DAYLIGHTING

Contents

01. Introduction
02. Components of day lighting
03. Scientific and mathematical approach
04. Interpenetration of light in built environment
05. Objectives and design considerations
Phase I Exploration of traditional design concepts.
Phase II- Introduction of new experimental idea Optical fibre.
06. Checklist for daylighting.
07. Psychological factors
08. Economical factors.
09. Appendix
10. Bibliography

Submitted by
Vivekanand tiwari
3rd year,
Dept. of architecture
N.i.t. trichy

Project guide
Dr. Mahua mukherjee
Assistant professor
Dept of architecture
I.I.T.roorkee
1. Introduction
1.1. Preamble
A building is associated with two types of component.

2. Components which having the physical appearance likes all type of building material
which we can define on the basis of their physical properties. These basically deal
with the physical appearance of the built environment.

3. Components, which we can identify in terms of sensation. We can just express our
feeling about these components. These are basically in form of lighting,
heating&ventilation.Among all three lighting is the most effective character of any
built environment because it deals with the highest form of energy.

Lighting energy we can get in two ways:

By converting one energy form to another form like

Heat >electricity > light or solar > electricity > light.

Getting it from the natural source in terms of day lighting.

1.2. Energy:
Energy has significant role in the development in of human civilisation. It is the key
element for surviving in living environmeit. So it is an integaral part of our life.

Energy

Non-Renewable Renewable
(Conventional) (Nonconventional)

Coal petroleum nuclear solar wind Hydel biomass

Energy

Limited sources no limitation

1.3. Energy use for lighting:
We need energy for illumination of our built surrounding built and unbuilt environment.we
use to get it from different sources that is described below

1.3.1.
Energy used in buildings for illumination

Artificial form in terms of natural form in Terms of

Electricity daylight
(Generated from non-renewable (obtained from renewable
Source) source: sun)

1.3.2. Electricity:
1. Required a huge investment for basic infrastructure
2. Need a system of networking: plant> distribution unit> consume
3. Life cycle cost is higher and non renewable.
4. It is not flexible for individual built structures.

1.3. 3. Day lighting

1. It does not require any type of huge investment.
2. It depends on the orientation and design of the builtstructure.
3. Application is simple so easily acceptable and flexible for individual structures.

1.3. 4. Limitations:
1. Not available beyond daytime.
2. The control of light source intensity is not easy.

1.3. 5. Speciality:
1. Glare effect, which provide a opportunity of architectural drama within a space

1.4. Importance of day lighting:

1. Quality of light.
2. In terms of design element like in opening.
3. Energy conservation:
4. Can be achieved while being used in combination with electrical lighting.
5. Efficient day lighting system would be cost effective in long-term basis.
 6. Initial investment may be high but the lifecycle cost (i.e. ruining + maintenance cost)
would be less.
7. Psychological and physiological benefits, which are not, obtained with electric lighting
or window less building.
8. Creating variable and interesting life shadow pattern, which is important for an
architectural space.

2. Components of day lighting

2.1. Components of day lighting:
There are mainly three components of daylight which we can catagories in following way.

1. Direct sunlight.
2. Skylight.
3. Clear sky condition.
4. Overcast sky condition.
5. Indirect source.
6. Building components are involved.
7. Technological inputs which transmit the light from one point to another point without
changing its basic property. Ex. optical fibber.

2.2. Direct sunlight.

Range: 6000 10000 foot candles
Components: Infra red, orange, yellow, green, blue, grumble, violet, ultra violet (ex.).

2.3. Climatic consideration:

1. Arid and hot humid: direct solar radiation is often considered undesirable for
illumination purpose due to its association with thermal discomfort.

2. Cold climate: the sunlight entering in the building is ultimately absorbed and
converted to heat. It also contributes favourably to winter heating performance. It is
helpful to reduce the thermal load of the building.

2.4. Skylight:
(5000-2000 foot candles) skylight is diffuse light resulting from the reflection, refraction
and scattering of the sunlight when it is passes through the atmosphere.

The isolation depends on the sky condition and accordingl the skylight can be
categorised as
1. Clear skylight.
2. Overcast sky light.
1. Clear sky condition:
In this condition only the wavelength of blue colour get scattered due to small baize of
atmospheric particles. Due to this saturation only sky gets blue colour.

2. Overcast sky condition:

Under overcast skies, retail large water particles get diffused and refract/reflect all
wavelengths equally in all direction, which results in a, white coloured sky.

Point at zenith is three times brighter than a point at horizon.

Sky light (clear/overcast) is distributed light source from which we get

1. Soft
2. No directional
3. Relatively shadow free illumination.

2.5. Indirect source:

Light, which is reflected from any surface that is illuminated by a primary source, is known
by as indirect light.
1. Intensity of this light depends on the intensity of the primary source.
2. Nature of reflected source.

Means its directly depends on the reflectance and transmittance of the material,
which is used in those surfaces.

2.6. Reflectance () of materials:

Reflectance is the percentage of incident light that is reflected from a surface, with the
remainder observed transmitted or both.

2.6. 1. General method

If we know the amount of incident light and reflected light then,

Reflectance () = amount of reflected light x 100

Amount of incident light

= (fr/fi) x 100

Where fr = flux reflected

fi = flux received

2.6.2.
Now if we consider the munsell colour system then,
 Reflectance () = v (v 1)

Where v = value (no unit)

For ex. If we have a value of 9 then, reflectance = 9(9-1) = 72

2.6.3. Luminance method:

Luminance (l) of diffuse reflecting surface is the, incident illuminance level times the
reflectance.

l= e x

Where l= luminance (fl)

= reflectance
e = illumination level of luminance.

