
If hydrogen air mixture is above 3:1 it does not support combustion. Use
of hydrogen cooling at 1, 2, 3 atm. Absolute can raise the rating of machine by
15%, 30%, 40% respectively.
The I2R loss per unit mass of conductor is about 150 watt/kg in stator &
500 watt/kg in rotor. Rotor bodies are normally machined from single in guard

24
forgings and in largest sizes may have a mass of 100 tons. It may be necessary
to use Nickel, Chrome, and Vanadium steel of ultimate strength 800MN/m2.
Slots are milled axially to 2/3rd pheriphery to achieve field winding of
concentric type distributed over the slots. The rotor coils are made of silver
baring copper strap. The end winding must be contained within end bells. End
bells are made of Austenitic steel of ultimate strength 150 MN/m2 to reduce
rotor flux linkages & protect rotor over hanging cupper against
electromechanical forces.

For stator cold rolled non-grain oriented 3% silicon-steel laminations

(0.35 mm thick) are used. The current is about 20KA requiring several parallel
paths. Each conductor is elaborately sub-divided & transposed so that each
filament occupies all possible position in the slot & this transposition is carried
out 3 times in a turbo-stator to reduce eddy current loss. The conductors are
insulated by mica paper or glass fibre tape with polyester of epoxy bonding to
give mechanical strength.

25
2.5 Hydro Generators
Due to low speed depending on head available, they are multipolar type
that require large diameter rotor and small length. For heads about 300m Pelton
wheel is used. For medium heads (about 100m ~ 200m) Francis turbine is used,
for low heads (below 50m) Kaplan turbine is used.
Both vertical & horizontal shaft designs are employed. But in modern
practice vertical design is more popular. Diameter is increased by spider design
& poles are fitted on it by jolting.

2.6 Complete Phasor Diagram Of Cylindrical Rotor Synchronous

Generator
Let r & XL be the resistance & leakage reactance of armature. Let V be
terminal voltage & be the power factor angle.
: impedance angle = tan-1 (X1/r)
Xs = XL + Xa (/ph)
Zs = (r2+ Xs2 ) ( /ph)
' = impedance (syn.) angle = tan-1 (Xs/r)
= internal phase angle.
The load terminal voltage is taken as reference (vertical) load current I
lags V by where cos is the load power factor. If we add to V, resistance
drop Ir in phase with I & leakage reactance drop IXL leading I by 900 we get Er
(resultant emf). This resultant emf Er is induced due to Fr (resultant mmf in
gap). Fa, armature mmf is always in phase with I and If Fa is subtracted from Fr
we obtain Ff (excitation mmf/rotor mmf). Ef lags behind Ff by 900. Now IXL
drop line is extended to obtain to the length Ef. The vector difference between
Ef & Er is called drop due to armature reaction Ea. Now Ea is shifted to origin,
now we see that the armature current act like magnetizing current & produces
armature reaction drop Ea which lags behind I by 900. Thus Ea may be thought
as due to a drop produced by fictions reactance Xa. The sum Xl & Xa is called
synchronous reactance

26
Fig. 2.5 Complete phasor diagram of cylindrical rotor synchronous generator

27
2.7 Operating Charts For Large Generators
When selecting a large generator the main factor is the rated MVA and
power factor, chosen to suit the expected share of the network load. In design
the greatest allowable stator and rotor currents must also be considered, as
influencing mechanical stresses and temperature-rise. Other factors include
operation at leading power factors, and the general problems of stability. The
limiting parameters in the operation are brought out by means of an operating
chart.
To avoid undue complexity the effects of saturation and of resistance are
neglected, and an unsaturated value of synchronous reactance selected. The
machine is assumed to be connected to infinite bus-bars.

2.7.1 Turbo-Generator Chart

The basis is given in fig.2.5 (a). For a given terminal voltage V and
current I at phase angle (i.e. for a given MVA output) the e.m.f. Et is obtained
by adding IXS to V at 900 to I. For constant current and MVA, IXs is constant
and its locus is a circle with center on the extremity of the voltage vector OV.
Constant excitation implies that the locus of Et is a circle with center O. The
angle between Et and V is the power-angle: is the angle between IXS and a
horizontal line through the extremity of vector OV. Thus Vq is proportional to
the MVA, qp to the MVAr, and Vp to the MW, all to a single scale. The latter
is found from the synchronous reactance: for with zero excitation Et = 0, IXS =
V, I = V/XS and is purely reactive (leading), corresponding to VI vars and VI.
10-6 megavars per phase. For = 900 the static limit of stability is reached, so
that the horizontal through O represents this limit.
The chart, Fig 2.5(b), is drawn for a synchronous reactance of 167 per
cent. For zero excitation the current is 100/167 = 60 per cent of full-load value,
representing therefore 60 per cent of full-load MVA in the form of leading
MVAr. This fixes all the MVA scales. The vertical OV is drawn and scaled to
60 per cent MVAr, and continued beyond V for lagging MVAr. From V a
horizontal line, similarly scaled, gives power in MW. Circles (full-line) drawn

28
with V as center and similarly scaled as regards radius give stator current in per
cent of full load value. Dotted radii from V indicate power factor values.
Circles of percentage excitation are drawn in chain dotted lines from center O:
100 per cent excitation corresponds to the fixed terminal voltage OV.
It now remains to put in the working area such that any point within it
lies inside the assigned limits of operation. Taking 100 per cent MW as the
maximum allowable power (settled by the prime-mover), a vertical limit-line
spq is inserted through p at 100 per cent MW. It is assumed that the machine is
rated to give 100 per cent MW at power factor 0.9 lagging: this determines
point q. Limitation of the stator current to the corresponding value requires the
limit-line to become the circular arc qn about center V. At n a new limit the
exciting current has to be introduced, and it is assumed that the rotor current
must not exceed that corresponding to an e.m.f. Et = 260 per cent of V. The
circular arc nm is therefore struck from center O at this value of excitation. The
upper limit pqnm is thus completed. The line qp cannot be continued
downwards to the theoretical stability limit because the latter represents a
condition of instability where the smallest increment of load will cause the
machine to fall out of step. A more satisfactory limit is that for which the
loading is, say, 10 per cent less than the theoretical maximum for a given
excitation. Consider point v on the theoretical stability-limit line for 100 per
cent excitation. Reduce Ov to Ow by vw = 10 per cent of the rated MW. Then
wu, cutting the 100 per cent excitation circle at u ,fixes a point for which there
is 10 per cent MW in hand as a safeguard against falling out of synchronism.
The completed working area, shown with a shaded outline, is mnqpsut. A
working point placed within this area at once defines the MVA , MW, MVAr,
current, power factor and excitation. The load angle is found if required by
measurement.

