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 CIRP Annals - Manufacturing Technology 57 (2008) 676696

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

CIRP Annals - Manufacturing Technology

journal homepage: http://ees.elsevier.com/cirp/default.asp

Manufacturing of cylindrical gears by generating cutting processes: A critical

synthesis of analysis methods
K.-D. Bouzakis (1)*, E. Lili, N. Michailidis (2), O. Friderikos
Aristoteles University of Thessaloniki, Greece

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: The eternal goal achieving optimum gear manufacturing results in a quick and exible way can be
Cylindrical gears obtained by efcient machine tools and thorough processes know how. Gear manufacturing is associated
Generating processes with complicated generating kinematics, chip formation and tool wear mechanisms. To capture
Cutting
quantitatively the tool wear progress and the cutting loads, empirical, analytical, numerical as well as
FEM-based methods describing the chip geometry and predicting the tool life and cutting forces have
been developed. The application of innovative tool materials and coatings, optimized tool geometries and
appropriate conduct of reconditioning procedures contribute to the signicant reducing of the
manufacturing cost.
2008 CIRP.

1. Introduction machine tool building and tool manufacturing companies. Dry-

Gears with involute teeth are among the most important
components of efcient modern transmission techniques, con-
forming to relevant pollution and energy conservation legislation.
The generation of an involute curve is best described by a tightly
stretched thread being rolled up on a basic circle (see Fig. 1). The
front edge of the thread describes an involute. An involute curve
shifted along a helix on a basic cylinder, produces a gear ank.
Gears of the same module m, possess the same basic rack
(reference prole) [48,49]. Most of the quality gears produced in
large lots are manufactured utilizing gear generating processes,
based on the principle that two involute gears, or a gear and a rack
mesh together properly. Therefore, a cutting tool with the shape of
a gear or a rack may be used to cut gear teeth in a gear or a rack
blank. The tool geometry in conjunction with appropriate machine
tool kinematics lead to the same contact conditions as in the
characteristic gears pair cases exhibited in Fig. 2. The demon-
strated gears pairs correspond to the manufacturing processes of
gear planing, shaping, skiving and hobbing, respectively. These soft
material state pre-machining methods with geometrically dened
cutting edges are considered as the most characteristic generating
cutting processes for gear manufacturing [1,69].
A thorough knowledge of the gear manufacturing processes is
of crucial signicance to counteract the constantly improving
requirements of the globalized market place. Although few
companies react to the changing product prole by moving their
manufacturing facilities, others focus on strengthening their core
competence in gear development and production improvement
[1]. The related developments are continuously incorporated in
* Corresponding author at: Aristoteles University of Thessaloniki, University
Campus, 54124 Thessaloniki, Greece.
cutting for pre-machining operations involves the application of
heavy-duty gear tools made of powder metallurgical high speed
steels (PM-HSSs) or cemented carbide materials (HM) and requires
increased spindle revolutions and power. Moreover, the discon-
tinuous usage of cooling lubricants has created problems in chip
removal and thermal stability of the machine tool
[63,77,78,86,93,106,107,131,132]. The recent relevant develop-
ments are in general use by the industry for automobile, gear box
manufacturers and also producers of large module gears in the
steadily growing wind power stations market and in the upcoming
market of air engines gear boxes with gear materials resistant at
high operation temperatures and difcult to be cut. The
manufacturing of involute cylindrical gears by generating cutting
processes, regardless their size, from few millimeters to few
meters (see Fig. 3), copes with common technological problems.
The predictability of machining parameters such as of chip
geometry and ow, tool wear, cutting forces, etc., considering
workpiece, tool and production data is of immense research and
industrial interest. The variable chip formation during cutting of
cylindrical gears by generating processes provokes different wear
laws.
The restricted cutting performance of HSS and HM tools led
among others to the application of Physically Vapour Deposited
(PVD) coatings, which improved the performance of the tools at
higher cutting speeds, and increased considerably the productivity
of gear manufacturing. Moreover, to enhance the coating adhesion
and to overcome a deterioration of the HM-tool cutting perfor-
mance after reconditioning procedures, macro- and micro-blasting
with appropriate conditions have been successfully applied.
The present paper deals at rst with technological problems
and analysis methods in gear hobbing, due to the fact that the
majority of all cylindrical gears are pre-machined by this method.
Moreover, specic technical difculties concerning the tool layout,

0007-8506/$ see front matter 2008 CIRP.

