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Electrical Engineering Training Series.
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Introduction to Matter, Energy, and Electricity
Matter, Energy, and Electricity

Batteries
Direct Current
Introduction to Alternating Current and Transformers
Inductive and Capacitive Reactance

Transformers
Useful AC Formulas
Introduction to Circuit Protection, Control, and Measuring Join Integrated

Publishing's
Discussion Group
Circuit Measurement
Circuit Protection Devices
Circuit Control Devices
Introduction to Electrical Conductors, Wiring Techniques,

and
Schematic Reading
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Electrical Conductors
information on CD-
Wiring Techniques
Rom
Schematic Reading
Introduction to Generators and Motors
Direct Current Generators

Direct Current Motors
Alternating Current Generators
Alternating Current Motors Order this
information in
Print (Hardcopy).
Introduction to Electronic Emission, Tubes, and Power
Introduction to Electron Tubes

Special Purpose Tubes
Power Supplies
Introduction to Solid-State Devices and Power Supplies
Semiconductor Diodes
Transistors
Special Devices
Solid-State Power Supplies
Introduction to Amplifiers
Amplifiers
Video and RF Amplifiers
Special Amplifiers
Introduction to Wave-Generation and Wave-Shaping Circuits
Tuned Circuits
Oscillators
Waveforms and Wave Generators
Wave Shaping
Introduction to Wave Propagation, Transmission Lines, and

Antennas
Wave Propagation
Radio Wave Propagation
Principles of Transmission Lines
Antennas
Microwave Principles
Waveguide Theory and Application
Microwave Components and Circuits
Microwave Antennas
Modulation Principles
Amplitude Modulation
Angle and Pulse Modulation
Demodulation
Introduction to Number Systems and Logic Circuits
Number Systems
Fundamental Logic Circuits
Special Logic Circuits
Introduction to Microelectronics
Microelectronics
Miniature/Microminiature repair program
Miniature and microminiature repair procedures
Principles of Synchros, Servos, and Gyros
Synchros
Servos
Gyros
Related Devices
Introduction to Test Equipment
Test Equipment and Administration Use

Miscellaneous Measurements
Basic Meters
Common Test Equipment
Special Application Test Equipment
The Oscilloscope and spectrum analyzer
Radio-Frequency Communications Principles
Introduction to Radio
Introduction to Communications Theory
Fundamental Systems Equipment
Introduction to Satellite Communications
Introduction to Miscellaneous Communications
Radar Principles
Radar Fundamentals
Radar Subsystems
Radar Indicators and Antennas
Radar System Maintenance
Test Methods and Practices
Basic Measurements
Component Testing
Quantitative Measurements
Qualitative Measurements
Introduction to Waveform Interpretation
Introduction to Digital Computers
Electronic Computers
Hardware
Software
Data Representation and Communication
Magnetic Recording
Introduction to Magnetic Recording

Magnetic Tape
Magnetic Tape Recorder
Magnetic Tape Recording Specifications
Digital Magnetic Tape Recording
Magnetic Disk Recording
Fiber Optics
Background on fiber optics

Optical fibers and cables
Optical sources and fiber optic transmitters
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Book1 Matter Energy and Electricity
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Matter
Energy Levels
Valence
Nature of Charges
Magnetism
Magnetic Poles
Theories of magnetism, Webers Theory
Lines of Force
Magnetic Shielding
Join Integrated
Electrical Charges
Publishing's
Voltage Produced by Friction Discussion Group
Voltage Produced by Chemical Action
Electric Current
Measurement of Current
Conductance
Wattage Rating
Chapter 1 Summary
Chapter 1 Answers
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Rom
Chapter 2 - Batteries
Primary Cell
Polarization of the cell
Other Types of Cells
Series-Connected Cells
Battery Construction Order this
Safety Precautions With Batteries information in
Chapter 2 Summary Print (Hardcopy).
Chapter 2 Answers
Chapter 3 - Direct Current
The basic electric circuit

Ohm's law
Application of ohm's law
Graphical analysis of the basic circuit
Power
Power rating
Power conversion and efficiency
Series DC circuits
Current in a Series Circuit
Voltage in a Series Circuit
Power in a Series Circuit
Rules for Series DC Circuits
Kirchhoff's voltage law
Application of Kirchhoff's voltage law
Series Aiding and Opposing Sources
Circuit terms and characteristics
Open circuit
Short circuit
Source resistance
Power transfer and efficiency
Parallel DC circuits
Voltage in a Parallel Circuit
Current in a Parallel Circuit
Resistance in a Parallel Circuit
Power in a Parallel Circuit
Equivalent Circuits
Rules for Parallel DC Circuits
Series-parallel DC circuits
Practice Circuit Problem
Redrawing circuits for clarity
Redrawing a Complex Circuit
Effects of open and short circuits
Voltage dividers
Multiple-load voltage dividers
Power in the voltage divider
Voltage divider with positive and negative voltage
requirements
Practical application of voltage dividers
Equivalent circuit techniques
Danger signals
Electrical fires
Summary
Rules for series DC circuits
Rules for parallel DC circuits
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CHAPTER 1
MATTER, ENERGY, AND ELECTRICITY
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
Learning objectives are stated at the beginning of each chapter. These learning objectives Join Integrated
serve as a preview of the information you are expected to learn in the chapter. The Publishing's
comprehensive check questions are based on the objectives. By successfully completing the Discussion Group
NRTC, you indicate that you have met the objectives and have learned the information. The
learning objectives are listed below.
Upon completing this chapter, you will be able to:
1. State the meanings of and the relationship between matter, element, nucleus,
compound, molecule, mixture, atom, electron, proton, neutron, energy, valence,
valence shell, and ion. Order this
information on CD-
2. State the meanings of and the relationship between kinetic energy, potential Rom
energy, photons, electron orbits, energy levels, and shells and subshells.
3. State, in terms of valence, the differences between a conductor, an insulator, and

a semiconductor, and list some materials which make the best conductors and
insulators.
Order this
4. State the definition of static electricity and explain how static electricity is information in
generated. Print (Hardcopy).
5. State the meanings of retentivity, reluctance, permeability, ferromagnetism,

natural magnet, and artificial magnet as used to describe magnetic materials.
6. State the Weber and domain theories of magnetism and list six characteristics of
magnetic lines of force (magnetic flux), including their relation to magnetic induction,
shielding, shape, and storage.
7. State, using the water analogy, how a difference of potential (a voltage or an