29
30
REACTIVE CAPABILITY CURVE OF 500MW TURBOGENERATOR
AT SIMHADRI

31
32
STATOR

ROTOR

33
 CHAPTER 3
EXCITATION SYSTEMS FOR
SYNCHRONOUS MACHINES

34
 CHAPTER 3
EXCITATION SYSTEMS FOR SYNCHRONOUS MACHINES

INTRODUCTION

In large synchronous machines, the field winding is always provided on

the rotor. In the present article is given a brief account of the various schemes
employed for supplying dc excitation to the field winding of large synchronous
machines. Some of the more important excitation systems are given below:

3.1 D.C. Exciters

This is an old conventional method of exciting the field windings of
synchronous generators. In this method; three machines, namely pilot exciter,
main exciter and the main 3-phase alternator are mechanically coupled and are
therefore driven by the same shaft. The pilot exciter is a dc shunt generator
feeding the field winding of a main exciter. The main exciter is a separately-
excited dc generator. The dc output from the main exciter is given to the field
winding of the main alternator through brushes and slip rings as shown in
Fig.3.1

The conventional method of excitation suffers from cooling and

maintenance problems associated with slip rings, brushes and commutators as
the alternator ratings rise. The trend toward modern excitation systems has
been to decrease these problems by minimizing the number of sliding contacts

35
and brushes. This trend has led to the development of static-excitation and
brushless-excitation systems.

3.2 Static Excitation

In this method, the excitation power for the main alternator field is
drawn from output terminals of the main 3-phase alternator. For this purpose, a
3-phase transformer TR steps full-converter bridge using thyristors. The firing
angle of these thyristors is controlled by means of a regulator which picks up
the signal from alternator terminals through potential transformer PT and
current transformer CT as shown in Fig. The controlled power output from
thyristor unit is delivered to the field winding of main alternator through
brushes and slip rings as shown in fig.3.2.

For initiating the process of static excitation, first of all, field winding is
switched on to the station battery bank to establish the field current in
alternator. The alternator speed is adjusted to rated speed. After the output
voltage from alternator has built up sufficiently, the alternator field winding is
disconnected from battery bank and is switched on to the thyristor bridge
output.
A good number of protection devices are installed in the static excitation
scheme for any possible fault in the excitation system.

36
The advantages of static excitation are as under:
1) The excitation system, with the use of reliable and high-power SCRs, is
simple in design and provides fast response chrematistics as needed in modern
power systems.
2) Since there is no separate rotating-type exciter, the system is free from
friction, windage and commutator loss occurring in the exciter. This makes the
system more efficient and in addition, maintenance is reduced.
3) As excitation energy is taken directly from the alternator terminals, the
excitation voltage is proportional to alternator speed. This improves the overall
system performance considerably.

3.3 Brushless Excitation

This method of excitation is illustrated in Fig.3.3. In this scheme, main
shaft of prime-mover drives pilot exciter, main exciter and the main alternator.
Silicon diode rectifiers are also mounted on the main shaft.
Pilot exciter is a permanent-magnet alternator with permanent-magnet
poles on he rotor and three-phase armature winding on the stator. Three-phase
power from pilot exciter is fed to thyristor controlled bridge placed on the
floor. After rectification, the controlled dc output is supplied to stationary field
winding of main exciter. The three-phase power, developed in the motor of
main exciter is fed through hollow shaft to the main alternator field without
brushes and slip rings.
A signal, picked from alternator terminals through CT and PT, controls
the firing angle of thyristor bridge. This enables the control of field current of
the main exciter which eventually governs the alternator output voltage. Since
the scheme depicted in fig.3.3 does not require any sliding contacts and
brushes, this arrangement of exciting the synchronous machine has some to be
called as brushless excitation system.

37
 For large (500 MW and above) turbo-generator excitation systems, the
direct current required by the rotating field winding increases considerably (up
to 10 KA or so). In such cases, the brush-gear design becomes more
complicated and the reliability of the turbo generator operation decreases. The
only promising solution of feeding the field winding of large turbo generators
is the brushless excitation system. In view of its many advantages, the
brushless excitation system is employed in almost all large turbogenerators
being designed and manufactured these days.

3.3.1 The Pilot Exciter

A shaft driven excitation system consists of a main and pilot exciter, the
pilot exciter providing the input power to the AVR. A number of different
types have been developed including salient pole, inductor type homopolar and
heteropolar designs. System requirements for complete independence from
external supplies during black start conditions have led to a trend in favour of
the permanent magnet generator(PMG) pilot exciter design. The salient pole
design has gained favour on all recent 660 MW units.

38
 The salient pole PMG is a three-phase medium frequency machine,
providing an essentially constant voltage supply to the thyristor converter and
AVR control circuits. A typical salient pole PMG is shown on Fig 3.8.
The permanent magnet poles of the generator are manufactured from
high energy material, such as Alcomax. The permanent magnet pieces are
bolted to a steel hub and held in place by pole shoes. The bolts are generally
made from non-magnetic steel to prevent the formation of a magnetic shunt. In
some designs of PMG the pole shoes are also skewed one pole pitch over the
stator length to improve the waveform of the output voltage and reduce
electrical noise.
The stator core is constructed from a slack of low loss sheet steel
laminations, assembled within a fabricated steel frame. Radial and axial
cooling ducts are provided at intervals along the core length to allow cooling of
the core and windings. To facilitate removal, certain designs of pilot exciter can
be split along the horizontal centre line.
The stator winding is a two-layer design, each stator conductor
comprising a number of small diameter copper wires insulated with polyster
enamel. The coils are connected together to give the rated three-phase voltage
output, and insulated with class F(BS5000 Part 2) epoxy glass material.
A steel enclosure is fitted over the PMG stator, which provides
mechanical protection and serves to reduce the medium frequency noise
emitted from the PMG to an acceptable level. Cooling of the PMG is achieved
by drawing air through mesh-covered apertures in the enclosure; the air is then
circulated by the rotor or shaft mounted fans.