doi:10.1016/j.cirp.2008.09.001
 K.-D. Bouzakis et al. / CIRP Annals - Manufacturing Technology 57 (2008) 676696
Fig. 1. Generation of involute gear anks and the denition of the basic rack
(reference prole).
when gear shaping and skiving are applied will be discussed. The
manufacturing sequences and methods in mass production
depend on various parameters such as machining cost, production
philosophies, practical experience, etc. A common strategy is to
attain the highest possible accuracy during soft machining and to
conduct heat treatment with required tolerance to avoid
completely hard nishing [1]. Development trends in the two
main nishing gear cutting processes with geometrical dened
cutting edges, i.e., in shaving before gear hardening and in skive
hobbing in hard material state are highlighted.
More specically the rest of the paper is organized as follows. In
the next section, analysis methods related to gear hobbing
processes are presented. In particular, models to simulate hobbing
process kinematic for determining chip geometries, wear and
cutting forces are taxonomized in a critical and systemic manner.
Furthermore, hob geometries, materials and special treatments for
reconditioning of cemented carbide tools are also introduced. In
the subsequent sections key issues related to gear shaping, skiving,
shaving and skive hobbing are identied discussed and critiqued.
In last section, the paper wraps-up with conclusions.
Fig. 2. Gear pairs simulating the tool and workpiece motions during gear generating
cutting procedures.
677
Fig. 3. Cylindrical gears of various dimensions.
2. Gear hobbing
Gear hobbing is an efcient generating process for cutting high
quality cylindrical gears. This process is associated with compli-
cated kinematics, chip formation and ow as well as with difcult
to describe tool wear mechanisms and cutting forces. The hob
geometry and basic process kinematics to generate an involute
tooth ank are illustrated in Fig. 4.
Each gear gap is produced by penetrations of the tool teeth, lined
up on one or more threads (starts) on the hob cylindrical body, into
the workpiece material in the subsequent Generating Positions
(GPs). Considering the generating process kinematics, in the case of a
hob with one start, each hob tooth penetrates into the next gear gap,
in the same generating position and removes a chip with the same
geometry as in the previous gear gap. By additional axial feed of the
Fig. 4. Hob generating process of involute tooth anks.
678 K.-D. Bouzakis et al. / CIRP Annals - Manufacturing Technology 57 (2008) 676696
Fig. 5. Chip formation in an individual generating position during gear hobbing.
cutter, the tooth gaps are formed over the entire width of the wheel.
A characteristic chip formation and ow is displayed in Fig. 5 in three
successive tool rotational positions in an individual generating
position. These results were obtained by a developed FEM supported
simulation of the chip formation in hobbing [37,38,41], which will be
further described in the following sections. At the rst rotational
position (I) the chip formation starts successively at the leading, the
trailing and the head edge of a hob tooth, which penetrates into the
gear material. In sequence, a three-ank chip is formed, as shown in
the next rotational positions II and III. The material removal between
the latter positions is dominated by intense ow obstruction, due to
the reciprocal collision of chip distinct segments. The chip ow
obstruction at this region exhibits a remarkable effect on the tool
wear progress, specically at the transient cutting edge regions from
the cutting tooth head to the anks. Finally, the chip removal is
completed and the tool exits from the workpiece gap after the
rotational position III.
The generating-rolling principle governing the hobbing kine-
matics makes it difcult to develop an analytical approach for
estimating process parameters, such as of the chip geometry in the
individual generating positions, the tool wear, the cutting forces,
etc. Moreover, owing to their complex geometry hobbing cutters
are quite expensive and their effective usage, after reconditioning
procedures too, becomes essential.
2.1. Simulation of hobbing kinematics and developed analytical
methods to calculate the undeformed chip geometry
Signicant attempts to describe analytically the chip geometry
in gear hobbing dependent on the tool, gear and cutting data were
undertaken by numerous researchers [2,7,8,32,37,51,54,58,
96,123,128,130,136,137,148,149,150153,156]. Among them,
Ziegler [156] calculated the maximum undeformed chip thickness
in successive generating positions and correlated it with the
occurring main cutting force. This analytical method was further
developed by Hoffmeister [58], who tried to explain the wear
progress on individual hob teeth in the successive generating
positions with the aid of characteristic chip dimensions, such as of
the maximum undeformed chip thickness and length.
2.1.1. Numerical methods to calculate the undeformed chip geometry
Weigel [153] formulated analytically the penetration of the
individual hob teeth into the gear material, using matrices
Fig. 6. Cross-sections of the occurring tool penetration into the workpiece material
in a single generating position during gear hobbing.
calculations. On that basis, Sulzer [128,130] developed for the
rst time a computer program to calculate numerically the chip
cross-sections at successive hob revolving positions, in every
generating position during cutting of a gear, considering all gear,
tool and manufacturing process data. In this calculation, the total
kinematic structure tool-hobbing machine-work gear is described
as exhibited in Fig. 6. Simulation of the gear hobbing kinematics is
accomplished by establishing coordinate systems to individual
parts within the process kinematic chain. Transformation matrices
describe the relative position of the coordinate systems. Accord-
ingly, the kinematic linkage representation of the gear blank and
the tool is determined through sequential transformations (matrix
multiplications). By means of this structure, the penetrations
between hob tooth and work gear are calculated in several
reference section levels in a gear gap during the penetration of a
hob tooth into the workpiece material in a certain generating
position. Furthermore, this calculation is repeated in all generating
positions of the hob teeth during the manufacture of a gap as
illustrated in Fig. 7. The undeformed chip cross-sections on the
development of the cutting edge are presented in successive tool
revolving positions at various generating positions, as illustrated in
the right part of Fig. 7. In the left part of this gure, chip photos and
the workpiece surfaces formed at the indicated generating
positions, are displayed.
Additional developments, concerning mainly the graphical
presentation of the undeformed chip geometry in the individual
generating positions are provided by the SPARTA software [51,150]
as well as by the FRS/MAT one [37]. A characteristic result is
displayed in Fig. 8, calculated by the FRS/MAT software. The
undeformed chip thickness is presented over the development of
the cutting edge, on successive section levels in a single generating
position by means of a color scale.
The introduced analytical models contributed among others, in
determining various characteristic process parameters, such as of
undeformed chip dimensions, cutting forces tool wear, etc.
However, a direct visualization of the chip formation and ow
and thus an insight of the numerous encountered phenomena were
not provided. A signicant contribution to this topic was made by
the developed coupled thermo-mechanical FEM-based model,
simulating the gear hobbing process [37,38,41], which will be
described briey in the next section.
 K.-D. Bouzakis et al. / CIRP Annals - Manufacturing Technology 57 (2008) 676696
Fig. 7. Chip formation in various generating positions during gear hobbing.
2.1.2. FEM-supported determination of chip geometry and ow in
gear hobbing
The developed FEM-supported method enables the visualiza-
tion of the chip formation and ow, providing quantitative data
concerning gradients of stress, strain, strain rate, temperature and
further parameters during the material removal in gear hobbing.
This procedure includes three calculation stages, as demonstrated
in Fig. 9:
 the gear hobbing process simulation by means of MATLAB high-
level matrix array language,
Fig. 8. Characteristic undeformed chip geometry presentation in a single generating
position during gear hobbing calculated by FRSMAT.
679
Fig. 9. Flow diagram of the procedure in the FEM-supported simulation of gear
hobbing.
 the 3D solid modeling of the hob and the workpiece in a CAD
environment and
 the FEM-based calculation of the tool-gear penetrations, using
the DEFORM-3D software [37].
In the solid modeling procedure two objects were created for
the hob, a cylinder and a single tooth of the cutter rack (see
Fig. 10a). Utilizing the parametric and associative nature of the
used solid modeling program (Solidworks), the single cutting tooth
simulates any teeth of the hob by translating and rotating of
appropriate coordinate systems. The hob tooth prole corresponds
to the DIN regulations [49]. The gear blank consists of a single gear
gap and a gear cylinder with radius equal to the external radius of
the gear, as shown in Fig. 10a. A point cloud in the 3D space
describes the geometry of the gear gap on reference section levels,
provided with the gear hobbing simulation software FRS/MAT. In
sequence, the data are inserted into a CAD system for processing
and generation of a triangular mesh. Due to the complex surface
geometry of the model, a large number of triangular elements
(facets) are necessary to approximate the gear gap surface
(20,000). Finally, the solid model is created and stored using
the STL (stereolithography) neutral le format and assembled
together with the gear cylinder. The gear hobbing kinematics is
accomplished by coordinate systems assigned to individual parts
of the process, as illustrated in Fig. 10b.
Using the developed FEM-model important process data such
as the temperature, stress and strain elds developed in the chip
can be continuously monitored during the chip formation and ow,
as exhibited in Fig. 11. Although the chip formation and ow is well
described by the developed FEM-supported procedure, the results
accuracy concerning temperature, stresses and strains are affected
by the descretization grade of the gear and hob solid geometry.
Thus, more efcient and less time-consuming FEM-algorithms
have to be developed.
Various investigations have been conducted to check the
validity of the developed FEM-based method, to compare among
others the real chip geometries with the FEM-determined ones,
considering known material constitutive laws [94,110]. Charac-
teristic comparisons can be seen in Fig. 12. These chips were
removed in gear hobbing with different cutting kinematics (climb,
or up-cut hobbing) and tool helix directions related to the work
gear ank inclination (equi, or counter directional). A comparison
of few characteristic chip dimensions reveals that the developed
FEM model describes sufciently the real chip geometry. In this
680 K.-D. Bouzakis et al. / CIRP Annals - Manufacturing Technology 57 (2008) 676696

Fig. 11. Continuous FEM-supported determination of temperature, stress and strain

elds in a generating position during gear hobbing.

Fig. 10. (a) Solid modeling of tool and work gear and (b) assembly into the gear
hobbing kinematic chain.

way, there is a possibility to optimize the tool design to predict

collisions of the chips with the instaneous gear anks in the various
generating positions, to facilitate the chip ow, to decrease cutting
loads in endangered cutting edge regions, etc.

2.2. Description of tool wear

Due to the special features of chip formation in gear hobbing,

the cutting loads and consequently the development of wear on
the individual machine teeth vary signicantly. Fig. 13 shows the
courses of the width of ank wear land VB in the endangered tip-
to-ank regions (corner areas) of the tooth, in individual
generating positions in the manufacturing of a gear gap
[19,22,23]. To guarantee an even distribution of wear on the
cutting teeth, the tool is shifted tangentially in axial hobbing by a
certain amount (shift distance) after a certain number of cuts (shift
amount). The wear of every cutter tooth is therefore, depending on
shift distance and amount, made up of the wear values which the
tooth encounters in the individual generating positions in the
subsequent tool-shift positions. The wear behavior on the
individual hob teeth in a shift position is, on the one hand,
inuenced by the working material-cutting material combination,
the machine tool and the used cooling lubricant and on the other,
by the manufacturing data and the geometry of hob and gear.
Moreover, due to the built up edges formation a non-linear tool
wear occurs versus the cutting speed and feed rate essentially
affecting the work gear accuracy [83,87,140,141,153]. Tondorf
[140] investigated thoroughly the formation of built up edges in
gear hobbing and proposed measures for their avoidance.
On account of the large number of wear inuencing data, the Fig. 12. Comparison between real and FEM-calculated chip geometry (Material data
prediction of the cutting conditions in gear hobbing of a given work after Oxley [110]).
 K.-D. Bouzakis et al. / CIRP Annals - Manufacturing Technology 57 (2008) 676696 681

Fig. 13. Chip formation and courses of width of ank wear land VB at single
generating positions in equi-directional climb hobbing.