electromotive force) can exist. Convert volts to microvolts, to millivolts, and to
kilovolts.
8. List six methods for producing a voltage (emf) and state the operating principles
of and the uses for each method.
9. State the meanings of electron current, random drift, directed drift, and ampere,
and indicate the direction that an electric current flows.
10. State the relationship of current to voltage and convert amperes to milliamperes
and microamperes.
11. State the definitions of and the terms and symbols for resistance and
conductance, and how the temperature, contents, length and cross-sectional area
of a conductor affect its resistance and conductance values.
12. List the physical and operating characteristics of and the symbols, ratings, and
uses for various types of resistors; use the color code to identify resistor values.
INTRODUCTION
The origin of the modern technical and electronic Navy stretches back to the beginning of
naval history, when the first navies were no more than small fleets of wooden ships, using wind-
filled sails and manned oars. The need for technicians then was restricted to a navigator and
semiskilled seamen who could handle the sails.
As time passed, larger ships that carried more sail were built. These ships, encouraging
exploration and commerce, helped to establish world trade routes. Soon strong navies were
needed to guard these sea lanes. Countries established their own navies to protect their citizens,
commercial ships, and shipping lanes against pirates and warring nations. With the addition of
mounted armament, gunners joined the ship's company of skilled or semiskilled technicians.
The advent of the steam engine signaled the rise of an energy source more practical than
either wind and sails or manpower. With this technological advancement, the need for competent
operators and technicians increased.
However, the big call for operators and technicians in the U.S. Navy came in the early part of the
20th century, when power sources, means of communication, modes of detection, and
armaments moved with amazing rapidity toward involved technical development. Electric motors
and generators by then had become the most widely used sources of power. Telephone systems
were well established on board ship, and radio was being used more and more to relay
messages from ship to ship and from ship to shore. Listening devices were employed to detect
submarines. Complex optical systems were used to aim large naval rifles. Mines and torpedoes
became highly developed, effective weapons, and airplanes joined the Navy team.
During the years after World War I, the Navy became more electricity and electronic minded. It
was recognized that a better system of communications was needed aboard each ship, and
between the ships, planes, submarines, and shore installations; and that weaponry advances
were needed to keep pace with worldwide developments in that field. This growing technology
carried with it the awareness that an equally skilled force of technicians was needed for
maintenance and service duties.
World War II proved that all of the expense of providing equipment for the fleet and of training
personnel to handle that equipment paid great dividends. The U. S. Navy had the modern
equipment and highly trained personnel needed to defeat the powerful fleets of the enemy.
Today there is scarcely anyone on board a Navy ship who does not use electrical or electronic
equipment. This equipment is needed in systems of electric lighting and power,
intercommunications, radio, radar, sonar, loran, remote metering, weapon aiming, and certain
types of mines and torpedoes. The Navy needs trained operators and technicians in this
challenging field of electronics and electricity. It is to achieve this end that this module, and
others like it, are published.
MATTER, ENERGY, AND ELECTRICITY

If there are roots to western science, they no doubt lie under the rubble that was once ancient
Greece. With the exception of the Greeks, ancient people had little interest in the structure of
materials. They accepted a solid as being just that a continuous, uninterrupted substance. One
Greek school of thought believed that if a piece of matter, such as copper, were subdivided, it
could be done indefinitely and still only that material would be found. Others reasoned that there
must be a limit to the number of subdivisions that could be made and have the material still
retain its original characteristics. They held fast to the idea that there must be a basic particle
upon which all substances are built. Recent experiments have revealed that there are, indeed,
several basic particles, or building blocks within all substances.
The following paragraphs explain how substances are classified as elements and compounds,
and are made up of molecules and atoms. This, then, will be a learning experience about
protons, electrons, valence, energy levels, and the physics of electricity.
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Chapter 2 - Batteries
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CHAPTER 2
BATTERIES
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
Upon completing this chapter, you will be able to: Join Integrated
Publishing's
1. State the purpose of a cell. Discussion Group
2. State the purpose of the three parts of a cell.
3. State the difference between the two types of cells.
4. Explain the chemical process that takes place in the primary and secondary cells.
5. Recognize and define the terms electrochemical action, anode, cathode, and
electrolyte.
6. State the causes of polarization and local action and describe methods of
preventing these effects.
7. Identify the parts of a dry cell. Order this
8. Identify the various dry cells in use today and some of their capabilities and information on CD-
limitations. Rom
9. Identify the four basic secondary cells, their construction, capabilities, and
limitations.
10. Define a battery, and identify the three ways of combining cells to form a
battery.
11. Describe general maintenance procedures for batteries including the use of the
hydrometer, battery capacity, and rating and battery charging.
12. Identify the five types of battery charges. Order this
13. Observe the safety precautions for working with and around batteries. information in
Print (Hardcopy).
INTRODUCTION
The purpose of this chapter is to introduce and explain the basic theory and characteristics of
batteries. The batteries which are discussed and illustrated have been selected as
representative of many models and types which are used in the Navy today. No attempt has
been made to cover every type of battery in use, however, after completing this chapter you will
have a good working knowledge of the batteries which are in general use.
First, you will learn about the building block of all batteries, the CELL. The explanation will
explore the physical makeup of the cell and the methods used to combine cells to provide useful
voltage, current, and power. The chemistry of the cell and how chemical action is used to convert
chemical energy to electrical energy are also discussed.
In addition, the care, maintenance, and operation of batteries, as well as some of the safety
precautions that should be followed while working with and around batteries are discussed.
Batteries are widely used as sources of direct-current electrical energy in automobiles, boats,
aircraft, ships, portable electric/electronic equipment, and lighting equipment. In some instances,
they are used as the only source of power; while in others, they are used as a secondary or
standby power source.
A battery consists of a number of cells assembled in a common container and connected

together to function as a source of electrical power.
THE CELL
A cell is a device that transforms chemical energy into electrical energy. The simplest cell,
known as either a galvanic or voltaic cell, is shown in figure 2-1. It consists of a piece of carbon
(C) and a piece of zinc (Zn) suspended in a jar that contains a solution of water (H20) and
sulfuric acid (H2S04) called the electrolyte.
Figure 2-1. - Simple voltaic or galvanic cell.