3.3.2 The Main Exciter

The main AC exciter is generally of a four or six pole revolving field
construction. The exception is the revolving armature main exciter used in a
rotating rectifier scheme.
The exciter magnetic circuit is designed to operate on or near the
unsaturated part of its characteristic. This preserves a linear relationship

39
between the controlled excitation of the main exciter and the generator slip ring
voltage. The armature is designed for low voltage operation, with
comparatively high current levels. A typical rotating field main exciter
arrangement is shown on Fig 3.6.
The stator core and windings are air cooled, the ventilation circuit being
formed by the end cover and ducting in the stator casing. Thermometers are
fitted to the casing to measure inlet and outlet air temperatures.
The core is constructed from a large number of segmented plates
stamped from core plate material of high magnetic quality and low electrical
loss. Each layer of punchings in the core is made from a number of these
segments, coated with insulating varnish and laid side-by-side to form a circle.
All the joints on adjacent layers are staggered.
The stator winding is of a three-phase, four or six pole design, formed
by copper coils which are contained in conductor slots in the core and retained
in position by insulating slot wedges. Each coil is made from individually
insulated copper strips contained within a moulded insulating tube. To restrict
eddy currents in the coil, the copper strips in each coil are transposed.
The rotor consists of a hollow bored alloy steel forged shaft which
carries the silicon steel lamination forming the rotor core. The rotor core is
generally laminated to reduce poleface losses in the exciter. The reduction of
this loss is important as in the exciter, the ratio of stator slot opening gap length
comparatively large, a short air gap length being necessary to lighten the
burden on the main exciter excitation system. The stator slots form indentations
in the air gap boundary; therefore as the rotor flux moves across the stator teeth
the changing permeance due to the slot openings introduces maximum
frequency pulsations. These pulsations induce harmonic voltages in the surface
of the stator teeth but due to the laminated construction, the resultant losses are
kept to a minimum.
The rotor windings are retained in position by cylindrical rotor end caps.
A fan is mounted on a seating machined in the balance ring to circulate cooling

40
air. At the exciter out board end, two slipring units are connected to the
endwinging, via radial connections and upshaft leads.

3.4 Brushless Excitation System For 500MW

The functions of an excitation system are
1. To control the voltage of operation near steady state stability limit
2. To regulate voltage under fault conditions
3. To facilitate reactive power load sharing between generators.

3.4.1 Brushless Excitation

Supply of high currents by means of slip rings involves considerable
operation problems and it requires suitable design of slip rings and brush gear.
In brushless excitation conventional brush gear is eliminated.

3.4.2 Design Features

The exciter consists of
1. Rectifier wheels
2. Three phase main exciter
3. Three phase pilot exciter (PMG)
4. Coolers
5. Measuring & supervisory systems
The 3-phase pilot exciter has a revolving field with permanent magnet
poles. The 3-phase ac generated by the PMG is rectified and controlled by the
DAVR to provide a variable dc current for exciting the main exciter. Three
phase ac induced in the rotor of the main exciter is rectified by the rotating
bridge and is fed to the field winding of the generator through the dc leads in
the rotor shaft.
A common shaft carries the rectifier wheels, rotor of the main exciter
and the permanent magnet rotor of pilot exciter. The shaft is rigidly coupled to
the generator rotor. The exciter shaft is supported on the bearings between the
main exciter and pilot exciters. The generator and exciter are thus supported on

41
3-bearings. The mechanical coupling of the two shafts results in coupling of dc
leads in the central shaft bore through the 'Multikontakt' electrical contact
system consisting of plug in bolts and sockets. this contact system is also
designed to compensate for the length variations of leads due to thermal
expansion.(shown inFig.3.4)

3.4.3 Rectifier Wheels

Diodes are arranged in rectifier wheel in 3-phase bridge circuit. The
arrangement is such that the contact pressure increases by centrifugal force
during rotation. One fuse is provided for two diodes for protection against
device failure. For suppression of voltage peaks arising out of commutation,
each wheel is provided with 6 RC networks in cast resin encapsulated unit. The
two wheels are identical in their mechanical design but for the direction of the
diodes.
The direct current from the rectifier wheels is fed to the dc leads
arranged in the centre bore of the shaft via radial bolts.(shown in Fig.3.5)

3.4.4 3-Phase Main Exciter

The 3-phase main exciter is a 6-pole revolving armature unit. Arranged
in the stator frame are poles with the field and damper winding. The field
winding is arranged on the laminated magnetic poles. At the pole shoe short
circuited bars are provided to form the damper windings. Between two poles a
quadrature axis coil is provided for measurement of exciter current.
The rotor consists of stacked laminations, which are compressed by
through bolts. The 3-phase winding is inserted in slots of laminated rotor. The
end turns winding are secured by steel bands. The winding ends are connected
to a bus ring system to which the 3-phase leads to the rectifier is also
connected. A journal bearing is arranged between main exciter and the pilot
exciter and has forced oil lubrication from the turbine oil supply.(shown in
Fig.3.6,3.7)

42
3.4.5 3-Phase Pilot exciter
The frame accommodates the laminated core with 3-phase winding. The
3-phase pilot exciter has 16 poles. Each pole consists of 12 separate permanent
magnets which housed in a non-magnetic metallic enclosure.(shown in Fig.3.8)

3.4.6 Cooling Of Exciter

The exciter is air cooled. The cooling air is circulated in closed circuit
and re cooled in two cooler sections arranged along the exciter. The main
exciter enclosure receives cool air from the fan after it passes over the pilot
exciter. The air enters the main exciter from both ends and is passed into ducts
below the rotor body and discharged through radial slots in the rotor core to
lower compartment. The warm air is then returned to the main enclosure via the
cooler sections. The rectifier wheel is housed in their own enclosure. It draws
cool air and expels warmed air.

3.4.7 Measuring & supervisory systems

This consists of a) temperature monitoring system, b) Fuse monitoring system,
c) Ground fault detection system d) excitation current measuring device.
(a) Temperature Monitoring System
These monitor the temperature of the cold air after the exciter cooler and
hot air leaving the rectifier wheels and main exciter.
(b) Fuse Monitoring System
The fuses on the rectifier wheels may be checked during operation with
the stroboscope. Separate flash tubes are provided on each wheel enclosure. To
synchronize the flash sequence system frequency is used.
(c) Ground Fault Detection System
Two slip rings installed on the shaft between the main exciter & bearing.
One is connected to the star point of the 3-phase winding of the main exciter
and the other to the frame. These slip rings permit ground fault detection of the
TG rotor -main exciter.

43
(d) Excitation Current Detection Device
The excitation current is measured indirectly through a coil arranged
between two plates of the main exciter. The voltage induced in this coil is
proportional to the excitation current.

44
45
46
Fig.3.6

47
FIG. 3.7

48
Fig. 3.8

49
Fig. 3.9 EXCITATION SYSTEM (BASIC ARRANGEMENT)

50
51
52
53
 CHAPTER 4
THE VOLTAGE REGULATOR

54
 CHAPTER 4
THE VOLTAGE REGULATOR

INTRODUCTION

4.1 Historical Review

Early designs of voltage regulator equipment had a large deadband, were
slow to respond to system changes and required regular maintenance. This was
due mainly to the use of moving mechanical components within the automatic
voltage regulator (AVR). To eliminate these difficulties, AVR systems were
developed which made use of the cross-field generator or amplidyne. The
amplidyne was used as the regulator output stage and controlled the field of the
DC exciter.
The amplidyne and DC exciter were, in turn, superseded by the
magnetic amplifier and AC exciter. In this scheme, the magnetic amplifier was
used as the regulator output stage controlling the main exciter field. The output
stage controlling the main exciter field. The output from the exciter was
rectified by a diode bridge and taken, via slip ring connections, to the generator
field winding. Schemes of this type were successfully employed on all the
CEGB 500 MW generators and continue to provide reliable operation.
The rapid developments in the field of semiconductor technology
brought about the introduction of the transistor amplifier and the thyristor
output amplifier, which have increased the speed of response and improved the
overall system performance. Subsequently, the discrete component operational
amplifier has been replaced by integrated circuit equivalents. A typical modern
dual channel arrangement is shown on Fig.4a
Future developments in the field of AVR design will center around the
use of digital microprocessor techniques. These discrete time controllers offer a
number of potential advantages, most notably the introduction of adaptive
control strategies.