gear can, only in the rarest cases, be based upon those working data
which have been found to be optimal for another case. To
overcome these problems, various methods, which can be
clustered in the following three groups, have been suggested:

 methods based on the tool wear results, obtained in hobbing of

reference gears [58,61,70,79,103,143,149],
 methods for calculating the tool wear development in individual
generating positions dependent upon the chip geometry and Fig. 14. Cutting conditions optimization in gear hobbing.
cutting conditions [1921,23,30,31,32] and nally,
 FEM-based methods taking into account occurring stress and
temperature elds in the tool-chip contact areas [37,38,41]. A common shortcoming of all these methods is their inability to
provide an analytical description of the wear progress in individual
2.2.1. Methods based on tool wear results in hobbing of reference generating positions, as a function of all wear inuencing data as
gears independent parameters, along with their inability to consider
To optimize cutting conditions Joppa [61] calculated the wear mechanisms resulting from the chip ow function.
manufacturing cost versus the cutting speed and axial feed,
considering the manufactured gear width B up to a ank wear VB of 2.2.2. Tool wear progress description methods in individual
0.6 mm and all expenses associated to hobbing of a gear, such as of generating positions and considering shifting conditions
the machine and employees, tool reconditioning and change The pivotal effect of chip form and especially of chips stretched
procedures (see Fig. 14). Widths of ank wear land up to 0.6 mm over all three cutting edges of a hob tooth (three-ank chips) on the
were associated with industrial practices in the seventies and early tool wear development, was highlighted by Joppa [61]. In
eighties of the last century as well as cutting speeds up to 100 and conducted investigations, through a slot in the middle of the gear
40 m/min for hobbing of soft or hardened steels, respectively, with gap, the formation of three-ank chips was avoided (see Fig. 15). In
uncoated high speed steels. The evolution of PVD coatings allows in this way the gear width up to a ank wear width VB of 0.6 mm, as
modern gear production the application of signicantly higher
cutting speeds of approximately 300 and 200 m/min, in hobbing
soft and hardened steels, respectively, applying coated cemented
carbides tools. The ank wear is not linear versus the cutting
conditions, due to the mentioned built up edges formation.
According to the proposed method, keeping constant the axial feed,
an optimum cutting speed can be determined, when the
manufacturing cost per gear is minimized. For this optimum
cutting speed, considering further experimental tool wear results
at various axial feeds, an optimum axial feed can be calculated. The
obtained results by this method are valid for a narrow range of tool,
work gear and manufacturing data, close to the corresponding ones
of the conducted experiments.
To enable the prediction of optimum hobbing data in a wider
range of tool and work gear geometries Mundt [103] developed
mathematical relations to determine key process parameters such
as of the undeformed chip thickness and chip length dependent
upon the tool and gear data as well as on the cutting conditions.
Moreover, he correlated undeformed chip dimensions with
experimental results, concerning the cutting performance of
individual hob teeth. Finally, he approximated the cutting Fig. 15. Tool performance increase by avoiding three-ank chips through a slot in
performance of the hob teeth considering shifting conditions. the middle of a gear gap.
682 K.-D. Bouzakis et al. / CIRP Annals - Manufacturing Technology 57 (2008) 676696
Fig. 16. The effect of chip form and dimensions on the wear development.
well as the manufactured gear width per hob tooth was
signicantly increased in all applied axial feed cases.
This trend motivated Bouzakis [19,23] to investigate thor-
oughly the chip ow obstruction mechanisms and to introduce ve
chip form groups concerning the chip ow obstruction intensity,
which are monitored in Fig. 16. Besides the chip ow obstruction
described by the introduced chip form groups, the chip dimensions
affect signicantly the wear progress chip as displayed in Fig. 16.
As indicated in the table of this gure, chip thickness hs at the
cutting edge endangered region is an equivalent one, due to the
fact that the thickness of chip, do not remain constant during hob
tooth contact as illustrated in Fig. 17. Immediately behind the tip
corner at ank, i.e. the wear endangered areas of the cutting edge,
small thicknesses of chip appear, though at the tooth tip they are
relative large. On account of these geometrical facts, the thick tip
chippings cover the same area of the tooth rake in chip owing as
the thin anks chippings. This behavior leads to the following
stipulation. At those places on the cutting edge where there is great
danger of wear, the wear from the small chip thicknesses, which
are to be found there along with those of the large chip thicknesses
of the tip cutting edge, are to be overlain directly at the corner
areas. According to this, the equivalent thickness of chip hs can be
calculated for the description of the wear of the cutting edge at the
corner areas where there is a danger of wear, according to the
formula given in Fig. 17.
The length l represents the length of chip in the area of
maximum ank wear of the cutting edge. The rest parameters used
Fig. 17. Determination of chip length l and chip thickness hs by means of the
calculation of chip cross-section.
Fig. 18. Width of ank wear land VB at various generating positions in gear hobbing.
in these mathematical relations are explained graphically. Finally,
an equation predicting the wear progress in the individual
generating positions is introduced in [19,23].
In Fig. 18 comparisons between measured and calculated
courses of ank wear are exhibited. The results show that the wear
progress is precisely described in the individual generating
positions. Moreover, the wear development on the hob considering
shifting kinematics is conducted according to the calculation
principle, made clear in the example of axial hobbing illustrated in
Fig. 19. In addition to simplifying matters, it is assumed that the
manufacturing of a tooth gap contour takes place in four
generating positions (IIV).
The produced workpiece surfaces and characteristic chips are
illustrated in the left part of this gure. During the formation of one
gap, four of the seven teeth of the specic assumed tool take part in
the cutting process for the rst time. The corresponding wear
regularities in those generating positions are determined as
already described. Due to these regularities each hob tooth
exhibits a different wear development after cutting a certain
number of gears in the individual generating positions, which
corresponds to a number of cuts AS. The course of the maximum
width of ank wear land VB is illustrated in the bottom part of the
same gure for each generating position. To achieve a uniform
distribution of the wear over the contest of the cutting teeth, the
hob must be shifted tangentially. Assuming a tangential shift equal
to the tool axial pitch, the cutting tooth i takes the generating
position of the tooth i 1. Moreover tooth 1 quits cutting, whereas
tooth 5 cuts for the rst time in the generating position IV. The
wear behavior of each tooth is now obeying the wear law that
governs the generating position, where they cut after shifting. The
Fig. 19. Determination of the wear distribution at individual hob teeth considering
the shift data.
 K.-D. Bouzakis et al. / CIRP Annals - Manufacturing Technology 57 (2008) 676696
wear progress on a hob tooth starts from the status developed by
the end of the former cut of the observed tooth in the previous
generating position. In this way, the wear on the hob teeth
becomes uniform, the tool exploitation is enhanced and the
manufacturing cost is reduced.
Furthermore, upon the gear width and the hob diameter, the
chip form and dimensions can vary in successive cutting positions
within a generating position, as explained in Fig. 20. A cutting
tooth, as for example an unworn one, develops a specic wear
status after a certain number of successive cuts in the same
generating position during hobbing of a gear, predicted consider-
ing the chip geometry and the manufacturing data as already
described. If the same tooth has to cut in further cutting positions
within the same generating position, which obey to a different
wear law, the wear starts to be accumulated on the already existing
wear, occurred due to the cut in the previous cutting positions. The
additional wear prediction is conducted according to the current
wear law due to the actual chip geometry by the developed
FRSWEAR software [32], as shown in the bottom part of Fig. 20. A
tooth, with an already existing wear VBstart,k on it, cuts in the
generating position k, for example in the entry workpiece region.
The ank wear of this hob tooth after cutting in all z2 gear teeth
gaps in the same cutting position 1 of the generating position k,
continues to increase, according to the wear law of the next cutting
position 2 of the same generating position k. After working in all
cutting positions, i.e. in every possible, entry, exit, or full cut
workpiece region of the same generating position k, the resulting
ank wear VBnish,k is the starting ank wear VBstart,k in the rst
cutting position of the same generating position in hobbing of the
next gear gap.
Fig. 20. Wear prediction in hobbing considering the chip formation at various
cutting and individual generating positions.
683
By means of the described hob wear calculations the appro-
priate shift amount, i.e. the number of gears per shift position for
various shift displacements, can be determined. Characteristic
results are demonstrated in Fig. 21. Two manufacturing cases are
considered. In the rst case a gear with a relatively small width of
25 mm is examined, whereas in the second one a gear with 10
times bigger width. In both cases, the number of gears is
illustrated, after which, for various tangential displacements a
tool shift is conducted. The appropriate number of gears per shift
position to achieve a prescribed maximum ank wear depends as
expected on the gear width. The described investigations were
conducted with coated hobs and hardened steel as workpiece
material, in an industrial environment in the early nineties of the
last century. The cutting speed was held at a low level to prevent a
rapid ank wear increase of the conventional high speed steel after
the coating failure and to achieve a signicant tool life increase and
not a production time reduce.
The overall gear width per hob tooth, as well as the number of
cuts per hob tooth, up to a ank wear of 0.3 mm in the previous
considered manufacturing cases are demonstrated in Fig. 22. The
required number of gears to be hobbed per shift position in order to
get the previous mentioned maximum ank wear is also shown. By
increasing the tangential displacement amount, a slight growing of
the overall gear width per hob tooth as well as of the number of
cuts per hob tooth can be observed. On the other hand, in the case
of a larger gear width as for example the examined case with
b = 250 mm, the overall hobbed width is lower in comparison to
the corresponding one when gears with a width of 25 mm are
manufactured, due to the fact in the rst case a larger number of
full cut chips with comparable bigger chip lengths are removed.
Fig. 21. Width of ank wear land development on the hob teeth at various shift
conditions and gear widths.
684 K.-D. Bouzakis et al. / CIRP Annals - Manufacturing Technology 57 (2008) 676696
Fig. 22. Achieved overall gear width and number of cuts per hob tooth at various
shift conditions and gear widths.
2.2.3. FEM-based methods for predicting tool wear progress
By means of this method [37,38,41], the wear mechanisms in
gear hobbing can be investigated and process variables that are not
directly measurable during cutting such as of stress, strain and
temperature distributions on toolchip contact area, can be
estimated. An example of isothermal and isostress curves on the
cutting tooth surfaces is exhibited in Fig. 23. In this way, an
alternative in calculating the tool wear development is possible
considering the above-mentioned physical quantities, i.e. cutting
temperature and contact pressure on every tool face location as
well as the relative sliding velocity at the toolworkpiece interface,
as proposed by various researchers in the case of various cutting
operations [133,144,155]. To correlate these variables to the tool
wear progress appropriate wear investigations have to be
conducted. Moreover, wear laws related to coated tools such as
of the thin lm and cutting edge damages due to fatigue [43], have
to be integrated into such calculations. In this way, experimental
investigations and extremely time-consuming computations have
to be conducted to apply this method. Thus, the FRSWEAR software
described in the previous section [32] still represents as the only
efcient method to calculate the wear progress in hobbing, taking
into account the actual manufacturing conditions.
2.3. Determination of cutting force components in gear hobbing
In gear hobbing and particularly in rough hobbing, the static
rigidity and the dynamic behavior of the machine employed is of
the outmost importance. For the layout of efcient hobbing
machines, the knowledge of the time course of the cutting loads
occurring is required. The knowledge of these loads furthermore
enables the complete utilization of the performance offered by the
hobbing machine and information about the manufacturing
accuracy to be expected.
The authors of the research papers [3,9,46,47,57,109,127,
142,156], present computational methods for determining the
maximum and average cutting force components and report on
theoretical and experimental investigations of the cutting force in
Fig. 23. Temperature and stress distributions on the cutting tooth.
gear hobbing. The calculating formulae indicated are based either
on a limited number of cutting force measurements or, simulta-
neously, on the determination of the chip cross-sections, whose
determination was conducted by approximation. This leaves a
number of parameters unconsidered and the formulae apply only
to a narrow scope of geometrical and technological data.
2.3.1. Calculating methods based on chip elements cutting force
components
Based on the calculation of the chip cross-sections in the
individual generating positions various researchers have devel-
oped analytical or numerical methods to determine the cutting
force components in gear hobbing [2,1719,65,124,134,143].
Among them Bouzakis [1719,65] developed for the rst time a
calculating procedure for determining the time course of the
cutting force components in a tool and machine reference system
as a result of individual overlying forces of the tool teeth and tool
cutting teeth rows, based on the calculation of chip cross-sections
after Sulzer [128,130].
In order to determine the cutting force components, it is
required to record all cutting parameters directly on the rake face
of each individual chip in several revolving positions and in all
generating positions of a hob tooth during the manufacture of a
gear gap.
On the tool rake reference system, the cutting edge and thus
also the chip are factorized in small elements in each hobbing and
revolving position of the rake face as displayed in Fig. 24. The
cutting force Fi of the chip element i inuencing the cutter tooth
may be factorized into the force Fci and the FfPi, as shown at the
lower part of the gure in the test case turning. Owing to the
width of cut bi, the thickness of chip hi, these components are
calculated by the Victor/Kienzle equations [84,85] and converted
into coordinate systems of the hobbing cutter, the work gear and
the machine tool. To determine the cutting force components, the
digital computer program FRSDYN was developed.
 K.-D. Bouzakis et al. / CIRP Annals - Manufacturing Technology 57 (2008) 676696 685