The cell is the fundamental unit of the battery. A simple cell consists of two electrodes placed
in a container that holds the electrolyte.
In some cells the container acts as one of the electrodes and, in this case, is acted upon by
the electrolyte. This will be covered in more detail later.
ELECTRODES
The electrodes are the conductors by which the current leaves or returns to the electrolyte. In
the simple cell, they are carbon and zinc strips that are placed in the electrolyte; while in the dry
cell (fig. 2-2), they are the carbon rod in the center and zinc container in which the cell is
assembled.
Figure 2-2. - Dry cell, cross-sectional view.
ELECTROLYTE
The electrolyte is the solution that acts upon the electrodes. The electrolyte, which provides a
path for electron flow, may be a salt, an acid, or an alkaline solution. In the simple galvanic cell,
the electrolyte is in a liquid form. In the dry cell, the electrolyte is a paste.
CONTAINER
The container which may be constructed of one of many different materials provides a means
of holding (containing) the electrolyte. The container is also used to mount the electrodes. In the
voltaic cell the container must be constructed of a material that will not be acted upon by the
electrolyte.
Q1.What is the purpose of a cell?
Q2.What are the three parts of a cell?
Q3.What is the purpose of each of the three parts of a cell?
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Direct Current
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DIRECT CURRENT
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
Identify the term schematic diagram and identify the

components in a circuit from a simple schematic diagram.
State the equation for Ohm's law and describe the effects on
current caused by changes in a circuit.
Given simple graphs of current versus power and voltage
versus power, determine the value of circuit power for a Join Integrated
given current and voltage. Publishing's
Identify the term power, and state three formulas for Discussion Group
computing power.
Compute circuit and component power in series, parallel,
and combination circuits.
Compute the efficiency of an electrical device.
Solve for unknown quantities of resistance, current, and
voltage in a series circuit.
Describe how voltage polarities are assigned to the voltage
drops across resistors when Kirchhoff's voltage law is used. Order this
State the voltage at the reference point in a circuit. information on CD-
Define open and short circuits and describe their effects on Rom
a circuit.
State the meaning of the term source resistance and
describe its effect on a circuit.
Describe in terms of circuit values the circuit condition
needed for maximum power transfer.
Compute efficiency of power transfer in a circuit.
Order this
Solve for unknown quantities of resistance, current, and
information in
voltage in a parallel circuit.
Print (Hardcopy).
State the significance of the polarity assigned to a current
when using Kirchhoff's current law.
State the meaning of the term equivalent resistance.
Compute resistance, current, voltage, and power in voltage
dividers.
Describe the method by which a single voltage divider can
provide both positive and negative voltages.
Recognize the safety precautions associated with the
hazard of electrical shock.
Identify the first aid procedures for a victim of electrical
shock.
INTRODUCTION
The material covered in this chapter contains many new terms that
are explained as you progress through the material. The basic dc
circuit is the easiest to understand, so the chapter begins with the
basic circuit and from there works into the basic schematic diagram
of that circuit. The schematic diagram is used in all your future work
in electricity and electronics. It is very important that you become
familiar with the symbols that are used.
This chapter also explains how to determine the total resistance,

current, voltage, and power in a series, parallel, or combination
circuit through the use of Ohm's and Kirchhoff's laws. The voltage
divider network, series, parallel, and series-parallel practice
problem circuits will be used for practical examples of what you
have learned.
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Book 2
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CONCEPTS OF ALTERNATING CURRENT
Voltage Waveform
Magnetic Field of a Coil
Basic AC Generation
Frequency
Alternating Current Values
Effective Value of a Sine Wave
Sine Waves in Phase
Ohm's law in AC Circuits
Summary
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Answers
Publishing's
Discussion Group
INDUCTANCE
Self-Inductance
Inductance
Unit of Inductance
L/R Time Constant
Power Loss in an Inductor Order this
information on CD-
Series Inductors without Magnetic Coupling
Rom
Summary
Answers
CAPACITANCE
The Farad
Charging and Discharging a Capacitor Order this
information in
Charge and discharge of an RC Series Circuit
Print (Hardcopy).
RC Time Constant
Capacitors in series and parallel
Fixed Capacitor
Color codes for Capacitors
Summary
Answers
Inductive and Capacitive Reactance
Inductive Reactance
Capacitors and Alternating Current
Capacitive Reactance
Reactance, Impedance, and Power Relationships in
AC Circuits
Impedance
Ohm's Law for AC
Power in AC Circuits
Calculating Reactive Power in AC Circuits
Calculating Apparent Power in AC Circuits
Power Factor
Power Factor Correction
Series RLC Circuits
Inductive and Capacitive Reactance Summary
Inductive and Capacitive Reactance Answers
Transformers
Basic Operation of a Transformer

Hollow-Core Transformers
Transformer Windings
Schematic Symbols for Transformers
Producing a Counter EMF
Coefficient of a coupling
Effect of a load
Power Relationships between primary and secondary
windings
Transformer Ratings
Safety Effects of Current on the body
Transformers Summary
Transformers Answers
Useful AC Formulas
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INDUCTIVE AND CAPACITIVE REACTANCE
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LEARNING OBJECTIVES
Upon completion of this chapter you will be able to:
State the effects an inductor

has on a change in current
and a capacitor has on a Join Integrated
change in voltage. Publishing's
State the phase relationships Discussion Group
between current and voltage
in an inductor and in a
capacitor.
State the terms for the
opposition an inductor and a
capacitor offer to ac
Write the formulas for
inductive and capacitive Order this
reactances. information on CD-
State the effects of a change Rom
in frequency on X L and XC.
State the effects of a change
in inductance on X L and a
change in capacitance on XC.
Write the formula for
determining total reactance Order this
(X); compute total reactance information in
(X) in a series circuit; and Print (Hardcopy).
indicate whether the total
reactance is capacitive or
inductive.
State the term given to the
total opposition (Z) in an ac
circuit.
Write the formula for
impedance, and calculate the
impedance in a series circuit
when the values of XC, X L,
and R are given.
Write the Ohm's law formulas
used to determine voltage
and current in an ac circuit.
Define true power, reactive
power, and apparent power;
state the unit of measurement
for and the formula used to
calculate each.
State the definition of and
write the formula for power
factor.
Given the power factor and
values of X and R in an ac
circuit, compute the value of
reactance in the circuit, and
state the type of reactance
that must be connected in the
circuit to correct the power
factor to unity (1).
State the difference between
calculating impedance in a
series ac circuit and in a
parallel ac circuit.
You have already learned how inductance and capacitance