Therefore: = l/e

2.7. Transmittance () of material:

Transmittance () is the % of incident light that is transmitted trough a material.

In terms of luminance:
Luminance (l) of a diffuse transmitting material is the, incident illumination level times the
transmittance.

Therefore l = e x

Where, l = luminance
e = illumination level or illuminance
= transmittance (%)

3. Scientific and mathematical approach

3.1. Calculation of daylight: Ther are many hand tool and manual methods
to calculate daylight factor but for the accuracy we architect should also know about the
mathematical methods.

3.2. Daylight factor method:

A daylight factor (d.f.) is defined as the ratio of interior illuminance on a horizontal surface
(e1) to the exterior illuminance (e2) simultaneously available outdoors from an overcast
sky
Express as a percentage.

df0 = (ei / ee) x 100

3.2. Components affecting the daylight factor:

1. Sky component (s.c.)
2. The external reflectance component (e.r.c.)
3. The internal reflectance component (i.r.c.)

3.2.3. Sky component

It is relative illuminance striking a given station point & consisting have light received
directly from the sky.

3.2.4. The external reflectance component (e.r.c.):

It is relative illuminance striking a given station point & consisting have light received
directly from external reflecting surface.

3.2.5. The internal reflectance components (i.r.c.)

It is relative illuminance striking a given station point & consisting have light received
directly or indirectly from the daylight that is intereflected around the room.

3.3. Daylight factor (mathematical calculations)

df0 = (ei / ee) x 100 in general

Now df0 = sc0 + erc0 + irc0

Due to interior maintenance factor (mf)

(Its only affect the internal factor)

df0 = sc0 + erc0 + irc0x mf

Now if we consider glazing effect then due to glazing factor (cg) then,

df0 = sc0 + erc0 + {irc0x mf} x cg (1)

The glazing factor (cg) represents the reduction in interior illuminance caused by glazing
transmission (tg), dirt (dg)
& the framing around the glazing (fg).

Cg = (tg / 0.85) x dg x fg
The form of the d.f. Equation in 1 is the one most commonly used for predicting relative
illuminance in buildings. It is usually called as a total daylight factor, since it represents the
sum of light striking a point from all sources.

3.4. Units

3.4.1. Photometric quantities:

Unit of intensity of light source (i) = candela (cd)

1 candela is defined as the intensity of a 1/60 cm uniformly emitting Black body radiator
at the melting point temperature of platinum

3.4.2. Flux (f): lumens (lm)

One lumen is the flow of light emitted by a unit intensity (1cd) point source within a unit
solid angle.

Note: as the surface of a sphere subtends at its centre 4 (12.56) Units of solid angle.
1 cd of point source will emit a total of 12.56 lm in all direction.

3.4.3. Illumination (e):

Amount of flux on unit area lm/m is known as
Lux

Lux is the si unit of illumination.

3.4.4. Luminance (l):

Luminance is the measured of brightness of a surface. Units for this derived in two ways.

i. If a light source of one cd intensity has a surface area of one mt (1cd distributed over
1 mt) its luminance is 1cd/m. This is official si unit.

ii. If a completely reflecting & diffusing surface (r = 1.00) has an illumination of 1 lux, its
luminance is 1asb(abostilb)

Conversion factor:

1cd/m = 3.14asb
4. Interpenetration of light in
Built environment
4.1.

Source

Path

Target

In between initial source and the final trget we ca have series of

source path target diagram.
4.2.
1. Direct
Source:
2. Indirect

1. Obstructed.
Path: 2. Partially obstructed.
3. Clear.

1. Ground level
2. Below ground level
3. Above ground level
Target:
1. Horizontal
2. Vertical
3. Inclined

4.2.1. Note:
1. This concept is accurate only for point source of light (sun, lamp, incandescent
lamp).
2. Path is specific (clear glazing or mirror reflector).
3. Difficult to deal with.
a. Distributed source of sky light (such as diffuse sky vault & luminous surface).
b. Diffusing path element (translucent glazing with white reflectors).

4.3. Amount of light fall on the target

Light contributed to the target = a x b

Where, a = luminance of particular space

b = its apparent size

4.3.1. Defect:
This concept does not differentiate between
various sources E.g. a cloudy sky seen through
a clerestory window contributes same quality &
quantity of light to a receiver as an illuminating
white wall surface (assuming equal luminance,
colour & size)

the apparent size of the source as seen from

the receiver is a function of source size, object -
to reflector distance & source tilt relative to
the reflector.

4.4. Diffusers:

4.4.1. Reflective diffusers

For a given reflector location,

the apparent size is minimized
when the reflector is tilted
normal to the surface.

Tilt of reflector :

1/exposure of surface

4.4.2. Translucent diffusers:

Translucent diffusers become indirect sources when they illuminated from behind. The
resulting luminous surface is distributed.
These are the important component in lighting of those building areas, which are away
from the direct sources.
 Case .1

Normal towards the source.

Maximum transmitted luminance.

Case .2

Normal to the receiver.

Maximum apparent size.

Case .3

Resultant orientation for maximum receiver

illuminance.

4.4.3. Source position (cosine effect):

Luminance x apparent size

If the target is two-dimensional surfaces then the

position of the source relative to the source relative
to the receiving surface becomes in consideration
because of cosine effect.

So now equation will be

Luminance x apparent size x source position

Note:

A 45 angle of incident from above only reduces

illumination by 30% for either vertical or horizontal
planes.
05. Objectives and design considerations
5.1. Introduction:
The orientation and elevation are two major aspects of any design solution. Both of the part
of the building are equally get affected to the day lighting. So we need a best solution for
both the objectives. For that first we have to understand about the basic design objectives.