55
4.2 System Description
The AVR is an essential part of the operation of a modern electrical
power system. It is at the heart of the excitation control systems around which
the remaining equipment operates.

Fig.4a

56
 The central function of the AVR is to maintain constant generator
terminal voltage under conditions of changing load. There are, however, a
number of other functions which are required from the AVR, if a large
generator is to operate satisfactorily under all operational conditions.
The CEGB currently specifies dual channel AVR equipment complying
fully with EES 1980 together with manual back-up control on the all 660 MW
plant. This provides maximum reliability as the loss of one channel does not
inhibit operational performance. Facilities are provided to repair the faulty
channel while the generator remains in service. On small gas turbine plant,
single channel AVR equipment is specified.

4.3 The Regulator

The AVR is a closed loop controller which uses a signal proportional to
the generator terminal voltage and compares it with a steady voltage reference.
The difference or error voltage obtained is then used to control the exciter
output.
If the load on the generator changes, the generator terminal voltage also
changes, the error signal. The error is amplified by the regulator and used to
increase or reduce excitation, as necessary to bring the voltage back to its
original value. The needs for a rapid, stable response following such changes is
of paramount importance and, since control systems using such high steady
state gains would rapidly become unstable, special signal conditioning
networks are included. These consist of phase advance and phase lag circuits
which have adjustable time constants at lowing accurate tuning of the voltage
response together, these circuits act as a notched filter, reducing gain at
generator electromechanical oscillation frequencies, whilst permitting the high
gains necessary for accurate voltage control. The setting of the time constants
is of great importance, as transmission system dynamic stability is sensitive to
AVR settings for this reason, sophisticated analytical techniques have been
developed and applied in order to obtain optimal performance.

57
 The AVR accepts the generator terminal voltage signal via its own
interposing voltage transformer. The voltage signal is then rectified and filtered
before being compared with the reference voltage in response to system
requirements.
In addition to the basic voltage control requirement the AVR includes
control loops which perform other vital tasks. These controllers, which include
the MVArs limiter and over fluxing limiter.

4.4 Auto Follow-up Circuit

With a dual channel design, both regulator channels can be active at the
same time, each providing half the total generator excitation requirements. An
alternative arrangement allows for one channel to be active, whilst the other
follows passively. Should a channel bit in either scheme, then the other picks
up the full excitation requirement of the generator in a bumpless manner. This
is achieved using follow-up circuits which track the primary (or active) channel
and drive the standby channel output while a difference exists between the two.

4.5 Manual Follow-up

This is similar to the auto follow-up but is used to adjust the manual
control system in response to automatic channel changes in the event of an
AVR failure, the manual control takes over in a smooth bumpless manner.

4.6 Balance Meter

A balance meter is provided in the power station control room and in the
AVR cubicle. This monitors the difference between the automatic and manual
control output settings. During automatic control, the follow-up circuits ensure
this error is minimal, whereas during manual control no such facility exists to
adjust the AVR, and a large discrepancy can therefore exist. During manual
operation and prior to selection of AVR control, the balance meter is consulted
and an adjustment is made so as to avoid large MVAr disturbance following
control changeover.

58
4.7 AVR Protection
The AVR plays a vital role in the unit overall protection scheme, as it
controls suppression of the generator field after faults. In addition, it is
necessary to protect against AVR component failure which would otherwise
jeopardize generator operation.
The field suppression circuit accepts signals from the main unit overall
protection scheme, in addition to signals from the over voltage and transformer
over fluxing relays. The circuit switches the AVR thyristor converters to their
inversion mode of operation and then trips the excitation.
The over voltage relay monitors the generator terminal voltage and, if it
exceeds a safe level (normally 1.3 pu), the thyristor converter is immediately
switched into the inverting mode, which reduces the field current in minimum
time. This relay is only active during unsynchronized operation.
The over fluxing relay is also only active during unsynchronized
operation, when there is a chance that the generator transformer could be over
fluxed if the safe voltage/frequency ratio is exceeded. A special relay detects
this condition and initiates an alarm. Control loops within the AVR will act to
reduce this to a safe level but, if the condition persists, the thyristor converter is
switched to the inverting mode and the excitation is tripped.
Most faults within the regulator loop give rise to either an over or under
excitation condition. Therefore comparator circuits are used to monitor
regulator and converter bridge input and output levels. Alternatively, a single
comparator monitors the thyristor output current and compares it with
maximum and minimum field current limits allowed. Transiently, these limits
are exceeded during system faults, but the channel is tripped if the condition
persists beyond a few seconds.

4.8 Thyristor Converter Protection

In addition to the above, AVR channels are tripped if any of the
indicator fuses protecting the converter thyristors rupture. The thyristor

59
converter is further protected by a temperature sensing device which operates
in the event of excessive heating.

4.9 Fuse Failure Detection Unit

The regulator relies upon a signal from the generator voltage
transformers for its controlling action. Loss of the signal is due in general to
failure of the fuses in the voltage transformers. A fuse failure detector unit
monitors the the input to each channel and compares it with that of a check or
reference transformer. If a fuse fails in the voltage transformer supplying the
reset voltage, the channel is tripped; a fuse failure in the reference transformer
initiates an alarm.

4.10 The Digital AVR

The rapid development of the microprocessor has brought about the
increased use of digital electronic techniques in a number of industrial control
applications. While the present generation of solid state AVRs meet all existing
CEGB functional requirements, there are advantages to be gained if
microprocessor schemes are considered.
High reliability, which has been a feature of present AVR equipment,
can be expected to improve still further due to the reduction in the number of
components, since much of the control logic, at present carried out by
electromechanical relays, will be software specified. Cost advantages are also
envisaged as standard memory circuits replace the present customized printed
circuit boards. However, the principal motivation lies in the range of
sophisticated controller designs that the microprocessor makes physically
realizable. One class of controller is the adaptive regulator, which (as the name
suggests) is capable of adjusting its structure to take account of changing plant
conditions. This type of regulator, consists of a recursive real-time parameter
estimator (based on a form of least squares structure) which is used to identify
the controlled plant. The estimated plant model is then used by the regulator to
form the control law. A wide choice of regulator/control law designs exists;

60
typical strategies includes pole placement and minimum variance. Both have a
very flexible structure, making it a simple matter to include additional input
signals, such as machine accelerating power (which has been demonstrated to
enhance transmission system dynamic performance), and post-fault recovery.