individually behave in a direct current circuit. In this chapter you will
be shown how inductance, capacitance, and resistance affect
alternating current.
INDUCTANCE AND ALTERNATING CURRENT
This might be a good place to recall what you learned about phase
in chapter 1. When two things are in step, going through a cycle
together, falling together and rising together, they are in phase.
When they are out of phase, the angle of lead or lag-the number of
electrical degrees by which one of the values leads or lags the
other-is a measure of the amount they are out of step. The time it
takes the current in an inductor to build up to maximum and to fall
to zero is important for another reason. It helps illustrate a very
useful characteristic of inductive circuits-the current through the
inductor always lags the voltage across the inductor.
A circuit having pure resistance (if such a thing were possible)

would have the alternating current through it and the voltage across
it rising and failing together. This is illustrated in figure 4-1(A),which
shows the sine waves for current and voltage in a purely resistive
circuit having an ac source. The current and voltage do not have
the same amplitude, but they are in phase.
In the case of a circuit having inductance, the opposing force of the

counter emf would be enough to keep the current from remaining in
phase with the applied voltage. You learned that in a dc circuit
containing pure inductance the current took time to rise to
maximum even though the full applied voltage was immediately at
maximum. Figure 4-1(B) shows the wave forms for a purely
inductive ac circuit in steps of quarter-cycles.
Figure 4-1. - Voltage and current waveforms in an inductive circuit.

With an ac voltage, in the first quarter-cycle (0 to 90) the applied
ac voltage is continually increasing. If there was no inductance in
the circuit, the current would also increase during this first quarter-
cycle. You know this circuit does have inductance. Since
inductance opposes any change in current flow, no current flows
during the first quarter-cycle. In the next quarter-cycle (90 to 180)
the voltage decreases back to zero; current begins to flow in the
circuit and reaches a maximum value at the same instant the
voltage reaches zero. The applied voltage now begins to build up
to maximum in the other direction, to be followed by the resulting
current. When the voltage again reaches its maximum at the end of
the third quarter-cycle (270) all values are exactly opposite to what
they were during the first half-cycle. The applied voltage leads the
resulting current by one quarter-cycle or 90 degrees. To complete
the full 360 cycle of the voltage, the voltage again decreases to
zero and the current builds to a maximum value.
You must not get the idea that any of these values stops cold at a
particular instant. Until the applied voltage is removed, both current
and voltage are always changing in amplitude and direction.
As you know the sine wave can be compared to a circle. Just as

you mark off a circle into 360 degrees, you can mark off the time of
one cycle of a sine wave into 360 electrical degrees. This
relationship is shown in figure 4-2. By referring to this figure you
can see why the current is said to lag the voltage, in a purely
inductive circuit, by 90 degrees. Furthermore, by referring to figures
4-2 and 4-1(A) you can see why the current and voltage are said to
be in phase in a purely resistive circuit. In a circuit having both
resistance and inductance then, as you would expect, the current
lags the voltage by an amount somewhere between 0 and 90
degrees.
Figure 4-2. - Comparison of sine wave and circle in an inductive

circuit.
A simple memory aid to help you remember the relationship of
voltage and current in an inductive circuit is the word ELI. Since E
is the symbol for voltage, L is the symbol for inductance, and I is
the symbol for current; the word ELI demonstrates that current
comes after (Lags) voltage in an inductor.
Q.1 What effect does an inductor have on a change in current?

Q.2 What is the phase relationship between current and voltage in
an inductor?
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TRANSFORMERS
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TRANSFORMERS
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
State the meaning of

"transformer action."
State the physical
characteristics of a Join Integrated
transformer, including the Publishing's
basic parts, common core Discussion Group
materials, and main core
types.
State the names given to the
source and load windings of a
transformer.
State the difference in
construction between a high-
and a low-voltage Order this
transformer. information on CD-
Rom
Identify transformer symbols
as to the type of transformer
each symbol represents and
the method used to denote
transformer phasing.
Order this
State the meaning of a "no-
information in
load condition" and "exciting
Print (Hardcopy).
current" relative to a
transformer.
State what causes voltage to
be developed across the
secondary of a transformer
and the effect of cemf in a
transformer.
State the meaning of leakage
flux and its effect on the
coefficient of coupling.
Identify a transformer as step
up or step down and state the
current ratio of a transformer
when given the turns ratio.
Solve for primary voltage,
secondary voltage, primary
current and number of turns in
the secondary given various
transformer values.
State the mathematical
relationship between the
power in the primary and the
power in the secondary of a
transformer and compute
efficiency of a transformer.
State the three power losses
in a transformer.
State the reason a
transformer should not be
operated at a lower frequency
than that specified for the
transformer.
List five different types of
transformers according to
their applications.
State the standard color
coding for a power
transformer.
State the general safety
precautions you should
observe when working with
transformers and other
electrical components.
TRANSFORMERS
The information in this chapter is on the construction, theory,

operation, and the various uses of transformers. Safety precautions
to be observed by a person working with transformers are also
discussed.
A TRANSFORMER is a device that transfers electrical energy from

one circuit to another by electromagnetic induction (transformer
action). The electrical energy is always transferred without a
change in frequency, but may involve changes in magnitudes of
voltage and current. Because a transformer works on the principle
of electromagnetic induction, it must be used with an input source
voltage that varies in amplitude. There are many types of power
that fit this description; for ease of explanation and understanding,
transformer action will be explained using an ac voltage as the
input source.
In a preceding chapter you learned that alternating current has

certain advantages over direct current. One important advantage is
that when ac is used, the voltage and current levels can be
increased or decreased by means of a transformer.
As you know, the amount of power used by the load of an electrical

circuit is equal to the current in the load times the voltage across
the load, or P = EI. If, for example, the load in an electrical circuit
requires an input of 2 amperes at 10 volts (20 watts) and the
source is capable of delivering only 1 ampere at 20 volts, the circuit
could not normally be used with this particular source. However, if
a transformer is connected between the source and the load, the
voltage can be decreased (stepped down) to 10 volts and the
current increased (stepped up) to 2 amperes. Notice in the above
case that the power remains the same. That is, 20 volts times 1
ampere equals the same power as 10 volts times 2 amperes.
Q.1 What is meant by "transformer action?"
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Useful AC Formulas
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USEFUL AC FORMULAS
PERIOD TIME (t)
FREQUENCY (f)
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AVERAGE VOLTAGE OR CURRENT
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EFFECTIVE VALUE OF VOLTAGE OR CURRENT Rom
MAXIMUM VOLTAGE OR CURRENT Order this
information in
Print (Hardcopy).
OHM'S LAW OF AC CIRCUIT CONTAINING ONLY RESISTANCE
L/R TIME CONSTANT (TC)
MUTUAL INDUCTANCE (M)
TOTAL INDUCTANCE (LT) Series without magnetic coupling