5.1.1. Design Objectives:

1. Maximise light transmission per unit area of glazing.

2. Control direct sunlight penetration into the work plane.
3. Control brightness contrast within the occupants visual field, especially between
fenestration & surrounding room surface.
4. Minimize cosine reduction of work plane illuminance resulting from low
fenestration placement.
5. Minimize heat gain during overheated periods.
6. Minimize conductive heat gain & loss.

These objectives are sometimes contradictory & their individual importance varies with.

1. Orientation.
2. Season.
3. Time of day.
4. Latitude.
5. Building type.
6. Fenestration & geometry.
7. Glazing slope & orientation.
8. Sunlight shielding.
9. Reflectors.

5.1.3 Two phases

Traditionally the architects use to get the day light inside the built space by adopting
different architectural features such as form, shape, openings, orientation etc.in this the
character of daylighting beigs the function of the building elements. But latter on in
the process of architectural experiments and innovations the new ststement started to take
form that: we can adopt daylighting as a separate building entity inside the built
environment and this concept was got successful through new technological
development and reseach in this particular field.

5.2 Phase I Exploration of traditional design concepts

5.2.1 Factors affecting the day lighting

FORM
 ORIENTATION
OPENING IN VERTICAL PLANE.
OPENING IN HORIZONTAL PLANE.
ROOM DEPTH.
ROOF OVERHANGS.
CLERESTORY.
REFLECTED & BEAM DAYLIGHTING.
GLAZING.

5.2.2. FORM
a. Building height:

In a single story building if the openings have been equally distributed then
within a day time all the part of the structure will get almost same amount of daylight
throughout the day.

1. Only difference is there

is that if one part is
getting direct sunlight at
the same time rear part
will get diffuse light.

2. If the building is multi-

storey then top storey
will get maximum
daylight energy in
comparison to lower
storeys.

3. To utilise day lighting effectively in multi-storey buildings, narrow plan must be used
to keep work area within 10 mt of exterior.

4. Finger plans (wings of building extended like fingers) can be used those places where
due to other reasons st. plan not be successful.

b. Building width:
Heating requirement increased as the building become thinner. Two variables influenced
this fact.

1. A narrow building has a larger building skin. So it provides more surface area for the
heat loss or gain in form of conduction, convection & radiation again the heat loss or
gain depends on the basis of the orientation of the building.

2. A narrow building has a greater day light proportion than a deeper building and
therefore reduced heating contribution from electric light.
5.2.2. Orientation:

1. South faade. South faade gets maximum solar radiation

1. Case: 1. Hot climate: South orientation is not preferable in this type of climate
because it allows the direct sunlight (containing the infra red wavelength which
creates the heating effect) inside the built environment.

Solution: it can be controlled with the help of long span overhang.

2. Case: 2. Cold climate: Most desirable faade for getting sunlight because we
need light as well as heat. So direct sun light is allowed from the southern faade.

2 North faade. It gets more uniform diffuse sky light.

1. Case: 1. Hot climate: north facing is desirable due to cool diffuse sky light which
reduces the cooling load of the building.

2. Case: 2. Cold climate: due to heat loss from north glazing the heating load of
building is increased. So it is not that much preferable these days.

3 Eastern & Western faade:

4 Both afford only half-day exposure to sunlight, which makes optimum fenestration
design more difficult.

5 Both orientation (especially the west) experience large summer heat gain within
unwanted time.

So due to this reason building faade

should be minimized on the both
direction.
5.2.3. Opening in vertical plane:
I. OPENING HEIGHT: High window cast
can be used to project light deep into the
room. For example under identical overcast
sky condition, reducing window height H
from 4.5 mt to 2.5 mt will lower the
illumination at the rear of the room by over
60% . Similar reduction will occur in rooms
with bilateral openings (i.e. is window on
both side of the room).

II. OPENING WIDTH: wide window

opening can provide greater depth of day
lighting penetration than narrow
opening. The shade of wide opening also
may correspond to the normal scan of
the eyes and so on. Long wide opening
generally will be perceived as less glaring
than tall, narrow opening of equal area
and luminance, in addition occupants
generally prefer wider opening when the
primary views of interest are nearby
objects or activity.
III. BILATERAL OPENINGS: contours of equal illumination levels in foot-candle, lux or
D.F. (called isoillumination diagram) can be used to show the pattern of day lighting,
by the opening and the illumination levels throughout the room. As shown in bilaterally
illuminated room below, daylighting factor and illuminance is extremely high adjacent
to window opening and penetration is deep because of the multiple source of daylight.

IV. ISOILLUMINANCE CONTOURS FOR SIDELIGHTINH: isoilluminance

contours are used to show the pattern of light distribution of daylight is deepest
through the tall window and widest through the multiple windows. Obstruction such as
horizontal and bay window overhangs will reduce the penetration of light.

5.2.4. Opening in horizontal plane

I. TOPLIGHTING: Top lighting distributes light over greater horizontal areas than side
lighting. At location where overcast skies are more frequent than clear skies, toplighting
can be more effective than side lighting. But we have to be careful however skylights are
located in the offending zone because it can produce veiling at work station.

II. CENTRAL SKYLIGHT:

For even illumination, spacing
between skylights shouldnt exceed
room height H for small skylight
and 2H for large skylights. That is
open area > 30ft. Co n s id e r a t io n s
should be taken that sky light do
not allow direct glare from the sun
on critical setting task.
III. SAWTOOTH SKYLIGHT: saw tooth skylight can provide more uniform lighting than a
unilateral clerestory of equal glazing area.