Fig. 24. Determination of the cutting force components in gear hobbing.

As input parameters, the work gear and hobbing cutter data and
the distances between axes as well as the cutting conditions must
be indicated. The calculation starts with the determination of the
chip cross-sections prevailing on the rake face and the chip
element forces, so that afterwards the force components on each
hob tooth and on each cutting teeth row may be determined.
Moreover, the overall force and torques transferred in the system
of the machine tool table during the manufacture of a gear and in
each revolving position of the hob are calculated.
Fig. 25 offers a perspicuous illustration of the courses of the
force components in various coordinate systems. In Fig. 25a, the
force components inuencing each hob tooth in tool coordinate
system 6 are entered versus the rake face revolving position and for
various generating positions. Fig. 25b illustrates the cutting-teeth-
row forces in the same reference system and nally Fig. 25c the
overall forces in workpiece coordinate system 3 versus the hob
revolving position. The course of the forces in system 3 indicates
that each tooth of a cutting teeth row participates individually in
the machining process. Mainly, because of the small number of
cutting teeth rows (ni = 9), the cutting teeth row forces do not
overlie each other in the present machining case.
To check the calculated values of the cutting force components,
force measurements were conducted. The photo at the upper part
of Fig. 26a exhibits the test arrangement employed for these
measurements [1719,65]. The one-gap workpiece is fastened on a
piezo-electrical three-component dynamometer which allows the
measurement of static and dynamic cutting force components. The
lower part of the gure illustrates, among others, the calculating
systems 6, 3 and 2. The measurements take place in the workpiece Fig. 25. Cutting forces in gear hobbing, in various reference systems.

reference system 2. In the course of these measurements both

individual hob teeth (y cutting) and complete hobbing cutters
were employed. The courses of the force components determined
in system 2 may be compared with those calculated in the same
system.
Fig. 26b exhibits a comparison between measured and
calculated force components in a number of generating positions
in the climb hobbing process of a tooth gap. The forces are
calculated in several revolving positions and in all generating
positions of a hob tooth rake during the manufacture of a gap. The
agreement between the calculated and the measured force
components with regards to both their time course and their
magnitude is clearly documented by the gure. Minor deviations
must primarily be attributed to the obstruction of the chip ow.
A more sophisticated validation of the described cutting force
components calculation was conducted by Gutmann [55]. He
managed to measure the overall cutting force components during
hobbing of a complete gear by developed measurement arrange-
ment illustrated in Fig. 27. A computer supervises in real time all
devices participating in the measurement process and conducts
the data administration and evaluation. The measured force
signals are stored in a mass storage unit and compared with the
calculated ones. The measured force components are sufciently
686 K.-D. Bouzakis et al. / CIRP Annals - Manufacturing Technology 57 (2008) 676696

Fig. 27. Experimental set-up for the measuring of the cutting forces in gear hobbing.

still far from being suitable for practical use. Thus, calculations
based on precisely determined chip cross-sections such as the
presented computer program FRSDYN still represent accurate and
fast procedures to predict cutting force components in gear
hobbing.