TOTAL INDUCTANCE (LT) PARALLEL (No magnetic coupling)
CAPACITANCE (C)
RC TIME CONSTANT (t)
TOTAL CAPACITANCE (CT) SERIES
TOTAL CAPACITANCE (CT) PARALLEL
INDUCTIVE REACTANCE (XL)

CAPACITIVE REACTANCE (XC)
IMPEDANCE (Z)
OHM'S LAW FOR REACTIVE CIRCUITS
OHM'S LAW FOR CIRCUITS CONTAINING RESISTANCE AND

REACTANCE
REACTIVE POWER
APPARENT POWER
POWER FACTOR (PF)
VOLTAGE ACROSS THE SECONDARY (Es)
VOLTAGE ACROSS THE PRIMARY (Ep)
CURRENT ACROSS THE SECONDARY (Is)
CURRENT ACROSS THE PRIMARY (Ip)
TRANSFORMER EFFICIENCY
TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS
In a right triangle, there are several relationships which always hold

true. These relationships pertain to the length of the sides of a right
triangle, and the way the lengths are affected by the angles
between them.
An understanding of these relationships, called trigonometric

functions, is essential for solving problems in a-c circuits such as
power factor, impedance, voltage drops, and so forth.
To be a RIGHT triangle, a triangle must have a "square" corner;

one in which there is exactly 90 between two of the sides.
Trigonometric functions do not apply to any other type of triangle.
This type of triangle is shown in figure V-1.
By use of the trigonometric functions, it is possible to determine the

UNKNOWN length of one or more sides of a triangle, or the
number of degrees in UNKNOWN angles, depending on what is
presently known about the triangle.
For instance, if the lengths of any two sides are known, the third
side and both angles &thetas; (theta) and Φ (phi) may be
determined. The triangle may also be solved if the length of any
one side and one of the angles (&thetas; or Φ in fig. V-1) are
known.
Figure V-1. - A right triangle.

The first basic fact of triangles is that IN ANY RIGHT TRIANGLE,
THE SUM OF THE THREE ANGLES FORMED INSIDE THE
TRIANGLE MUST ALWAYS EQUAL 180. If one angle is always
90 (a right angle) then the sum of the other two angles must
always be 90.
thus, if angle &thetas; is known, Φ may be quickly determined.
For instance, if &thetas; is 30m what is Φ ?
Also, if &thetas; is known, Φ may be determined in the same

manner.
The second basic fact you must understand is that FOR EVERY
DIFFERENT COMBINATION OF ANGLES IN A TRIANGLE,
THERE IS A DEFINITE RATIO BETWEEN THE LENGTHS OF
THE THREE SIDES. Consider the triangle in figure V-2, consisting
of the base, side B; the altitude, side A; and the hypotenuse, side
C. (The hypotenuse is always the longest side, and is always
opposite the 90 angle.)
Figure V-2. - A 30 - 60 - 90 triangle.

If angle &thetas; is 30, Φ must be 60. With &thetas; equal to
30, the ratio of the length of side B to side C is 0.866 to 1. That is,
if the hypotenuse is 1 inch long, the side adjacent to &thetas;, side
B, is 0.866 inch long. Also, with &thetas; equal to 30, the ratio of
side A to side C is 0.5 to 1. That is, with the hypotenuse 1 inch
long, the side opposite to &thetas; (side A) is 0.5 inch long. With
&thetas; still at 30, side A is 0.5774 of the length of B. With the
combination of angles given (30-60-90) these are the ONLY
ratios of lengths that will "fit" to form a right triangle.
Note that three ratios are shown to exist for the given value of
&thetas;: the ratio B\C which is always referred to as the COSINE
ratio of &thetas;, the ratio A\C, which is always the SINE ratio of
&thetas;, and the ratio A\B, which is always the TANGENT ratio of
&thetas;. If &thetas; changes, all three ratios change, because the
lengths of the sides (base and altitude) change.
There is a set of ratios for every increment between 0 and 90.

These angular ratios, or sine, cosine, and tangent functions, are
listed for each degree and tenth of degree in a table at the end of
this appendix. In this table, the length of the hypotenuse of a
triangle is considered fixed. Thus, the ratios of length given refer to
the manner in which sides A and B vary with relation to each other
and in relation to side C, as angle &thetas; is varied from 0 to 90.
The solution of problems in trigonometry (solution of triangles is

much simpler when the table of trigonometric functions is used
properly. The most common ways in which it is used will be shown
by solving a series of exemplary problems.
Problem 1: If the hypotenuse of the triangle (side C) in figure V-3 is

10 inches long, and angle &thetas; is 33, how long are sides B
and A?
Figure V-3. - Problem 1.

Solution: The ratio B/C is the cosine function. By checking the table
of functions, You will find that the cosine of 33 is 0.8387. This
means that the length of B is 0.8387 the length of side C. If side C
is 10 inches long, then side B must be 10 X 0.8387, or 8.387
inches in length. To determine the length of side A, use the sine
function, the ratio A\C. Again consulting the table of functions, you
will find that the sine of 33 is 0.5446. Thus, side A must be 10 X
0.5446, or 5.446 inches in length.
Problem 2: The triangle in figure V-4 has a base 74.2 feet long, and
hypotenuse 100 feet long. What is &thetas;, and how long is side
A?
Figure V4. - Problem 2.

Solution: When no angles are given, you Must always solve for a
known angle first. The ratio B\C is the cosine of the unknown angle
&thetas;; therefore 74.2/100 or 0.742, is the cosine of the unknown
angle. Locating 0.742 as a cosine value in the table, you find that it
is the cosine of 42.1.
That is, &thetas; = 42.1. With &thetas; known, side A is solved for
by use of the sine ratio A/C. The sine of 42.1, according to the
table, is 0.6704. Therefore, side A is 100 X 0.6704, or 67.04 feet
long.
Problem 3: In the triangle in figure V-5, the base is 3 units long, and
the altitude is 4 units. What is &thetas;, and how long is the
hypotenuse?
Solution: With the information given, the tangent of &thetas; may

be determined. Tan &thgr; = A/B = 4/3 = 1.33.
Figure V-5. - Problem 3.