IV. LIGHT WELLS: light wells with sloped surfaces can provide a top lighting with soften
brightness ratio at the boundary of the view of sky and the ceiling. The side of well
should have a high reflectance, matte finish. Avoid glossy finish, which can create hot
spot.
For efficient distribution of the transmitted daylight, the wall index should be less then
0.9.
Efficient shape for well opening is wide and long, but narrow in depth. The well index Lw
can be found by the following formula.

LW = 0.5H {(W+L)/ (WxL)}

Where, LW = well index

(no unit)
W = width of the well
opening
L = length of the well
opening
H = depth of the well
opening

V .PYRAMID WELL:
NOTE: double dome acrylic skylight can have translucent glass fibre insulation
in air space to provide diffuse light and increase resistance to heat flow.
5.2.5. Room depth:
In room with unilateral openings (i.e.
window only one side) illumination level
at the end of the room depth D is
increased. This is due to the fact that
the transmitted light is spared over a
greater area. To achieve effective
distribution of light from unilateral day
lighting, room depth should not be
more then 2.5H.

5.2.6. Roof overhangs:

Illuminations levels are reduced as the
width of overhangs are increased.
Although reduction in level occurs
throughout the room but the greatest
reduction occurs near the windows.
Therefore the distribution of light
throughout the room is more uniform.
Cantilever can be used to project
reflected ground light into rooms beyond about 40 ft of the building.
5.2.7. Clerestory:
1. Unilateral clerestory:
For clerestory facing north,
light will be diffuse, cool and
uniform. Whereas for those
facing south, light will be
bright and variable and will
provide strongmodeling
effect. East or west as solar
radiation will make the
thermal comfort design
system complicated.

2. Reflective clerestory:
reflective clerestory can project
daylight into lower level spaces
by reflecting and provide
dramatic effect on vertical
surface by a wash of indirect
light.

3. Rules of thumb for

clerestory:

Clerestory opening or a series

of opening such as saw tooth skylights or monitors can be used to project light deep
into large spaces with glazing tilted inward at bottom or roof overhang elements,
shown below.
 Clerestory on southern exposure can be designed to admit the winter sun but exclude
the summer sun.

The height of the clerestory openings Hc should be at least one half the height of
window opening HW.

For uniform illumination, the distance from clerestory opening to rear wall should not
exceed 2Ht. Where Ht is the height of clerestory above the floor.

5.2.8. Reflected & beam day lighting:

As shown by the
example below,
reflector can project
light deep into the
rooms. Windows are
located at seated
eye height so that
view of horizon and
the ground will be
sufficient and glare
from the sky and
sun should be
minimum.
Types of reflector:

i. Curved collector reflector. ii. Sloped reflector.

5.3 GLAZING:

5.3.1 Glazing are used in a buildings for a variety of radiation control purposes included
admitting light, admitting solar heat, allowing in and out, and blocking or allowing radiant
losses from the interior. Glazing materials have a relatively high conductance and do not
contribute directly to reducing conductive losses.

Regions of radiation spectrum:

There are three regions of the radiation spectrum:

1. Visible. Range: 0.4 0.7 microns.
2. Solar IR (near infrared) :( 0.7 4.0 microns) part of direct solar radiation.
3. Room IR (far infrared): emitted from warm (0 - 150) room surface> 8.0 microns.

Note: the solar IR and room IR are particularly important architecturally because of the
different behaviour of glazing materials in these regions.
5.3.1. Types of glazing

There are seven types of glazing material which are important to day lighting and solar
heating/cooling applications.

a. Clear glass:

it is highly transparent in both

the visible and solar IR regions
highly absorptive in room IR
region reflective in none of the
region.

it is most suited for solar heat

collection, for viewing from light
to dark areas and best colour
rendition.

b. Gray/bronze glass.
it is pigmented to increase visible
and solar IR absorption (thus
decrease transmittance). Like clear
glass it is also highly absorptive in
room IR regions and reflective
none of the regions.

it is best suited for viewing from

dark to light areas because it
reduces the brightness control
between the view and the
surrounding interior surfaces.

it is also used for solar heat gain,

is less effective than mirror glass
because energy which is not
transmitted is absorbed as heat
and much of which is ultimately
transmitted to the interior in the
summer.
 c. Heat-absorbing
green glass.
green tinted glass is
lightly pigmented to
increase solar IR
absorption with only a
small increase in visible
reason.

it is preferred for those

daylighting applications
in which the requirement
is maximum amount of
light and minimum heat
gain.

d. Light reflecting film.

light reflective film is created

by depositing a metallic coating
on a transparent substrate,
giving a mirror like look

it is usually reflective in IR
regions as well as the visible
regions.

e. Room IR reflecting film.

Selkowitz (1979) has described

about this. It is like a clear glass
which having high visible and solar
IR transmittance. it reduces the
heat loss.

it can be an ideal glazing for

passive solar heating applications.
f. Solar IR reflecting film.
Rosen (1981) & (1982). This film
has a property of high visible
transmittance like glass but also has
a property of high reflectance in
both solar and room IR regions.
this is particularly applicable for
daylighting in internal load
dominated buildings because of
rejection of the nonvisible solar
region.

i. IR transparent plastic.
Certain plastic element (i.e.
polythene and nylon 6) are highly
transparent in the room IR region.
it reduces the green house effect,
common to the glass and greatly
increase heat loss to the exterior.
Clark (1979) has described the
use of IR transparent plastics for
widescreen covering to reduce
convective warming of night sky
roof radiation cooling panels.

i. Multiple glazing.
Multiple glazing units trap a layer of still air between panels of two or more glazing units.
it increase the thermal resistance of the window .as the no of air layers increases the
resistivity of the system get increases.
gas filled are commonly used as to replace the air between two layers of glazing because
inert gases such as argon, krypton and sulphur hexafluoride (SF6) are less conductive than
air so they can reduce
5.4 Phase II:

Introduction of new experimental

Idea Optical fibre
Active systems with optical fibers:
To further extend the view of the active systems using optical fibers some facts about fiber
optic lighting systems with an electrical light source, i.e. central lighting systems.