2.4. Hob geometries and materials

The majority of gear hobs can be classied into three groups

Fig. 26. Measured and calculated cutting forces in gear hobbing.
described by the calculated
investigations of Gutmann
experimentally analytically
elementary cutting force
explained in Fig. 24.
ones. To this good correlation, the
[55] contributed by determining
appropriate data, applied in the
calculations after Victor/Kienzle,
according to their design (see Fig. 29) [1,53]. Solid hobs are
produced from bulk material, whereas the complete body must be
manufactured of high-grade high-speed steel or cemented carbide
materials. Inserted blade-type hobs and hobs with indexible HSS,
HM or cermet [146] inserts consist of a base body made of less
expensive materials and are particularly suitable for larger
diameters and modules. The inserted blade-type hob, apart from
making possible higher constructive clearance angles, also has a
relatively large usable gash thickness. In the reversible carbide tip-
type hob the inserts are used four times without regrinding. This
hob type is applied for pre-machining of gears with module larger
than 5 mm to remove higher amounts of material compared to
gears with smaller modules. A following ne machining due to the
restricted hob accuracy is necessary [1]. Finally, further hob

2.3.2. FEM-supported calculation of hob teeth loads

In Fig. 28 a comparison is exhibited of the calculated time
course of the force-component Fz3 versus the cutting time in a
generating position by the developed FEM-supported simulation of
gear hobbing presented in previous section [37,38,41], with the
corresponding one computed by the FRSDYN program.
The calculated cutting force component developed in a
generating position is presented in the machines reference system
3 according to various material constitutive laws [94,110].
Although the shape of the force curves is almost similar, the
FEM calculations highly overestimate the magnitude of the cutting
force. Considerable cutting force overestimate is also observed
when calculating forces in other hobbing generating positions. The
displayed deviations are caused mainly by the descretization grade
of the 3D hob tooth and gear gap geometry. An enhancement of the
calculations accuracy through an increased modeling accuracy is
restricted by the extremely long computational time. Moreover, it
has to be considered that similar computations must be conducted
in all generating positions, in order to determine the cutting teeth
rows forces versus the hob rotation angle through appropriate
vectorial overlying. In this way, the application of FEM-based Fig. 28. Comparison of computed cutting forces by FRSDYN and FEM-supported
methods to calculate cutting force components in gear hobbing is softwares in a generating position during gear hobbing.
 K.-D. Bouzakis et al. / CIRP Annals - Manufacturing Technology 57 (2008) 676696
Fig. 29. Gear hob designs and tool combinations.
variants have been developed to combine various processes, as for
example roughing, nishing and chamfering for deburring (see
bottom part of Fig. 29). In the present case the nishing hob teeth
prole has been modied appropriately dependent upon the teeth
location in the hob, combined with diagonal hobbing kinematics,
to avoid twist effects of helical gear anks during nishing. The
described analysis methods can signicantly contribute to the tool
design. To improve the productivity, in gear hobbing, the cutting
process is very close to the technological performance limits of the
applied machines and tools. Therefore, the optimum selection of
tool materials is pivotal in attaining this goal.
2.4.1. Application of coated HSS-tools in gear hobbing
Today, HSS-hobs are still primarily used in the automotive
industry, especially in manufacturing of truck gear boxes [135]. To
this development contributed the further evolution of the powder
metallurgical high-speed steels (PM-HSS) [24,25,105] in combina-
tion with the application of PVD-coatings [29,34,50,64,117].
Coated HSS-hobs, also used in dry cutting applications, are still
the most cost effective tools, when the much lower acquisition and
reconditioning cost is also considered.
The superior cutting performance of coated HSS-tools in
comparison to uncoated tools was thoroughly documented by
Kauven [64]. He conducted numerous investigations in gear hobbing
mainly with TiN-coated tools and demonstrated the effect of the
cutting conditions and of various HSS-substrates on the hob cutting
performance. A signicant tool life increase can be obtained
compared to TiN coatings, when modern PVD lms manufactured
by further developed deposition techniques are used [43,50]. For
example, through the application of TiAlN coatings manufactured by
High Ionisation Sputtering (H.I.S) and plasma boosting techniques
remarkable enhancements of the coated tools cutting performance
have been achieved [50]. Moreover, Lux [98] and Rech [116]
contributed to optimize the tool surface integrity and the cutting
edge geometry to improve the wear behavior of HSS hobs. However,
the reduced hardness at elevated temperatures of HSS substrates
prevents a signicant increase of the cutting speed, since after the
coating failure initiation the intense wear progress can lead to a total
tool damage, deteriorating in this way their reliability and increasing
the production cost.
687
2.4.2. Application of carbide tools in gear hobbing
To counteract improving requirements of higher productivity
and lower production cost cemented carbide hobs are used in gear
hobbing because of their high wear resistance and the related
perspectives to increase mainly the cutting speed
[75,76,92,104,154]. Characteristic applications can be met in
lower module range less than 3 mm. Mechanisms affecting the
process reliability when using cemented carbide hobs are caused
by stochastically occurring cutting edge chipping [154] and
deterioration of the cutting performance after tool reconditioning
[36,44,68].
Cutting edges cracks of carbide hobs almost at the beginning of
the manufacturing of a gear occur mainly due to high mechanical
stresses, caused by chip formation mechanisms, mainly in the
transient cutting edge regions from the tooth head to anks [128].
The cutting edge overstressing in these regions can be observed in
Fig. 23, whereas the effective von Mises stresses on the hob rake
were calculated by the introduced FEM-supported simulation of
chip formation in gear hobbing. A similar FEM-based method,
leading to corresponding results was presented in [4,5,27,28].
Systematic investigations to detect the reasons for cutting edge
chipping, when cemented carbide tools are used in gear hobbing
were conducted by Sulzer [128]. He explained the cutting edge
cracks by the collision of owing chips against work gear tooth
anks, the re-cutting of deformed small chips and the occurrence
of press weldings between chips and tooth anks [8991,128,154].
The press welding rests on the anks are removed by the next tooth
of the same hob teeth helix, in the following generating position.
The increased hardness of the welding rests can lead to hob teeth
cutting edge overstressing and damages [128]. Today, such cutting
edge damages are practically avoided through the application of
cemented carbide materials with increased mechanical strength
properties and the employment of coatings, as it will be further
explained in the following paragraphs.
Vehnor [145] investigated potential cutting edges overloading
during the hob teeth contact with the workpiece material in hob
entry and exit regions, relatively to the work gear. Considering the
work described by Pekelharing [112], cutting edge failures of
cemented carbide tools during their exit from the workpiece
material during milling, Vehnohr evaluated the corresponding
contact conditions in gear hobbing with various process kine-
matics concerning the occurrence of cutting edge damages. In the
case of a hob with an external diameter of 100 mm, the angle wA
between the rake of the teeth head cutting edges and the
workpiece surface at the tool exit can vary between 508 and 908
in climb and between 1308 and 908 in up-cut hobbing (see Fig. 30a).
Contact angles wA over 908 during the tool exit are critical for the
occurrence of cutting edge breakages due to the development of
tensile stresses in the cemented carbide cutting edges [112]. Thus,
the entry and exit contact conditions between the tool and
workpiece in all full cut regions can be considered as uncritical (see
Fig. 30b) [145]. On the other hand, in the case of climb hobbing,
during the tool entry into the work gear, the exit of the tooth head
edge at the cutting end is evaluated as critical, concerning a
potential development of cutting edge breakages. Moreover, the
cutting start of the tooth ank edge during the tool exit from the
work gear is considered as critical too. Finally, in up-cut-gear
hobbing the cutting start of the head tooth edge during the tool
entry into the work gear and at the cutting end of the ank edge
during the tool exit from the workpiece are considered as critical.
No cutting edge cracks occur in the described contact cases, if the
undeformed chips are very small.
The cutting edges loads of cemented carbide tools were further
investigated by Knoeppel [78], Kobialca [79] and Winkel [154],
taking also into account requirements for process conduct without
lubricants. To attain this goal PVD-coated tools were applied.
Through the PVD-coatings, the cemented carbide substrates are in
general less mechanically and thermally loaded, as demonstrated
in Fig. 31. In this example, the use of a 4 mm TiAlN thick coating led
to approximately 43% and 60% decreases of the developed
688 K.-D. Bouzakis et al. / CIRP Annals - Manufacturing Technology 57 (2008) 676696
Fig. 30. Contact conditions between hob tooth and work gear in various cutting
stages and kinematics.
maximum stress and temperature, respectively in the cemented
carbide material. Moreover, the investigations of Winkel [154]
contributed to the optimization of tool geometry and preparation
procedures as well as to the increasing of cutting edge stability and
hob performance.
Through these improvements, the reliability of hobbing with
coated cemented carbide tools was enhanced signicantly. This
trend was unfavorably affected by the deterioration of the hob
cutting performance, occurring after the conduct of reconditioning
procedures.
2.5. Reconditioning of HM-tools
The potential of reconditioning of worn coated cemented
carbide tools through sequential electro-chemical coating
removal, tooth rake regrinding, micro-blasting and PVD recoating
gains a wide industrial interest [44,68,74,102,113]. However, the
effect of all these sequential procedures on the mechanical
properties, the cutting edge sharpness and performance of
Fig. 31. Decrease of mechanical and thermal loads of cemented carbide tools
through the application of PVD-coatings.
recoated cemented carbides tools has to be taken into account
[44,68]. The HM-substrates mechanical properties deterioration is
signicant after the rst lm deposition due to annealing in the
cemented carbide materials during the PVD-process and less
intensive in further recoating steps [36]. In this way, cutting edge
micro-chippings may occur during tool regrinding on the hob teeth
rakes as illustrated in Fig. 32a [44], which can lead to a signicant
reduction of the coated tool performance due to local cutting edge
overstressing and consequent damages. To overcome this problem,
micro-blasting is applied with large grains in comparison to the
cemented carbide material grain size. The blasting conditions are
appropriately adjusted to impose substrate material strengthening
at the tooth ank too. In this way on one hand, an enhanced cutting
edge sharpness can be achieved after grinding (see Fig. 32b) [44]
but on the other hand, cobalt will be distributed uniformly on the
hob teeth surfaces. This surface topomorphy can be correlated with