Locating the value 1.33 as a tangent value in the table of functions,
you find it to be the tangent of 53.1. Therefore, &thetas; = 53.1.
Once &thetas; is known, either the sine or cosine ratio may be
used to determine the length of the hypotenuse. The cosine of
53.1 is 0.6004. This indicates that the base of 3 units is 0.6004,
the length of the hypotenuse. Therefore, the hypotenuse is
3/0.6004, or 5 units in length. Using the sine ratio, the hypotenuse
is 4/0.7997, or 5 units in length.
In the foregoing explanations and problems, the sides of triangles

were given in inches, feet, and units. In applying trigonometry to a-
c circuit problems, these units of measure will be replaced by such
values given in ohms, amperes, volts, and watts. Angle &thetas;
will be the phase angle between (source) voltage and circuit
current. However, the solution of these a-c problems is
accomplished in exactly the same manner as the foregoing
problems. Only the units and some terminology are changed.
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Book 3
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Circuit Measurement
Basic Meter Movements

Permanent-Magnet Moving-Coil movement
Compass and alternating current
D'Arsonval meter movement
Indicating Alternating Current
Ammeters
Ammeter Sensitivity
Range Selection
Voltmeters
Join Integrated
Making a voltmeter from a current sensitive meter
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movement Discussion Group
Electrostatic Meter Movement
Ohmmeters
Ohmmeter Ranges
Shunt Ohmmeter
Ohmmeter safety precautions
Multimeter
Multimeter Movements
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Other Meters information on CD-
Wattmeter Rom
Frequency Meters
Meter Reognition
Frequency Meter Reading
Summary
Answers
Order this
Circuit Protection Devices information in
Print (Hardcopy).
Introduction
Circuit protection devices
Schematic Symbols
Fuse Recognition
Identification of fuses
Fuseholders
Fuseholder Identification
Replacement of fuses.
Circuit Breakers
Magnetic trip element
Trip-Free/Nontrip-Free Circuit Breakers
The thermal-magnetic trip element
Summary
Answers
Circuit Control Devices
Schematic symbol recognition.

Schematic symbols of switches
Rotary switch in automobile ignition system
Switch schematic symbols.
Snap-Acting Switches
Switch Rating
Replacement Switches and Their Characteristics
Relays
Maintenance of Relays
Summary
Answers

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CIRCUIT MEASUREMENT
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CIRCUIT MEASUREMENT
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
Learning objectives are stated at the beginning of each chapter.

These learning objectives serve as a preview of the information you
are expected to learn in the chapter. The comprehensive check
questions are based on the objectives. By successfully completing
the NRTC, you indicate that you have met the objectives and have
learned the information. The learning objectives are listed below. Join Integrated
Publishing's
Upon completion of this chapter you will be able to: Discussion Group
State two ways circuit

measurement is used, why in-
circuit meters are used, and
one advantage of out-of-
circuit meters.
Order this
information on CD-
Rom
State the way in which a
compass reacts to a
conducting wire including the
compass reaction to
increasing and decreasing dc
Order this
and ac high and low
information in
frequencies.
Print (Hardcopy).
State how a d'Arsonval meter
movement reacts to dc.
State the purpose of a rectifier
as used in ac meters.
State the meaning of the term
"damping" as it applies to
meter movements and
describe two methods by
which damping is
accomplished.
Identify average value as the
value of ac measured and
effective value (rms) as the ac
value indicated on ac meter
scales.
Identify three meter
movements that measure dc
or ac without the use of a
rectifier.
State the electrical quantity
measured by an ammeter, the
way in which an ammeter is
connected in a circuit, and the
effect of an ammeter upon a
circuit.
Define ammeter sensitivity.
State the method used to
allow an ammeter to measure
different ranges and the
reason for using the highest
range when connecting an
ammeter to a circuit.
List the safety precautions for
ammeter use.
measured by a voltmeter, the
way in which a voltmeter is
connected in a circuit, the way
in which a voltmeter affects
the circuit being measured,
and the way in which a
voltmeter is made from a
current reacting meter
movement.
Define voltmeter sensitivity.
allow a voltmeter to measure
different ranges and the
reason for using the highest
range when connecting a
voltmeter to a circuit.
Identify the type of meter
movement that reacts to
voltage and the most common
use of this movement.
voltmeter use.
measured by an ohmmeter,
the second use of an
ohmmeter, and the way in
which an ohmmeter is
connected to a resistance
being measured.
allow an ohmmeter to
measure different ranges and
the area of an ohmmeter
scale that should be used
when measuring resistance.
State the two types of
ohmmeters and the way in
which each can be identified.
ohmmeter use.
State the primary reason for
using a megger and the
method of using it.
Identify normal and abnormal
indications on a megger.
megger use.
State how a multimeter differs
from other meters, the reason
a multimeter is preferred over
separate meters, and the way
in which a multimeter is
changed from a voltage
measuring device to a current
measuring device.
State the reason the ac and
dc scales of a multimeter
differ, the reason for having a
mirror on the scale of a
multimeter, and the proper
way of reading a multimeter
using the mirror.
multimeter use.
State the purpose of a hook-
on type voltameter.
measured by a wattmeter and
a watt-hour meter.
Identify the two types of
frequency meters.
Identify the type of meter and
interpret the meter reading
from scale presentations of an
ammeter; a voltmeter; an
ohmmeter; a megger; a
multimeter (current, voltage,
and resistance examples); a
wattmeter; a watt-hour meter;
and a frequency meter
(vibrating reed and moving-
disk types).
CIRCUIT MEASUREMENT
This chapter will acquaint you with the basics of circuit

measurement and some of the devices used to measure voltage,
current, resistance, power, and frequency. There are other
quantities involved in electrical circuits, such as capacitance,
inductance, impedance, true power, and effective power.
It is possible to measure any circuit quantity once you are able to

select and use the proper circuit measuring device. You will NOT
know all there is to know about circuit measuring devices (test
equipment) when you finish this chapter. That is beyond the scope
of this chapter and even beyond the scope of this training series.
However, more information on test equipment is provided in
another portion of this training series.
A question which you might ask before starting this chapter is "Why
do I need to know about circuit measurement?"
If you intend to accomplish anything in the field of electricity and