5.4.1. Himawari
This is a day lighting system based on concentrating Fresnel lenses and glass optical fibers.
It was developed in Japan in the late 7Oies by Professor Kei Mon and it was named after
the Japanese word for sunflower. The first version, Mono-lens HIMAWART, first saw
daylight in 1979.
Collectors fLaforet Eng. Co., 200]].

Light collection
Himawari is a sun tracking system with a sun collector made up of several hexagonal
Fresnel lenses, attached in a honeycomb pattern. A sun sensor, an internal clock and a
microprocessor carry out the sun tracking.

In fine weather the suns exact position is

determined by the sun sensor, which is mounted
in the centre of the sun collector. When the sun
is behind clouds the collector relies on the clock
and the microprocessor to calculate how it
should be directed. This makes it possible for
the collector to always have the correct direction
when the sun comes out from behind clouds. At
sunset the system positions itself for sunrise
and shuts down until next morning.

Light transmission
Each Fresnel lens focuses the sunlight onto
the end of a glass fiber with a diameter of 1
mm. six fibers are connected into one fiber optic
cable. Thus the smallest available version of the Himawari system has six lenses in the sun
collector. All the larger ones have a number of lenses dividable by six.

The fact that lenses concentrate the light is utilized to filter out some of the infrared and
ultraviolet parts of the sunlight. This is possible because of the chromatic aberration that
causes light with different wavelengths to focalize at different distance from the lens. The
fiber ends are placed in the focus for the visible wavelengths where the infrared
and ultraviolet light rays are less dense.

Performance
If the sun collector is receiving 98 000 lux of sun light, each fiber can transmit a luminous
flux of 1630 lm over a distance of 15 m. The light disperses with an emission angle of 58
from the fiber end. If it is placed at a height of 2 m it will illuminate the floor below with
420 lux in average within a circle of the diameter 2.2 m.

Applications
This system can be used for a wide variety of applications: common room illumination,
visual effects, aquariums, and etcetera. One interesting application is to use it for
photobioreactors, tanks for cultivating photosynthetic cells in laboratories. These can be of
cylindrical shape with tubular light radiators inside, which spreads the light delivered by the
Himawari system [Ogbonna, 1999].

References
[Laforet Eng. Co., 2001; Furuune, 2002] where not otherwise is stated. \

5.4.2. Hybrid lighting

This is a US partnership research project. It aims to provide annual energy savings of
over 30 billion kWh and economic benefits exceeding five billion USD by the year 2020.
THE CONCEPT IS A PARABOLIC SUN COLLECTOR PROVIDING BOTH SUNLIGHT,
TRANSMITTED WITH OPTICAL FIBERS, AND ELECTRICITY, GENERATED BY
PHOTOVOLTAIC CELLS. .

Light collection and electricity generation

Similar to the Himawari system the Hybrid Lighting sun collector is a 2-axis sun- tracking
collector. It is designed as a parabolic mirror (the primary mirror) that reflects direct non-
diffuse sun light onto a secondary optical element (SOE), placed in focus of the parabola.

The SOE is a spectrally selective cold mirror, which separates the visible portion of the
solar spectra from the near infrared spectra
(wavelengths between 700 and 1100 nm). It
reflects the visible portion of the sunlight onto a
number of large-core optical fibers placed in the
centre of the dish. The infrared rays are
transmitted through the cold mirror and are
utilized by a photovoltaic cell to generate
electricity. This solar cell is especially sensitive to
the near infrared wavelengths. Figure2.

Light transmission
The SOE is divided into eight sections that
reflect the light onto eight fiber ends placed in a circle, 54 mm in diameter, in the centre of
the dish. The fibers are large-core plastic fibers with a diameter of 18 mm. The number of
fibers used and their size is dictated by the size of the primary mirror.
Luminaires
The system is called hybrid lighting since it requires an alternative light source in cloudy
weather or when the sun is below the horizon. The alternative light source is planned to be
some kind of electrical lamp mounted together with dispersers for the sunlight in hybrid
Luminaires.

This dual system will have a control system that ensures that the illumination remains
constant even if the sun is temporarily hidden behind clouds.

The control system employs ballast dimmers that adjust the electrical light according to
how much natural light is available. In this way electrical energy is saved. It will also be
possible to dim both the natural and electrical light based on preference and to switch it on
and off.

In order to provide a good mix of light from the two sources it is important that they both
have the same characteristics such as light color and spatial intensity distribution,
according to the Hybrid Lighting-partnership.

It is also important that the control system responds quickly to intensity fluctuations in
the natural light, due to changing cloud coverage for example, so that constant illumination
can be ensured.

One technique is to employ cylindrical diffusing rods placed adjacent to the ordinary light
tubes in the luminaries. Light is emitted from the end of this rod, with the diameter 2.54
centimeters. The half of the rod that faces the floor is clear and transmits light, while the
upper half is diffuse and scatters light downwards.
The opposite end of the rod to the fiber end contains a concave mirror that further
improves the light scattering.

Figure 3. A close-up of the eight fiber ends placed in

the centre of the collector dish [Laymance, 2002].

Drawback:
With this concept is that optical efficiency
was low for the rod, only 50 %, and the
inclusion of the rods also decreased the
efficiency of the electric lighting for the fixture
from 64 to 53 %.