4.11 Machine Directly Connected To An Infinite Busbar

The term infinite busbar implies that is a bottom less pit for the
receipt or delivery of load under what ever condition of power factor, and that
it maintains a rigid and invariable voltage at all times.
In practice the infinite bus can adequately be regarded as the rest of the
power system beyond the first busbars out from the generator as connected to
this finite busbar by an equivalent impedance (this would be given by
calculating the fault level of this bar to the rest of the system, leaving out of the
local generation , and then converting the fault MVA to an equivalent
impedance )
A generator connected directly to an infinite busbar is considered first,
although this is hypothetical figure 4.1 is a schematic arrangement of the
system.
Considering fig 4.2 if the generator is operating at the loading level
shown with an excitation to given Ef1 and the demand on the machine from the
infinite bus is increased to a higher level constant stator current , but at about
the same MVA The rotor angle will be advanced from 1 to 2 , and the phasor
Ef1 will move along the locus of the circle having OEf1 as radius. The rotor
angle will settle at a value to meet the new power level and, since there can be
no signal from the AVR (because it is connected to the infinite bubar and
,therefore , sees the constant signal proportional to OV ), the new excitation
position Ef2 will lie on the constant excitation locus at a new rotor angle, but be
of the same magnitude as formerly, i.e Ef1, and will, therefore, advance in phase
to 2 .The net effect will be an improvement in power factor and movement of
the machine working point towards the stability limit.

61
 Such an arrangement is unsatisfactory and the regulator in fact performs
no useful function. This is because the system forms an open-ended control
loop since a condition change at the machine causes no change to the busbar
voltage
In order to enable the regulator to perform a useful function , it is
necessary to make the control element of the AVR sensitive to the power
system this is achieved by injecting into the voltage signal an additive voltage

62
proportional to the load current , but in quadrature with it i.e. , the quality
shown as jI in fig4.3 one method would be to inject a sample of the current
from the yellow phase into a resistance R connected in series with the R-B
voltage and the AVR control coil see fig 4.4.

The effect of this is seen in Fig 4.5, whereupon an equivalent voltage of

OV' is then applied to the control coil instead of OV. The magnitude of this
injection jIR will obviously depend upon the secondary current jI and the
resistance R, but a typical value for jIR is about 10% of OV.
Referring to fig 4.6, the AVR will now see an apparent voltage of OV'
and, if the power level is increased by reducing the power factor angle, , the
angle of V= jIR will reduce and OV' will reduce.

63
 This will call for an increase in excitation and the tendency will be to
restore OV' to its original magnitude and the power factor to its former value
.This now forms the basis of a stable system and its action tends to maintain
the machine at a constant power factor .It is, therefore , known as power factor
compensation . The effect to produce an overall drop of the machine terminal
voltage with increase of load, which makes for stable sharing of MVAr
loadings between all the machines connected to one common busbar.

64
4.12 Machine Connected To An Infinite Busbar Through A Generator
Transformer
This is the more practical condition and, in any event, is representative
of a machine operating on an undertaking busbar, which is far from behaving
as an infinite bus because of the impedance between it and the rest of the
system. The operation of the AVR in this case will, therefore, be studied in
more detail .
Referring to fig .4.7 this represents a generator connected to the infinite
busbar through to a system of reactance of Xs which can be the reactance of
the generator transformer or of the inter connecting system.fig.4.8 is the
voltage triangle for the machine operating initially at a power factor 1, a load
current I1, an excitation Ef1 and load angle of 1.The busbar voltage OV is
constant ,this being the infinite bus .

If there is now an increase in power out put by admitting steam to the

generator , I1will advance towards OV and 1will reduce. This will advance Ef1
towards Ef2 on a circle of radius equal to OEf1 , also 1 advances towards 2.
This will cause Et1 to fall towards Et2 and since this is the voltage signal
controlling the AVR, an increase in excitation will be called for. Thus, Ef2 will
now tend to move vertically upwards on the new P2 power line towards Ef3 and
Et2 towards Et3, until Et3 is restored to the same magnitude as Et1 originally.

65
 The combined effect will be for the machine to operate at a higher
power level, slightly higher power factor and at roughly the same rotor angle.
In fact, Ef3 will not settle exactly at the position shown in fig 4.8, nor will Et3,
since an inspection of fig.4.8 will show that ,for the conditions depicted, Et3 is
bigger than Et1.
The AVR acts as a maintainer of rotor angle as well as of busbar voltage
and the former is its more important function .It is this function that makes the
AVR an inseparable companion to the generator on load for stability.

4.13 Exact Construction For Action Of An AVR

Referring to fig 4.9 the original voltage triangle is first constructed and
the two load lines P1&P2 added. The locus of Et is next constructed by drawing
the arc about O with radius equal to OEt1, the setting on the AVR. Since the
ratio of IXt to IXd must be maintained for all working points of the machine (as
Xt/Xd is a constant of the system ), it follows that the new value and position
for Et1 must lie on the arc of radiusOEt1,for Et1 must lie on the arc of radius
OEt1 and locus cd which is parallel to OV and displaced by amount

66
(Oa/Oc=P1/P2).thus a the point Et2 defines the new operating point for the
machine terminal voltage and Ef2 must be the new machine working point in
which , from geometry:

Which, as has previously been stated is a constant (Xt/Xd) is a constant of the

system) Ef2 is fixed by producing VEt2to cut the P2 excitation load line, the inter
section defines Ef2

4.14 The AVR In The Control Of Steady State Stability

It should be noted that presence of the reactance between the terminals
and infinite busbar is almost identical in its effect to the artificially produced
reactance drop. Thus, the presence of a generator transformer, whose
impedance can vary between 12.5% and 16% for the very large machine ,is to
introduce automatically a device to enable the AVR to function as a stable
control system .The effect is identical to that achieved by power factor