the corresponding one occurring after polishing [39].
In order to improve the coating adhesion the Co-content has to
be reduced on the cemented carbide surfaces in order to reveal
WCcarbides [39,139]. After polishing or macro (strengthening)
blasting, the carbides are rounded and Co free WC-surfaces
restricted, thus deteriorating the lm adhesion (see Fig. 33a). The
adhesion is further decreased through the growth of RSm (RSm:
mean spacing between prole peaks), thus reducing the mechan-
ical interlocking in the coating interface. Through micro-blasting of
the lapped or macro-blasted insert surfaces, the described
advantages of micro-blasting can be recovered [39]. In addition,
the WC-grains are now better embedded in the Co-binder in
comparison to ground substrates. Furthermore, a lattice deforma-
tion of WC is induced mainly by the Co-binder deformation. In this
way, it can be assumed, that during the lm deposition, the
nucleation rate of potentially formed transient junctions such as
TiAlCN on the WC-grains surfaces is increased, due to the WC
lattice deformation, which accelerates the W and C atoms
movements in the lm substrate interface. Hence, an adhesion
improvement between WC-grains and the PVD lm, through
potential transient junctions formation, acting as bonding
materials occur [39].
An overview of the described mechanical treatment effects on
the occurring lm substrate adhesion is presented in the table, at
the bottom part of Fig. 33a. Hereupon, the ground cemented
carbide insert data were considered as reference. The coating
adhesion improvement leads to a signicant cutting performance
increase, as exhibited in Fig. 33b. The coated inserts with ground
Fig. 32. Effect of macro-blasting and regrinding of the hob tooth rakes on the cutting
edge sharpness.
 K.-D. Bouzakis et al. / CIRP Annals - Manufacturing Technology 57 (2008) 676696
Fig. 33. (a) Micro-blasting effects on cemented carbide supercial structure, on the
lm adhesion and (b) on the wear behavior, in milling.
and micro-blasted substrates reach a tool life of approximately
55  103 cuts, at a ank wear width of 0.2 mm. Moreover, the
results exhibit an additional increase in wear resistance, by means
of polishing and subsequent micro-blasting of the substrate. On the
other hand, inserts with polished or ground substrates managed to
cut only ca. 28  103 and 35  103, respectively, up to the same
ank wear width. The wear resistance improvement is evident,
when coated inserts with polished and micro-blasted substrates
are used.
The wear behavior of reconditioned in various ways cemented
carbide hobs, macro-blasted with different grain sizes and shapes to
strengthen them supercially and furthermore micro-blasted to
increase the coating adhesion, is exhibited in Fig. 34 [44]. The micro-
blasted substrates with small grain size posses on the one hand a
good adhesion with the lm, but on the other hand a poor cutting
performance, due to the development of cutting edge damages after
regrinding and the reduced carbides embedment after micro-
blasting, as already shown in Figs. 32 and 33, respectively. The
combination of substrate macro-blasting with large grains to impose
supercial strengthening and a better WC-grains embedment before
micro-blasting with small grain size to increase the lm adhesion
leads to a signicant enhancement of the tool cutting performance.
Similar results were also found in the conducted investigations by
Kleinjans [68], who showed the potentials for the effective
reconditioning of HM-tools through the surface zone optimization,
by macro-blasting procedures.
689
Fig. 34. Cutting performance of coated micro-blasted HM hobs, with various grain
sizes and shapes.
Finally micro-blasting with adequate process conditions can be
conducted directly on the coatings surfaces, increasing signi-
cantly the tool cutting performance [33,40,42]. Taking into account
the aforementioned dependencies, utilization of coated carbide
tools can be enhanced and the production efciency essentially
increased.
3. Gear shaping
During gear shaping a pairing of two spur gears is simulated, the
one representing the cutting tool and the other the workpiece. Metal
removal is caused by the axial motion of the cutter. In order to
produce generating motion, a common drive is used for the
workpiece and tool. At the start of the operation, the working gear
executes a radial feed motion so as to reach the necessary depth of
cut. In gear shaping the cutter motion includes two stages: the
cutting (down) stroke, where the work gear is generated and the
return (back) stroke without material removal. In this way the
productivity is lower compared to gear hobbing. Gear shaping is the
most applied method to manufacture internal gears. In the 1990s,
shaping became also available for nishing of hardened gears [111].
In gear shaping while designing the geometry of the cutter,
various aspects such as of tool wear behavior [11,12,13,56,100,108],
cutting edge angles [11,14], cutting forces [11,80,82,138], tool
material [15,24,26], etc. have to be considered. Among these, the tool
life dependence upon the chip formation and ow, which resemble
to the corresponding ones in gear hobbing [11,81] has a crucial
importance and moreover, the collision avoidance between wear
and cutter during the back stroke [1,11,16,100].
3.1. Tool design with respect to the chip formation
The possible geometries of chip cross-sections of the U-shaped
chips in gear shaping and their ow resulting from their
dimensions are displayed in Fig. 35 [11,81]. The chip cross-section
is shown at the upper portion of the gure where the arrows
indicate the ow at the tip and anks of the cutter tooth. The
corresponding chips are shown by photographs in the lower
portion of the gure. Their geometry depends on the gear data of
the workpiece and cutter.
The chip at the trailing ank of cross-section (S1) is very thin
compared to the chip at the tip and ank. Thus, it is cut away when
owing parallel to the cutting edge and is easily removed from the
area of chip formation by the thick chip at the tip. In comparison
with that of cross-section S1, the chip at the trailing ank of cross-
section (S2) is somewhat thicker though relatively thinner than
the chip at the tip and at the leading ank. Consequently, the tip
690 K.-D. Bouzakis et al. / CIRP Annals - Manufacturing Technology 57 (2008) 676696
Fig. 35. Inuence of chip cross-section on chip ow in gear shaping.
chip forces the one referred to against the rake face and hinders its
ow. This is accompanied by other wear processes described in
[11,81]. Such effects are less intensive with the chip having cross-
section (S3). Here, the relatively thick chip at the trailing ank
offers resistance to the tip chip and prevents itself from being
pressed against the rake face so that it has a free ow. Finally, the
uniform chip ow is achieved with the chip having cross-section
(S4). The chips at the tip and ank are equally thick, cause mutual
deformation and ow at the junction between tip and anks under
similar conditions. Due to the mutual deformation, the vicinity of
the rake face is subject to a high but uniform thermal inuence.
A general view of the inuence of chip formation and width of
land at tip of cutter tooth on the wear development is provided in
Fig. 36. The width of the ank wear is plotted against the width of
land at the tip of cutter tooth for various chip cross-sections (S2, S3
and S4) after manufacturing 90 gaps. The S1 chips were not
examined as already mentioned, they are rare under normal
operating conditions. From the gure it can be seen, that for each
tip width a particular chip has a preferential wear behavior. Cutters
with narrow tooth tips (SA1  1 mm) are suited for cutting S2 chips.
Cutters with a tip width between 1 and 2 mm show a good wear
behavior with S3 chips. Cutters with relatively large tip widths
(SA1  2 mm) are most suited for the ow of S4 chips. In conclusion,
depending on the width of land at tip of cutter tooth chip formation
Fig. 36. Inuence of width of land at tip of cutter tooth and chip cross-section on
wear behavior.
and chip ow have a varying inuence on wear behavior. Thus, to
improve the productivity it is necessary to consider the chip
formation while designing the geometry of the cutter.
3.2. Tool design considering return stroke collision avoidance
Return stroke collisions may occur between the shaper tool
cutting edges and the instantaneous work gear anks. These have
to be avoided as they can lead to excessive tool wear, as well as to
machine spindle bearings failures. The culprits for such collisions
are associated with virtual return stroke chips due to the
continuous rolling or radial feed also during the back stroke.
Moreover, a return stroke rubbing may appear caused by certain
combinations of the cutter and work gear geometry. The latter
collision occurrence is explained in the case of shaping an internal
gear, where the back stroke collision avoidance is more critical in
comparison to external gears [1,11,16,100] (see Fig. 37). If the
exhibited geometrical conditions are not fullled, a return stroke
rubbing between cutter teeth in the tool entry region A, or exit
region B may appear.
To analyze the conditions leading to back stroke collisions and
thus to optimize shaping parameters in order to avoid it, various
calculating methods were developed by machine tool manufac-
turers and researchers as well [1,11,16,100,128]. The main
parameters which can be optimized using these methods are
the cutter geometry, the entry cutting paths of the tool into the
workpiece, the radial and axial feed rates, the lateral offset of the
machine spindle and the tool back-of amount during the back
stroke. An overview of the lateral offset range, which leads to a
collision free shaping at various cutter depths can be observed in
Fig. 38 [11,16]. These calculations were conducted without taking
into account the effects of the rolling and radial feed on the
collision occurrence. It is remarkable that in the present
manufacturing case a collision on the tool anks cannot be
avoided through the adjustment of an appropriate lateral offset AV,
at cutting depths between approximately 2.8 and 4.5 mm, since on
both anks simultaneously collisions occur. This process dis-
turbance can be avoided through optimization of the tool rolling
and radial feed. Moreover, in the considered manufacturing case
there is a lateral offset region without collision during the back
stroke at the full cutting depth of 6.6 mm. This region has to be
reached, avoiding collisions at smaller depths, through the
optimization of the tool motions during the cutter entry into
the gear up to the full depth of cut [1,16,100].
Fig. 37. Collision caused due to cutter and gear geometry.
 K.-D. Bouzakis et al. / CIRP Annals - Manufacturing Technology 57 (2008) 676696
Fig. 38. Effect of lateral offset on the collision appearance at various cutting depths.
Since the tool feeds are continuous, i.e. they are active not only
during the cutting but during the back stroke too, a virtual chip is
formed when the tool returns, with maximum cross-section on the
upper frontal work gear plane as explained in Fig. 39. In this way, the
tool feed represents a signicant parameter affecting the occurrence
of back stroke collision. To avoid this, the tool spindle is shifted at a
certain back-of amount AB during the back stroke. This amount is
held small, since it affects strongly the dynamic behavior of the
machine tool. The tool feed increasing is restricted on the one hand by
the collision avoidance and on the other hand by the back-of amount.
Fig. 40 demonstrates the inuence of the lateral offset AV and
rolling feed at a back-of amount AB of 0.6 mm and at full cutting
depth T of 4.4 mm on the collision development at various cutter
teeth numbers. It is obvious that the cutter teeth number growth
affects the collisions free lateral offset region and the maximum
collision-free rolling feed as well. The last two parameters for