The other, more promising, technique

investigated, is based on dispersing elements
in the luminaires acrylic lens diffuser. The
light dispersing elements are 15 centimetres
in diameter with micro-optic structures to
disperse light coming from the fiber-end mounted above pointing downwards. The optical
efficiency of this design has been estimated to 90 %. The overall optical efficiency for the
luminaires was lowered by the dispersing elements from 76 to 73 %.
Performance
Based on performance values for the different components the total performance has
been estimated to approximately 50 % for a single-storey application and 30 35 % for
second-storey. This means that half of the light or more will be lost due to losses in the
primary mirror, SOE, fiber entrance, transmission and luminaires. Aging of components and
build-up of dirt was included in this evaluation.

These estimated values means that a collector of 2 m2 receiving 100 000 lux of sunshine
could deliver 100 000 or 60 000 lm respectively for a first-storey or a second storey
application. If this light were distributed evenly over 90 m2 of floor space it would give an
illumination of more than 1000 or 650 lux respectively.

Electric light gives typically63 lm/W, while the filtered sunlight gives approximately200
lm/W. The visible portion of sunlight per 1000 W incoming solar flux is 490 W and the near-
infrared radiation is 360 W.

5.4.3. SOLUX
This is a Fresnel lens-based daylighting system developed by the German company
Bomin Solar Research (BSR). The collected sunlight is transmitted by liquid light
guides. A first demonstration system with three collectors has been installed at the German
museum of technology in Berlin among with other daylighting systems.

Roman Jakobiak, architect at IBUS (Institute for bau-, unwept-, und solarforschung),
have worked with the daylighting at the museum and was kind enough to show the
authors of this report the SOLUX-system. At that occasion it was, however, taken
out of work due to problems with liquid leaking from the light guides and for
installation of new software.

Collector
The collector is a sun tracking 2-axis turning unit. The plastic Fresnel lens is 1 m in
diameter and concentrates the sunlight 10000 times. A filter that the light passes through
before it enters the liquid light guide extracts heat. According to Jakobiak there have been
ideas about designing concepts for using the extracted heat.

The sun tracking is carried out by a dual system, which is self-learning according to
Jakobiak [Jakobiak, 2001]. It is made up of a solar direction sensor and a microprocessor
calculating the position of the sun.

When mounted at a roof a clear acrylic dome to protect it covers the whole collector. This
is an extra source of light losses. However, the protection also makes it possible to employ
a less robust design and thus a less expensive design.

Light transmission
The concentrated and filtered sun light from the collector is fed to a liquid light guide.
This is a flexible pipe, 2 centimetres in diameter, filled with an optical clear liquid made up
of several components.

The demonstration system installed at the German museum of technology in Berlin

has had some leakage problems. The reason is that a wax component froze due to
low outdoor temperatures. It is possible to solve this by replacing this component,
according to Roman Jakobiak.

Luminaries
The light from the liquid light guides is released into
diffusing tubes that spreads the light in the room.
Because of the transmission through the liquid the light
is somewhat greenish. The tubes at the installation in
the Berlin museum, about 5 7 meters in length and
approximately 20 centimetres in diameter, hang from
the ceiling. Natural light from the collectors enters one
end and at the other end an electric lamp is used when
the sunlight is not sufficient.

Figure 4: A SOL UX-collector without the protecting acyclic dome

fColsmanFreyberger, 2002].

Performance
The light loss in the liquid light pipes is about 10 15 % per 10 m, according to Dr. Claus
Colsman-Freyberger at BSR. (Authors comment: very low losses compared with fiber
optics.)

5.4.4. Active systems with heliostats

A heliostat is a device that consists of a mirror
continuously reflecting the sunlight to one specific
point. This can be used to divert sunlight into
windows, sun pipes or other kinds of light or sun
collectors.

Example: Mosque, Kuala Lumpur

The mosque Masjid Wilayah in Kuala Lumpur,
Malaysia, has been equipped with a daylighting
system employing twelve heliostats to illuminate
the prayer hall of 3600 m.
Figure.5. Cut view of the mosque showing the heliostats, the
pyramid and the chandelier that spreads the light [after Bomin Solar, 2001].
The roof of the mosque is made up of one central major dome and three smaller domes
adjacent to the first one. The heliostats (1 m in diameter) are placed on the top of the
central dome. They are reflecting sunlight on a mirror-pyramid. This focuses the light and
beams it down onto a chandelier in the prayer hall. The chandelier spreads the light so it
covers the floor.

During nighttime the heliostats are placed horizontally to allow projectors on their
backside to focus artificial light onto the mirror-pyramid. The heliostats for this daylighting
system have been delivered by Bomin Solar [Bomin Solar, 2001].

Underground train station, Berlin

As a part of the modern architecture at Potsdamer
Platz light pipes connect the underground station with
the outside.In an open place, surrounded with elaborate
skyscrapers, stand three tall light pipes with heliostats
on top of them. This allows daylight to stream down
through the pipes to the underground.

It is a large station and this system does not mean so

much for the illumination as for the architectural
connection between the outside and the underground.
During nighttime artificial light illuminate the light
pipes, which allow the observer to make a connection to
the underground.
Figure.6.One of the light pies at Pots darner Platz during
installation [Signer, 2002].

These light pipes are designed as two pipes, a glass pipe enclosing a steel pipe. The latter
one has inner walls covered by a highly reflective foil and it transports the daylight,
diverted underground by the heliostats.

During the night this light illuminates the pipe both above and below ground, giving it a
special distinct look. [Heliobus, 2001; study visit, 2001]

Heliobus, Switzerland
A more general heliostat based daylighting system that
can be installed in different buildings comes from the
same company. It is called Heliobus and it employs a
spoon shaped heliostat mounted on the roof on top of a
light pipe.