67
compensation and when the later is provided with an AVR installation,
particular care should be exercised before including it in the scheme, to avoid
excessive compensation. For large impedance transformer, it may even be
necessary to connect the power factor compensation negatively.
The presence of an AVR not only assists in maintaining steady state
stability , it also aids post-fault stability and makes possible the stable operation
of the machine at large rotor angles in excess of the theoretical stability limit,
i.e., in the unstable or dynamic zone. Tests performed at Stella and Cliff
Quay power stations has shown that stable running up to rotor angles of 120
degrees are possible ,the being set by the response of the exciter-rotor circuit,
rather than the speed of the AVR. Taking into account these factors, the
maximum achievable rotor angle is about 135o.
The manner in which forward rotor angle running is achieved is seen
by referring to fig.4.10, 4.11. Assume that the machine is operating in the
unstable region at power level P1 on the power angle curve for excitation Ef1. If
there is an increase of steam input to P5, the rotor will advance to the point P2 of
electrical power output on the Ef1 power angle curve. This will reduce the
voltage applied to the AVR from Et1 to Et2 and the regulator will then increase
the excitation .If regulator is inadequately damped , there will be an over
shoot. Suppose that the excitation therefore increases to Ef3; then from fig.4.10,
the output electrical power will increase to P3 and be in excess of the steam
input .This will arrest the advance of the rotor, which will then begin to
decelerate along the new Ef3 power angle curve to the point P4, where the
electrical output will increase still further, causing further deceleration. This
will increase the voltage applied to the AVR to Et3,which will then reduce the
excitation to, say, Ef2 and the rotor deceleration will be arrested and come to
rest after several oscillations about point P5 at an excitation Ef2. If the
regulator/machine system well damped, the over shooting and undershooting
described above will be very small, but when the machine is operating at the
limit set by the speed of response of the exciter-rotor circuit in relation to the
mechanical inertia of the complete turbine-generator rotor system, a continuous

68
oscillation can be observed .In fact this is a feature of operation in the unstable
region and at high rotor angles.

69
 A locus can be calculated for the theoretical stability limit as determined
by the exciter-rotor response. It would not be usual, in practice, to operate a
machine in this large rotor angle region, since the reserve in hand against
transient instability is greatly reduced The feature does make possible,
however, the operation of machines at practical limits upto rotor angles of 75o -
80o and this permits the absorption of MVArs at times of high system voltage.
It is a feature which has had increasing use with the development of the 400
KV system, which imposes a capacitative surplus under light-loading
conditions.

70
4.15 The Main Advantages of DAVR
Automatic diagnosis, i.e. internal condition monitoring and fault detection.
Set values are digital, hence absolutely reproducible and not there is
no drift -long time stability
Reduced module diversity
Comprehensive measuring and setting possibilities
User friendly and easy adaptation to customers requirements

4.15.1 The DAVR has the following functions

Voltage regulation - which is responsible for the machine dynamic
response.
Firing pulse generation
Protection & control
Monitoring the system as whole
The digital regulator periodically calculates the control signal from
measured & reference values. This calculation is repeated at every short time
intervals approx. 3.38 ms. the calculation is done in binary system. Therefore
the analog measured values viz. generator voltage, current, field current should
be transformed in A/D converter into binary signal.
The AVR action is to keep the generator in the specified region of
operation in the capability curve.
The central PID filter in the digital voltage regulator defines the
dynamic response of the closed loop controls both in the voltage regulator
mode and after the limiters have intervened. With exception of minimum field
current limiter, all other limiters have variable multiplier settings so that they
can be adjusted individually.
To compensate for the voltage drop in the GT, the generator voltage
must be varied in proportion to the measured generator current (droop
influence). To accomplish this, the voltage set point is varied as a function of
the measured reactive current IX.

71
 A soft start feature ensure voltage ramp up. The voltage set point is
integrated from 0% to 100% with in a time set when the excitation is switched
on.
Voltage set point: The normal operating range possible for set point
adjustment can set by software switches, usually between 90-110%. The set
point can be varied within this region by the operator. A follow up logic control
logic ensures that a smooth switch over to the Stand by Auto channel will
always be possible from the operating channel.

4.15.2 V / Hz Limiter
At under frequency, the V/Hz limiter reduces the generator voltage so as
to prevent saturation effects. When under frequency occurs, the generator
voltage is reduced in proportion to that setting.

4.15.3 Field Current Maximum Limiter

Field current maximum limiter is provided to protect the generator rotor
from over currents occurring in steady state and transient operation. High field
currents are normally the result of sharp rise drop in network voltage or
improper rising of set point by the operator. The field current will be held
steady at the maximum permissible value for the excitation circuit and the
rotor. The switch back to the thermal limit is based on the time integral of the
excitation current. The cool down time can also be defined through parameters.

4.15.4 Inductive Stator Current Limiter

The inductive stator current holds the stator current Ig within permissible
limits while the generator is in the over excited condition. This limiter prevents
the static over currents. The principle of operation of this limiter is similar to
the rotor over load limiter. When the turbine output is high, stator current may
exceed permissible limits even when the inductive currents are low. In this case
the stator current limiter is kept from influencing, to prevent the possibility of
oscillating back and forth between the inductive and capacitive current limiters.

72
4.15.5 Capacitive Current Limiter
The capacitive current limiter holds the stator current with in
permissible when the generator is underexcited.

4.15.6 Load Angle Limiter

The load angle limiter prevents the synchronous machine from slipping
out of synchronism. The load angle () is the difference in phase angle between
the rotor and the stator rotating fields. This is the result of driving torque
(active power P) acting on the generator and the level of rotor current. If the
driving torque remains constant, a increase in field current will result in
reduction in load angle. The load angle is calculated from generator voltage
and current from a simplified model of the generator. When this calculated
value exceeds the preset value (750), the limiter increases the field current until
the load angle drops to permissible limit value.

4.15.7 Adaptive Power System Stabilizer (PSS)

The purpose of power system stabilizer is to use the generator excitation
to damp the electromechanical oscillations between the network and the
generator. In order to damp these oscillations a damping torque has to be
produced depending difference in frequency (df) between the rotor and the
stator rotating field, i.e., on the slip frequency. This torque is produced mainly
by the damper windings in the rotor. Due to limitations imposed by economy,
on the size of the damper windings, further action is therefore needed to
increase the damping effect.
Simplified formulae for active power

It can be seen that the active power of the generator transfers depends
not only on angle delta but also on field current -If. That means transient
change can be made in the active power and with that in the effective electrical
torque by varying field current. To accomplish this, suitable control signal,

73
referred to as disturbance compensation, must be imposed up on the voltage
set-point. Stabilization signal can be produced depends on the weighting
factors- K1& K2. The optimum weighting factors K1& K2 for a machine
depends on the operating point of the generator and network to which it is
connected. Therefore K1& K2 are calculated from the generator data and
network reactance.
PSS is built over similar processor systems (0660) as that of the AVR.
Memory block -I contains the operating program for the PSS. Block II contains
EPROM configuration. Block III is empty and Block IV has the EEPROM and
contains the weighting factors tabulated. Block V contains the RAM.
The slip stabilization signal is formed from the sum of two signals -
generator active power and the generator frequency. The amplification and the
mixing ratio is called the weighting. The operating range of the machine is
divided into six operating sub ranges. Then using a computer program the
weighting factors are determined.
The task of the PSS is now to access the operating point of the machine
and instantaneous value of the external reactance. Once this is determined the
weighting factors can be read from the table. The operating point of the
machine is determined from the Iactive & Ireactive. For measuring the external
reactance (Xe), it is assumed that the voltage at the center of the network is
constant. If there is an oscillation in the active power, then the value of angle,
also oscillates. As Un is constant, the phase angle of the generator voltage will
oscillates about the value (- e). Therefore the Xe identification can only be
made during transient process. The value (- e) is measured by comparing the
generator phase angle with a constant frequency signal. After this, a
comparison is made to see which calculated value of (- e) comes closest to
the measured value and this determines the corresponding weighing factor is to
be used.