example in the case of cutter with 65 teeth are signicantly smaller
in comparison to shaping with a tool having only 25 teeth. Since the
cutter teeth number inuences essentially the tool economic usage
and the process productivity, various compromises between the
tool geometrical data and the shaping parameters have to be carried
out in order to avoid back stroke collisions in a cost effective manner.
4. Gear skiving
Although shaping is the most applied cutting method for
internal gears, the lack of material removal during the back stroke
Fig. 39. Virtual chip formation during the back stroke in gear shaping.
691
Fig. 40. Effect of lateral offset and rolling feed at full cutting depth on the collision
avoidance in gear shaping.
affects signicantly the process productivity. In contrast, skiving is
a continuous cutting procedure for gear manufacturing. By this
method, the main process time can be reduced substantially. The
key to the successful application of skiving is the design of suitable
tools and safe processes avoiding potential collision between the
screw tool axis and the workpiece. The preferred module is in the
range between 1 and 3 mm for external gears, and 15 mm for
internal ones [114,125].
The generating skiving method was invented and patented at
the beginning of the last century [115]. The cutter resembles a
helical gear due to the crossed orientation of the tool and
workpiece axes. The cutting speed is affected by the vector
addition of the circumferential speeds of tool and workpiece and
depends on the rotational speed of the cutter. In order to machine
the entire width of a workpiece, an axial feed is used. Helical gears
require an additional differential feed. Initial applications of the
skiving process date back to the 1960s and 1970s when skiving was
used for internal gears manufacturing. In the 1980s, hard skiving
became available for nishing hardened gears [125].
The basic conical shape of a skiving cutter has clearance angles
at the tip and the anks of the tooth. The tooth prole resembles a
strongly corrected involute [52,88,99,101,129]. Subsequent tool
regrinding changes the addendum modication of the tool,
resulting in major prole differences on the workpiece when
machined by skiving.
Jansen [60] analyzed thoroughly the chip formation mechan-
isms and the wear affecting parameters in gear skiving [60]. To
overcome problems, associated with the expensive cutter geo-
metry correction after every tool regrinding and hence to improve
the process productivity, he proposed the simultaneous applica-
tion of two cutters, as demonstrated in Fig. 41a. According to this
arrangement the lower tool undertakes the roughing process and
the upper one the nishing. The developed gap contours in these
two process stages are exhibited too. In this way, the expensive
nishing tool is less loaded and consequently the wear progress is
signicantly lower compared with the corresponding one when
only one cutter for both roughing and nishing is used (see
Fig. 41b). Another way to reduce the cutter cost and to increase the
productivity was proposed in [59,121,125] through the application
of cylindrical tools, in combination with appropriate numerically
controlled machine tool kinematics [122].
If a cylindrical cutter is used, there are no clearance angles at the
tip or anks, therefore subsequent regrinding will not result in
addendum modications. Tool preparation is considerably sim-
plied, hence cylindrical tools cost is signicantly reduced. The
required clearance angles at the tool are obtained by proper
machine tool kinematics. This can be done with the help of an axial
692 K.-D. Bouzakis et al. / CIRP Annals - Manufacturing Technology 57 (2008) 676696
Fig. 41. Tool cost decrease in gear skiving using individual cutters for roughing and
nishing.
shift of the tool out of the axis intersection, the so-called
eccentricity (see Fig. 42) [125]. In order to obtain a precise
estimate of the clearance angles affected by suitable kinematics,
gear skiving has to be simulated, so that the cutting conditions of
the tool are known for all phases of the cutting process. Another
effect of eccentricity is the resulting asymmetrical prole of the
skiving tooth. The left and right anks are no longer identical and
deviate strongly from the involute. Manufacturing such tools is not
possible on conventional tooth grinding machines and therefore
requires increased efforts. Although meanwhile acceptable work-
piece qualities can be achieved by gear skiving, due to the still
increased tool cost this process is up to now far from being
effectively used in practical applications.
Fig. 42. Possible shapes of skiving tools.
Fig. 43. Shaving cutter geometry and characteristic corrections of their anks.
5. Gear shaving
Up to the 1990s, gear shaving was the dominant soft gear
nishing process. Hard nishing processes were only applied when
increased requirements in gear quality had to be met. Additional
technological developments in the area of hard nishing processes
rendered them competitive to gear shaving [1,120]. At the same
time, the gear hobbing process has been improved as well and has
replaced gear shaving in some applications too.
A shaving cutter resembles a helical gear with gaps on the tooth
anks to form cutting edges (see Fig. 43) [95]. The tool anks are
corrected by grinding to create proper work gear tooth geometries,
capable to compensate the tooth form distortions occurring after the
heat treatment [45,67,97]. Characteristic cutter ank corrections are
exhibited in Fig. 43. Buschhoff [45] developed calculating methods
to determine shaving cutter corrections, based on a thorough
analysis of the contact conditions during this process. Moreover,
Schapp [119] investigated the effect of chip formation, cutting
conditions and tool wear on the work gear quality during gear
shaving. Schroeder [120] to enable a fundamental technological
understanding of this cutting process, approached the loads that the
tool is exposed to during shaving. In order to achieve this goal, the
gear shaving process was rst studied using two different process
models. The rst model, based on penetration calculation between
tool and work gear, allowed the analysis of the kinematic conditions
of the shaving process. By means of this model, a FE-based
simulation of the gear shaving process was developed, enabling
the stresses, forces and temperatures determination, considering
the mechanical properties of the machined material [7173,120].
By a regular gear shaving process, it is not possible to verify
results of this FEM simulation because during a gear shaving cycle,
many teeth and even more cutting edges are in use at the same
time. Also, a large variety of different chip geometries are being
generated, and neither temperatures nor cutting forces can be
determined for a single cut in the real gear shaving process.
Therefore, an analogous process was introduced by Schroeder
[120] in which only one cutting edge is in use at the same time.
Hence, it is possible to observe the chip formation depending on
the shape of the cutting edge. In Fig. 44 [120], three different
cutting edge shapes have been applied corresponding to the
geometrical conditions in the analogous process and a conven-
tional parallel shaving process. At the upper part of the gure, the
chip formation is displayed at the beginning of the cut (left) and
close to the end of the cut (right) for a sharp tool with a cutting
edge radius of about 5 mm.
The stress within the workpiece surface is shaded dark. In the
middle section of the gure, a worn cutting edge is simulated with
a chamfer on each side of the cutting edge. The bottom part of the
 K.-D. Bouzakis et al. / CIRP Annals - Manufacturing Technology 57 (2008) 676696
Fig. 44. Simulation of chip formation in gear shaving.
same gure exhibits the chip formation, when a cutting edge with
a radius of about 20 mm is used without chamfers, which
depending on the PVD-process conditions [35] may exist on
coated cutting edges in gear shaving [120]. A clear dependency of
the chip formation on the shape of the cutting edge is observed.
While, with a new cutting edge, thin and smooth chips can be
created, in the case of worn and the ones with large radius cutting
edges, the chips are much more deformed. With the worn cutting
edge, nearly no chip formation is possible anymore.
The tool wear can be reduced through the application of new
PM tool materials as well as the application of PVD coatings. Both
approaches demonstrated signicant potential for reducing tool
wear [120]. The application of state-of-the-art PM/HSS materials
showed signicantly improved wear behavior compared to
conventional melted steel. The applications of PVD-coated tools
strongly improved the wear behavior. At the same time, the surface
roughness of the machined gears could be decreased to Rz < 1 mm
(see Fig. 45) [120]. This potential of coated shaving tools could not
be used up to now in industrial application, since a signicant
reduction of the gear quality of the shaved part was observed. As
appears in this gure, the maximum prole angle error increases
Fig. 45. Work gear qualities achieved in gear sharing by uncoated and coated
cutters.
693
signicantly when coated shaving tools are applied. Therefore,
future activities in gear shaving besides additional development in
the machine tool [10], tool life monitoring [66] and other sectors
should focus on possible solutions for this problem as well, through
optimization of the PVD-process to achieve uniformly distributed
coating thickness on the shaving cutter surfaces, appropriate tool
design and decreasing of the effective cutting edge radius.
6. Skive hobbing for hard nishing of gears
During heat treatment, the hardness increase takes place
mainly in workpiece outer regions. On the one hand, the hardening
depth determines the maximum depth of cut for machining in the
hard state. On the other hand, the depth of cut has to be adequately
selected to eliminate the inevitable geometrical distortion from
heat treatment. If a cutting procedure is intended after heat
treatment, the process has to be restricted to avoid removing too
much of the hardened material. Investigations revealed that noise
behavior of gears machined in hard state is enhanced compared to
the ones manufactured in soft material state [1].
Hard machining with geometrically well-dened tool edges
methods apply to pre-formed gears only. It must be ensured that
the hard machining tool removes very precisely the allowance on
the anks and the complete heat treatment distortion. The small
allowances require rapid and automatic meshing devices. The hob
tooth and workpiece must be positioned relatively by bringing the
hob teeth into mesh with a pre-cut tooth gap, to obtain uniform
material removal from both teeth anks and tool wear. There are
various methods of bringing gears into mesh described in [1].
In Fig. 46 alternative strategies for skive hobbing and soft state
pre-machining are presented. The pre-machined tooth ank
contour in the soft gear material state, and the contour after
skive hobbing are exhibited in this gure. The ank allowance is
indicated by a thin dotted line. It can be seen at the upper gure
part that when using a protuberance tool, i.e. a tool with a thicker
tip for pre-machining, the skive hob cuts only the anks. Through
the correct calculation of the ank allowance, no step, which could
reduce the load bearing capacity of the tooth, occurs at the
transition zone between ank and root. In the middle part of Fig. 46
the development of such a transition notch is exhibited, in the case
that no protuberance tool was applied for pre-machining. This
notch can be avoided only by machining the root in the hard state,
as shown at the lower gure part. The ank allowance depends on
the module size and on the heat treatment distortion. Accumulated
Fig. 46. Strategies for hard machining.
694 K.-D. Bouzakis et al. / CIRP Annals - Manufacturing Technology 57 (2008) 676696