electronics, you must be aware of the forces acting inside the
circuits with which you work. Modules 1 and 2 of this training series
introduced you to the physics involved in the study of electricity and
to the fundamental concepts of direct and alternating current. The
terms voltage (volts), current (amperes), and resistance (ohms)
were explained, as well as the various circuit elements; e.g.,
resistors, capacitors, inductors, transformers, and batteries.
In explaining these terms and elements to you, schematic symbols

and schematic diagrams were used. In many of these schematic
diagrams, a meter was represented in the circuit, as shown in
figure 1-1.
As you recall, the current in a dc circuit with 6 volts across a 6-ohm

resistor is 1 ampere. The @(UPPERCASE A) in figure 1-1 is the
symbol for an ammeter. An ammeter is a device that measures
current.
The name "ammeter" comes from the fact that it is a meter used to
measure current (in amperes), and thus is called an AMpere
METER, or AMMETER.
The ammeter in figure 1-1 is measuring a current of 1 ampere with
the voltage and resistance values given.
Figure 1-1. - A simple representative circuit.
In the discussion and explanation of electrical and electronic

circuits, the quantities in the circuit (voltage, current, and
resistance) are important.
If you can measure the electrical quantities in a circuit, it is easier

to understand what is happening in that circuit. This is especially
true when you are troubleshooting defective circuits. By measuring
the voltage, current, capacitance, inductance, impedance, and
resistance in a circuit, you can determine why the circuit is not
doing what it is supposed to do. For instance, you can determine
why a radio is not receiving or transmitting, why your automobile
will not start, or why an electric oven is not working. Measurement
will also assist you in determining why an electrical component
(resistor, capacitor, inductor) is not doing its job.
The measurement of the electrical parameters quantities in a circuit

is an essential part of working on electrical and electronic
equipment.
INTRODUCTION TO CIRCUIT MEASUREMENT
Circuit measurement is used to monitor the operation of an

electrical or electronic device, or to determine the reason a device
is not operating properly. Since electricity is invisible, you must use
some sort of device to determine what is happening in an electrical
circuit. Various devices called test equipment are used to measure
electrical quantities. The most common types of test equipment use
some kind of metering device.
IN-CIRCUIT METERS
Some electrical and electronic devices have meters built into them.
These meters are known as in-circuit meters. An in-circuit meter is
used to monitor the operation of the device in which it is installed.
Some examples of in-circuit meters are the generator or alternator
meter on some automobiles; the voltage, current, and frequency
meters on control panels at electrical power plants; and the
electrical power meter that records the amount of electricity used in
a building.
It is not practical to install an in-circuit meter in every circuit.
However, it is possible to install an in-circuit meter in each critical

or representative circuit to monitor the operation of a piece of
electrical equipment.
A mere glance at or scan of the in-circuit meters on a control board

is often sufficient to tell if the equipment is working properly.
While an in-circuit meter will indicate that an electrical device is not

functioning properly, the cause of the malfunction is determined by
troubleshooting. Troubleshooting is the process of locating and
repairing faults in equipment after they have occurred. Since
troubleshooting is covered elsewhere in this training series, it will
be mentioned here only as it applies to circuit measurement.
OUT-OF-CIRCUIT METERS
In troubleshooting, it is usually necessary to use a meter that can

be connected to the electrical or electronic equipment at various
testing points and may be moved from one piece of equipment to
another. These meters are generally portable and self-contained,
and are known as out-of-circuit meters.
Out-of-circuit meters are more versatile than in-circuit meters in

that the out-of-circuit meter can be used wherever you wish to
connect it. Therefore, the out-of-circuit meter is more valuable in
locating the cause of a malfunction in a device.
Q.1 What are two ways that circuit measurement is used?
Q.2 Why are in-circuit meters used?

Q.3 What is one advantage of an out-of-circuit meter when
it is compared with an in-circuit meter?
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CIRCUIT PROTECTION DEVICES
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LEARNING OBJECTIVES
State the reasons circuit

protection is needed and
three conditions requiring
circuit protection. Join Integrated
Define a direct short, an Publishing's
excessive current condition, Discussion Group
and an excessive heat
condition.
State the way in which circuit
protection devices are
connected in a circuit.
Identify two types of circuit
protection devices and label
the schematic symbols for Order this
each type. information on CD-
Identify a plug-type and a Rom
cartridge-type fuse (open and
not open) from illustrations.
List the three characteristics
by which fuses are rated and
state the meaning of each
rating. Identify a plug-type
and a cartridge-type fuse
Order this
(open and not open) from
information in
illustrations.
Print (Hardcopy).
List the three categories of
time delay rating for fuses and
state a use for each type of
time-delay rated fuse.
List the three categories of
time delay rating for fuses and
state a use for each type of
time-delay rated fuse. Identify
fuses as to voltage, current,
and time delay ratings using
fuses marked with the old
military, new military, old
commercial, and new
commercial systems. List the
three categories of time delay
rating for fuses and state a
use for each type of time-
delay rated fuse.
Identify a clip-type and a post-
type fuseholder from
illustrations and identify the
connections used on a post-
type fuseholder for power
source and load connections.
List the methods of checking
for an open fuse, the items to
check when replacing a fuse,
the safety precautions to be
observed when checking and
replacing fuses, and the
conditions to be checked for
when conducting preventive
maintenance on fuses.
Select a proper replacement
and substitute fuse from a
listing of fuses.
List the five main components
of a circuit breaker and the
three types of circuit breaker
trip elements.
Describe the way in which
each type of trip element
reacts to excessive current.
Define the circuit breaker
terms trip-free and nontrip-
free and state one example
for the use of each of these
types of circuit breakers.
List the three time delay
ratings of circuit breakers.
Define selective tripping, state
why it is used, and state the
way in which the time delay
ratings of circuit breakers are
used to design a selective
tripping system.
Identify the factors used in
selecting circuit breakers.
List the steps to follow before
starting work on a circuit
breaker and the items to be
checked when maintaining
circuit breakers.
Electricity, like fire, can be either helpful or harmful to those who