74
4.16 Excitation System
The excitation consists of a Regulation cubicle, Thyristor cubicle &
Field suppression cubicle. Regulation is having two automatic channels for
controlling the generator voltage. These two auto channels have independent
gate control unit. Either of the DVR, Channel #1 or 2 will be in service. These
Automatic channels contain various limiters and adaptive power system
stabilizers and corrective control circuits to ensure the stable operation of the
synchronous machine. Each of these channels posses a Gate control Unit and
intermediate pulse stage. During normal operation, the intermediate pulse stage
of the channel in operation is active and transmits the firing pulses galvanically
separated to the common bus at the input of the Final pulse stage. The pulse
from the intermediate pulse stage of the standby channel is blocked from
reaching the pulse bus. Both channels are equipped with tracking equipment so
that the inactive channel always generates the same control signal during
steady state operation. This ensures smooth change over from one channel to
the other. The most important measuring inputs for the excitation system, If,
Ug, Usyn are separate for channel #1 and 2. The excitation system has an
autonomous monitoring. An alarm is initiates in case of a malfunction and in
certain cases change over to standby channel is imitated.

4.16.1 Pulse Generation And Amplification

The gate control unit supplies six firing pulses for 6 thyristors. The low
power pulses are amplified in intermediate pulse stage and are galvanically
isolated and sent the common pulse bus. On the output of the intermediate
pulse stage of the non active channel is always blocked. The pulse from the
common pulse bus is transmitted to thyristor gate circuit via pulse final stage.
The lower limit of firing pulse for rectifier operation is set so that when pulse is
issued, there is significant positive voltage on the thyristor. The upper limit for
inverter operation is selected to prevent the dangerous tripping of the thyristor
bridge into rectifier mode.

75
4.16.2 Thyristor Bridge
Fully controlled thyristor sets in 3-phase bridge connection are used.
Each of the 6 bridge arms are fitted with a thyristor and a fuse. Each thyristor
arm is fitted with current flow monitoring module. The thyristor converter is
split into two. Each can cater 100% of the system requirements. Thus when
both converters are in operation 2x100% of the system requirements is
available.
Excitation of the generator is started by closing the field breaker and by
switching on the excitation. The AVR regulates the voltage of generator by
direct control of the main Exciter field current using thyristor converters.
(Shown in Fig.4.12)

4.16.3 Monitoring and Protection

The main function of the excitation monitoring is to make use of the
redundancies and to give alarm whenever a malfunction.

4.17 DAVR Operation

The calculations are made in the binary number system. Analog signals
such as generator voltage and current are converted into binary signals in
analog / digital converters. The set points and limit values are already stored in
digital form.
The DAVR can be broken into several autonomous microprocessor systems.
(UN0660)
Two automatic channels
Programmable controls
Excitation monitoring

Each of this processor system has

a power supply,
common bus circuit board,
address lines,

76
 two data lines for input & out put and
The control lines.
There is a specific range of addresses assigned to each processor
working on the bus. Whenever address from this range is called up, the signal
processing module can exchange data with the microprocessor across the two
data lines.
Signals are exchanged among these processor systems via hard-wired
connections. Binary and analogy input / output modules handle signal input and
output. The input parameters Ug, Ig, If and Usync are galvanically isolated
(4660) and sent to interrupt generator for further processing. The interrupt
generator uses 3-phase Ug signal to generate 12 interrupts per cycle for
processing actual values in the auto channel processor. Synchronised with these
interrupts, the processor measures generator current, Ig and calculates the
reactive current and active current. With these two results processor derives the
operating parameters such as load angle, active power etc.
The stored status of K-flags (software switches) determines whether a
limiter is active or not and which limiter has the precedence etc. These values
cannot be changed permanently. Communication is possible with each of the
processor systems (0660) via the micro terminal by plugging on the connecting
cable. This way the signals with in the processor and setting parameters can be
viewed. The set parameters can be altered temporarily (F range, RAM values)
or permanently (C range, EPROM values).
The control variables of the voltage regulator are processed in a Gate
control unit (0663) and a chain of pulses at appropriate firing angle are
produced. The pulses of the active channel are directed to the pulse bus via
intermediate pulse stage, final pulse stage and to thyristors through pulse
transformers.

77
Fig 4.12 DIGITAL AUTOMATIC VOLTAGE REGULATOR

78
 TYPICAL VALUES OF AVR MONITORING SYSTEM

READINGS READINGS
PARAMETERS AT AT
AFTERNOON EVENING
12:00 PM 6:00 PM

Generated power 501.27 MW 505 MW

Generator terminal voltage 21 KV 21 KV

Output frequency 49.38 HZ 49.5 HZ

Output power factor 1.00 1.00

Generator field current 2451 A 2455 A

Output phase currents: IR 13.664 KA 13.888 KA

IY 13.810 KA 13.859 KA

IB 14.034 KA 14.298 KA

Output line-line V(R - Y) 21.05 KV 20.81 KV

voltages:
V(Y - B) 21.08 KV 20.95 KV

V(B - R) 21.02 KV 20.94 KV

Main exciter: Field voltage 39 V 40 V

Field current 57 A 56 A

Permanent magnet Output voltage 220 V 220 V

generator:
Output 400 HZ 400 HZ
frequency

79
MONITORING PANEL AT NTPC

80
 CHAPTER 5
THE POWER SYSTEM
STABILISER

81
 CHAPTER 5
THE POWER SYSTEM STABILISER

INTRODUCTION
5.1 Basic Concepts
Situations have occurred where groups of generators at one end of a
transmission line oscillate with respect to those at the other end. These
oscillations, known as power system oscillations, are load dependent and, if not
prevented, severely limit the MW transfer across transmission system. To
obtain a solution to this problem, an understanding of basic machine torque
relationships is necessary.
For a generator to remain in synchronism following system faults, it
must produce a braking torque to balance the accelerating torques introduced
by changes to the electrical transmission system. The braking torque can be
separated into components:
The synchronous torque, which in phase with rotor angle changes and
is necessary to ensure restoration of rotor angle following displacement.
The damping torque component, which is in phase with rotor speed
changes and provides damping of rotor oscillations.
Where generating units are connected to the grid over high reactance tie
line, fast response excitation system is vital to maintain system transient
stability. This has the effect, however, of reducing the inherent generator
damping torque; consequently, under certain load conditions, generator rotor
swings following system changes will have little damping.
The introduction AVR, while enhancing synchronous torque, has a
deleterious on the small inherent generator damping torque (the later is
obtained by means of poleface windings or introduced eddy current effects).
This presents some difficulty, as from condition of transient stability a fast
response high gain excitation system is necessary, however, its implementation

82
could result in reduced power system damping and consequential reduction in
load transfer capability.
To counteract this, a device known as a Power System Stabilizer (PSS)
has been developed. A signal deliver from shaft speed is used as the input to
the stabilizer. This is then processed and conditioned to provide sufficient
phase lead to compensate for the phase lags inherent in the generator plant and
transmission system. The output of the stabilizer is superimposed onto the
AVR demand signal in order that an increased damping torque component is
produced.