steadily growing competition within the connes of globalized

marketplace. These productivity increase demands can be
addressed through the additional development of machine tools,
cutting materials, various devices applied in production proce-
dures, and by the thorough understanding of the manufacturing
processes.
In the present paper, a critical synthesis of analysis methods
in the area of cylindrical gears cutting with dened edge
geometry by generating processes was introduced. These
methods can be supported by sophisticated calculations to
determine signicant process parameters, to optimize cutting
conditions and to facilitate the design of suitable tool geome-
tries. FEM-supported calculations are pivotal in obtaining a
thorough understanding of various mechanisms taking place
during the conduct of the various gear cutting processes.
Moreover, the application of modern tool materials and wear
resistant PVD-coatings contributed to an impressive reduction of
the production cost. The appropriate conduct of procedures such
as macro- and micro-blasting further enhanced cutting perfor-
mance after tool reconditioning and thus process productivity.
Finally, an important insight that is obtained by the compre-
hensive critical synthesis is that in this highly dynamic
manufacturing sector, the existing know-how has attained the
critical level for being able to cope with the unique challenges
that will be raised by the upcoming technological advances in the
gear boxes manufacturing industry.

Acknowledgements

The authors sincerely thank the following persons for their

valuable contributions to the preparation of this paper:
Fig. 47. Skive hob geometry and contact conditions during cutting. Prof. J. Fleischer, Prof. F. Klocke, Dr. O. Winkel (Liebherr GmbH).

experience shows that it ranges between 0.15 and 0.30 mm per

ank for the module range from 2 to 10 mm [1].
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