The light guiding system below the heliostat is made up

of a transition element, a vertical light guide and
extractors inside the light guide.
Figure.7. A schematic cut view of the Heliobus system showing
heliostat, transition element, light guide and extractors in the light
guide fHeliobus, 2001].
The transition element is located where the system cuts
through the roof and links the light collector to the light guide. It also includes an artificial
light source.
The vertical light guide is coated with light-guiding foil and transports the light into the
building.
The extractors are installed in the centre of the light guide where light extraction is desired.
It is a diffusing rod, which alters

07. Checklist for Daylighting

08. Conclusion
8.1 Psychological factors:
Daylighting has become increasingly important in buildings, in part because it is
recognized as related to improved morale and productivity of the people, which are working
or living, in such buildings.

No electrical lamp can match the colour variation of daylight. The human eye adapts
easily to daylight and especially windows give the occupants a sense of contact with the
outdoors [US Department of Energy, 2002].

The information that our brain receives from the illuminated environment is an essential
element in shaping our moods, reactions and physiological well being [SzeHui, 1999]. So,
physiological and psychological benefits are good reasons for using natural light.

Daylight generally increases occupant satisfaction by providing a healthier and more

pleasant environment. It seems like humans function better, emotionally and physically
under natural light, it seems like our bodies were designed for natural light.

By receiving the full spectrum light the human body gets beneficial effects like producing
more vitamin D, get a better calcium absorption, metabolism, and hormone secretion. The
bodys ability to assimilate calcium is essential for formation and maintenance of bones and
teeth and it depends on the presence of vitamin D.

A healthy person receives enough of this vitamin through a daily exposure of the hand
and face to 15 minutes of sunlight. Of course we get some vitamin D from the food, but up
to 90 % of the vitamin D in our body is built up by the reaction that occurs when our skin
get exposed to ultraviolet light, which is present in e.g. sunlight.
Children with softening bones or old people with brittle bones have problems with vitamin
D insufficiencies, which can be prevented or even cured by exposure to small quantities of
ultraviolet radiation [Neer et al, 1971].

Recent Swedish studies have shown that people in the northern part of the country more
often get hip fractures than people in the southern part. This is thought to be caused by the
lack of exposure to sunlight, and thereby lack of vitamin D [William-Olsson, 2002].

A study on daylighting in schools shows that students get more productive in daylighting
schools, than in traditionally illuminated schools. Students with optimal daylighting in their
classrooms progressed 20 % faster on math tests and 26 % faster on reading tests in one
year, compared to students in the least daylighted classrooms [Plympton et al, 2000].
Students tend to be more attentive and display lower levels of hyperactivity, [Thayer 2000]

An analysis by Nicklas and Bailey shows that students exposed a full spectrum of light
were healthier and attended school 3.2 to 3.8 days more per year, than students at
comparative non-daylighted school. The full spectrum lighting induced more positive
moods, and because of the additional vitamin D received by the students in full spectrum
light, students had nine times less dental decay, than students in a nondaylighted school
[Nicklas and Bailey, 1997].

Libraries with superior light resulted in significantly lower noise levels. Daylighting bring
the effect that heating, ventilation and air condition systems can be downsized, which also
reduced the noise levels in offices, classrooms and library, thus enhancing the environment
for working and studying [Plympton et al, 2000].
Some studies have showed that this variability of the daylight has a relaxing effect on the
eyes [Sze-Hui, 1999.Providing better distribution of light, better colour radiation, absence
of flicker.

Daylight is a very diffuse source of light, and tends to illuminate surfaces more evenly in
all directions. Electric lighting for offices or schools is mostly designed so the light is
directed downwards towards the desktops. For that reason the horizontal surfaces are more
brightly illuminated than vertical surfaces. The stronger horizontal component of daylight
improves visibility. Therefore daylight has a better distribution of light.

Colours look more natural in daylight than under electrical light, as most electric light
sources are stronger in some areas of the light spectrum and weaker in others. Daylight on
the other hand has a continuous spectrum and therefore provides better colour rendition.
Colours tend to look much more vivid in daylight.

Daylight does not flicker; fluorescent lamps can have a noticeable flicker. People blame
this flicker for a multitude of problems, like headaches, eye strain and attention deficit
problems. Fluorescent lights that run on electronic ballast, have considerably reduced
flicker problems, but only daylight guarantee a total absence of flicker.

Another aspect of lighting quality from daylight is sparkle or highlights on three-

dimensional objects. Artists like to have a daylighted studio partly for the way shadows and
highlights make objects more attractive and easier to understand three dimensionally, and
a lot of the artists see a certain richness of their design in the variability of the light
[Plympton et al, 2000].
All the benefits of daylight will not be present when sunlight is piped, as the ultraviolet
and infrared rays probably will have to be eliminated before the sunlight can be piped.
During cloudy days we have to add artificial light, which remove the guarantee of total
absence of flicker. But even if we do not get all the benefits of the daylight if it is piped, it
would be an improvement if we just get some benefits.

8.2 Economical factors.

In terms of Energy saving:
What motivates this resurgent interest in daylighting? The answer might be quite
complex, but the potential for energy conservation is the most dominant factor. Using
renewable natural light in a space reduces the need for electrical light, which is usually
generated at the expense of a non-renewable resource.

Another factor is energy cost saving, which is closely associated with energy
conservation, but is distinctly different. When sufficient daylight is available, which depends
on the location and climate, a good daylighting design lowered or turned off artificial
lighting. That can reduce the energy cost for lighting.

Daylighting may also reduce heating and cooling costs for a building. It is possible to
construct daylighting systems so that it produces less heat than artificial light. Of course
sunlight can also provide supplementary building heat. [Hopkinson et al, 1966] Nicklas and
Bailey [1997] showed that the most obvious conclusion is that daylighting, even excluding
all of the productivity and health benefits, makes sense as a financial investment.