5.2 Principles Of PSS Operation

PSS action is inhibited during study state transmission system

conditions as it has a detrimental effect on voltage control. A study state
voltage offset is prevented by the use of a washout circuit at the PSS input. The
washout circuit is essentially a differentiating circuit which attenuates low
frequency changes. The time constant of the circuit, Tw, is chosen to washout
low frequencies but not to interfere with the signal conditioning networks at
system electromechanical frequencies.
The signal conditioning network provides the phase compensation, so
that a torque is produced in phase with speed changes. This network essentially
shapes the PSS characteristic to provide the best damping performance at all
electromechanical modes. Generally this is achieved by maximizing stabilizer
gain (within the constraints imposed by the power system control loop) and
shaping the phase characteristic so that it has a slightly lagging value at that
particular interarea oscillation frequencies of concern. To prevent the intra-
plant interaction, tuning should ensure that the overall phase characteristic is
not grater than 900 lagging at frequencies up to 4.0Hz.

83
 It is important to emphasize that PSS action is intended to improve the
system damping following small disturbances. PSS action following system
faults will degrade AVR performance, and hence system recovery; therefore,
the stabilizer output is limited, so that AVR action is dominant during the first
post-fault cycles.

84
CONCLUSION

85
 CONCLUSION

In recent years, the scale of power systems has been expanding, and
with that expansion stable supply and smooth power system operation is
becoming important. In particular, because system stability tends to decrease as
the power system move towards higher capacity and longer distances in power
transmission and wider-area operations, and as constant power, non-linear load
generated by air conditioners and other such equipment increases, ensuring and
increasing power and voltage stability becomes an even greater problem. The
generator exciter control method, which makes use of DAVR, is attracting
attention because of its high cost advantage.

Digital excitation systems today offer an innovative method to

quickly calibrate the excitation system, and provide analysis to make
commissioning fast and performance predictable.

High reliability, which has been a feature of present AVR

equipment, can be expected to improve still further due to the reduction in the
number of components, since much of the control logic, at present carried out by
electromechanical relays, will be software specified.

Future developments in the field of AVR design will centre around

the use of digital microprocessor techniques. These discrete time controllers
offer a number of potential advantages, most notably the introduction of
adaptive control strategies.

86
BIBLIOGRAPHY

87
 BIBLIOGRAPHY

1. Performance and Design of AC Machines M.G. Say, BPB Publishers.

2. Electric Machines I.J. Nagrath & D.P. Kothari, TMH.
3. Electric Machines A.E. Fitzerald, C. Kingsley & S. Umas, THM.
4. Electrical Machines P.S. Bimbhra, Khanna Publishers.
5. Power Electronics M.D. Singh & K.B. Khanchandani, THM.
6. Power Electronics P.S. Bimbhra, Khanna Publishers.
7. Modern Power System Analysis I.J. Nagrath & D.P. Kothari, THM.
8. Modern Power Station Practices British Electricity International,
Pergamon Press.

Volume C Turbines, Generators & Associated Plant.

Volume D Electrical Systems & Equipment.
Volume G Station Operation & Maintenance.
Volume H Station Commissioning.
Volume L System Operation.
9. BHEL O&M Manual for 500MW Turbo generator DAVR.

88
APPENDIX

89
 APPENDIX - A
LIST OF SYMBOLS

Chapter 2:
e -Induced emf
-Flux
N -Number of turns
B -Air gap flux density
-Space angle
P -Number of poles
e -Angle in electrical units

m -Mechanical angle
f -Frequency
r -Resistance of armature
Xl -Leakage reactance of armature
V -Load terminal voltage
-Load power factor angle
-Impedance angle
Xa -Fictitious reactance
Xs -Synchronous reactance
Zs -Synchronous impedance
I -Load current
Er -Resultant emf
Fr -Resultant mmf in gap
Fa -Armature mmf
Ff -Excitation mmf/rotor mmf
-Load angle

90
 Chapter 4:
-Power factor angle
Xs -Reactance
Ix -Reactive current
-Load angle
P -Active power
If -Field current
K1,K2 -Weighting factors

ABBREVIATIONS
CEGB - Central Electricity Generating Board
DAVR Digital Automatic Voltage Regulator
PMG Permanent Magnet Generator

91
 APPENDIX B
LIST OF FIGURES

Chapter 2:
2.1 Elementary synchronous generator
2.2a Space distribution of flux density
2.2b Corresponding waveform of the generated voltage
2.3a Elementary 3-phase synchronous generator
2.4 Elementary 2-pole cylindrical rotor field winding
2.5 Complete phasor diagram of cylindrical rotor synchronous generator
2.6a Turbo generator chart
2.6b Operating chart for large turbo alternator
2.7 Reactive capability curve of generator
Chapter 3:
3.1 DC exciter for a synchronous generator
3.2 Static excitation for a synchronous generator
3.3 Brushless excitation for a synchronous generator
3.4 Brushless exciter
3.5 Rotating rectifier
3.6 Main exciter
3.7 Rotating armature main exciter
3.8 Salient-pole permanent magnet generator
3.9 Excitation System (Basic Arrangement)
Chapter 4:
4a Dual channel AVR
4.1 Schematic diagram of AVR circuit & generator connected to infinite
busbar
4.2 Phasor diagram showing effect of power increase
4.3 Schematic diagram of AVR with power factor compensation with
generator connected to infinite busbar

92
4.4 Quadrature power factor compensation circuit injecting a compounding
signal into the AVR measuring circuit
4.5 Effect of quadrature current injection on control coil voltage
4.6 The effect of quadrature current injection on the equivalent voltage
diagram of the generator
4.7 Schematic diagram of AVR and connections for a generator connected
through a transformer or some reactance to the infinite busbar
4.8 Simplified explanation of AVR action
4.9 Exact construction of excitation and rotor angle loci under AVR action
4.10 Power angle diagram- illustrating dynamic operation under the control of
an AVR in the unstable region of the power angle diagram
4.11 Action of AVR at large rotor angles illustrating rotor oscillations near
stability limit
4.12 Digital Automatic Voltage Regulator

93