The energy cost of a daylighted school was reduced between 22 and 64 % compared to a
normal school. So even the higher investment for building a daylighted school will have less
than three years payback, and in the long term the cost saving benefits for such a school
will be considerable. For example a daylighted school in North Carolina save about 40,000
USD per year compared to a typical school [Heschong Mahone Group, 1999].

Commercial, industries and public facilities such as school, libraries and hospitals can
have a significantly reduction of artificial lightning, when using daylight. In commercial and
public buildings 40 to 50 % of the energy consumption accounts for artificial light, and 10
to 20 % of energy consumption in industry.

Daylighting in combination with energy efficient lighting reduces the energy consumption
considerably. The lighting power density can be reduced by using daylight, in some office
buildings from 23.7 W/m2 to 9.5 W/m2, without any reduction in the measured light levels
[US Department of Energy, 2002].

A study in Hong Kong showed that natural light alone could provide an average indoor
illuminance, for about 50 % of a typical working day [Lam and Li, 1998].

Such energy savings depends on factors like climate, location, energy load, and design of
the building. But when sufficient daylight is available, a good daylighting design may
reduces or turn off artificial lighting. That would reduce the energy use especially in
commercial and institutional buildings.
The fact that commercial and institutional buildings use a lot of energy for artificial
lighting and that they are mainly used during the day, make this kind of buildings suitable
for daylighting.
Using daylight may also reduce energy use for heating and cooling.

Daylight produces less heat per unit of illumination than many artificial lights, so the
cooling demand is reduced when artificial light is replaces by daylighting. The opposite way
is also possible; sunlight can provide supplementary building heat as a part of passive solar
heating system.

To minimize energy use, innovative designs have to be invented to optimize the balance
between heating, cooling and lighting needs. Design components such as light sensors, and
optimizing mechanical and electrical systems not only reduces cooling and lighting cost, it
also reduce the cost of maintenance as less lighting fixtures will be needed.

Economy and different models

The prices for the collectors are ranging from slightly more than 4000 USD for the
smallest to over 140 000 USD for the biggest model. This is the 198-lenses XD160
5/198A5, which provides 198 optical fibers with light. The price in Japanese Yens was 19
500 000 in 2001. There are two 12-lenses models, the cheapest of them being XD-
505/12A5. In 2001 the price was 560 000 SPY.

The models in between of the extremes are two 36-lenses and one 90-lenses version.
The glass optical fiber costs approximately 140 USD per meter and the light appliances
ranges from just over 35 USD to near 280 USD.

The price for this system in mass-production has not yet been determined. However,
Colsman-Freyberger made a very rough guess estimating that the price for one
collector (Fresnel lens 1 m in diameter) with a 10 m light pipe would be about 2000
USD

The overall installation cost for a single-storey application of this system has been
estimated to 3000 USD in commercial quantities. This is valid for a system with one
collector of 2 m2 providing around 12 luminaries and about 90 m2 of floor space with light.

A project to install a first generation version of this system is scheduled to start 2003 in
Sacramento, California. During the first year the Sacramento Municipal Utility District and
Oak Ridge National Laboratories (ORNL), that has been awarded the contract by the
California Energy Commission, will select a suitable office building. The second year the
system will be installed and operated by ORNL.

References

[ORNL, 2001; Muhs, 2000a; Earl and Muhs, 2001; Muhs, 2000b; Muhs, 2002].
8.3 Discussion
8.4 Future Scope

Appendices
Appendix I: Typical reflectance for finish material

Material Material Reflectance

Reflectance (%)
(%)
Metals Ground cover

Al (brushed) 55 58 Asphalt 05 -10

Al (etched) 70 - 85 Concrete 40

Al (polished) 60 70 Grass & other 60 -75

Stainless steel 50 60 Vegetation 60 75

Tin 67 -72 Snow

Masonry Paint

Brick (dark buff) 30 40 White 70 90

Brick (light buff ) 40 45 white porcelain 60 83

Brick (red ) 10 20 Enamel

Cement (grey) 20 30

Limestone 35 60 Wood

Marble (polished) 30 70 Light birch 35 50

Plaster (white) 90 92 Mahogany 06 12

Sandstone 20 40 Oak, dark 10 15

 Terracotta (white) 65 80 Oak, light 25 35

Walnut 05 10

Glass

Clear or tinted 05 10

Reflective 20 30

Appendix II: Typical transmittance:

Case: 1 material transmittane

(%)
Clear glass or plastic 80 90
(Transparent coloured Glass or
plastic)
Blue 03 05
Red 08 17
Green 10 17
Amber 30 50
Case: 2 Spread transmission
etched glass (Toward 82 85
source)
etched glass (Away from the 63 78
Source)
Case: 3 diffuse transmittance
Alabaster 20 50
Glass block 40 75
Marble 05 40
Plastic (Acrylic, vinyl, fibre- 30 65
Reinforced plastic)

Appendix III: Munsell system

The most generally used classification of surface colour. It distinguishes three colour
concepts.
1. Hue: the concept of colour using the common colour terms, red, yellow, green, blue
& purple but further subdividing it into five subcategories.

1. Value: the subjective measure of reflectance light or dark appearance according to

scale from value 0 (absolute black) to 10 (absolute white). in practice value from 0 to
9 are encountered.

2. Chrome: the degree of colourfulness or intensity of colours, distinguishing 14

classes. Low chrome would be almost grey; the brightest colour has a chrome 12
14 .the munsell notation establish relation between

3. hue, value and colour

Hue = value / chrome

5r = 4/10

Bibliography