use it. A fire can keep people warm and comfortable when it is
confined in a campfire or a furnace. It can be dangerous and
destructive if it is on the loose and uncontrolled in the woods or in a
building. Electricity can provide people with the light to read by or,
in a blinding flash, destroy their eyesight.
It can help save people's lives, or it can kill them. While we take
advantage of the tremendous benefits electricity can provide, we
must be careful to protect the people and systems that use it.
It is necessary then, that the mighty force of electricity be kept

under control at all times. If for some reason it should get out of
control, there must be a method of protecting people and
equipment. Devices have been developed to protect people and
electrical circuits from currents and voltages outside their normal
operating ranges. Some examples of these devices are discussed
in this chapter.
While you study this chapter, it should be kept in mind that a circuit
protection device is used to keep an undesirably large current,
voltage, or power surge out of a given part of an electrical circuit.
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CIRCUIT CONTROL DEVICES
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LEARNING OBJECTIVES
State three reasons circuit

control devices are used and
list three general types of
circuit control devices. Join Integrated
Identify the schematic Publishing's
symbols for a switch, a Discussion Group
solenoid, and a relay.
a manual and an automatic
switch and give an example of
each.
State the reason multicontact
switches are used.
Order this
information on CD-
Rom
Identify the schematic
symbols for the following
switches: Single-pole, double-
throw, Double-pole, single-
throw, Double-pole, double-
Order this
throw, Single-break, Double-
information in
break, Rotary, Wafer
Print (Hardcopy).
State the characteristics of a
switch described as a rocker
switch.
State the possible number of
positions for a single-pole,
double-throw switch.
Identify a type of momentary
switch.
State the type of switch used
to prevent the accidental
energizing or deenergizing of
a circuit.
State the common name for
an accurate snap-acting
switch.
State the meaning of the
current and voltage rating of a
switch.
State the two types of meters
you can use to check a
switch.
Select the proper substitute
switch from a list.
State the conditions checked
for in preventive maintenance
of switches.
State the operating principle
and one example of a
solenoid.
State the ways in which a
solenoid can be checked for
proper operation.
State the operating principle
of a relay and how it differs
from a solenoid.
State the two types of relays
according to use.
State the ways in which a
relay can be checked for
proper operation and the
procedure for servicing it.
Circuit control devices are used everywhere that electrical or

electronic circuits are used. They are found in submarines,
computers, aircraft, televisions, ships, space vehicles, medical
instruments, and many other places. In this chapter you will learn
what circuit control devices are, how they are used, and some of
their characteristics.
INTRODUCTION
Electricity existed well before the beginning of recorded history.

Lightning was a known and feared force to early man, but the
practical uses of electricity were not recognized until the late 18th
century. The early experimenters in electricity controlled power to
their experiments by disconnecting a wire from a battery or by the
use of a clutch between a generator and a steam engine. As
practical uses were found for electricity, a convenient means for
turning power on and off was needed.
Telegraph systems, tried as early as the late 1700s and perfected

by Morse in the 1830s, used a mechanically operated contact lever
for opening and closing the signal circuit. This was later replaced
by the hand-operated contact lever or "key."
Early power switches were simple hinged beams, arranged to close

or open a circuit. The blade-and-jaw knife switch with a wooden,
slate, or porcelain base and an insulated handle, was developed a
short time later. This was the beginning of circuit control devices.
Modern circuit control devices can change their resistance from a

few milliohms (when closed) to well over 100,000 megaohms
(when open) in a couple of milliseconds. In some circuit control
devices, the movement necessary to cause the device to open or
close is only .001 inch (.025 millimeters).
NEED FOR CIRCUIT CONTROL
Circuit control, in its simplest form, is the application and removal of

power. This can also be expressed as turning a circuit on and off or
opening and closing a circuit. Before you learn about the types of
circuit control devices, you should know why circuit control is
needed.
If a circuit develops problems that could damage the equipment or

endanger personnel, it should be possible to remove the power
from that circuit. The circuit protection devices discussed in the last
chapter will remove power automatically if current or temperature
increase enough to cause the circuit protection device to act. Even
with this protection, a manual means of control is needed to allow
you to remove power from the circuit before the protection device
acts.
When you work on a circuit, you often need to remove power from
it to connect test equipment or to remove and replace components.
When you remove power from a circuit so that you can work on it,
be sure to "tag out" the switch to ensure that power is not applied
to the circuit while you are working. When work has been
completed, power must be restored to the circuit. This will allow
you to check the proper operation of the circuit and place it back in
service. After the circuit has been checked for proper operation,
remove the tag from the power switch.
Many electrical devices are used some of the time and not needed
at other times. Circuit control devices allow you to turn the device
on when it is needed and off when it is not needed.
Some devices, like multimeters or televisions, require the selection

of a specific function or circuit. A circuit control device makes
possible the selection of the particular circuit you wish to use.
TYPES OF CIRCUIT CONTROL DEVICES
Circuit control devices have many different shapes and sizes, but
most circuit control devices are either SWITCHES, SOLENOIDS,
or RELAYS.
Figure 3-1 shows an example of each of these types of circuit
control devices and their schematic symbols.
Figure 3-1. - Typical circuit control devices: RELAY COIL

TERMINALS
Figure 3-1, view A, is a simple toggle switch and the schematic

symbol for this switch is shown below it. Figure 3-1, view B, is a
cutaway view of a solenoid. The schematic symbol below the
solenoid is one of the schematic symbols used for this solenoid.
Figure 3-1, view C, shows a simple relay. One of the schematic
symbols for this relay is shown next to the relay.
Q.1 What are three reasons circuit control is needed?
Q.2 What are the three types of circuit control devices?
Q.3 Label the schematic symbols shown in figure 3-2 .
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Book 4
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Electrical Conductors
Circular Mil
Circular Mil-Foot
Wire Sizes
Stranded Wires and Cables
Copper-Versus-Aluminum Conductors
Conductor Insulation
Plastics Insulation
Fluorinated Ethylene Propylene (FEP)
Paper Insulation
Join Integrated
Mineral Insulated
Publishing's
Woven Covers Discussion Group
Coaxial Cable
Summary
Answers
Wiring Techniques
General Wire-Stripping Instructions

Order this
Fixture Joint information on CD-
Terminal Lugs Rom
Noninsulated Terminal and Splice Insulation
Aluminum Terminals and Splices
Improper crimping procedures eventually cause
terminal failure
Preinsulated Splices
Splice Insulation
Soldering Process Order this
Alternative Dip-Tinning Procedure information in
Soldering Tools Print (Hardcopy).
Soldering Gun
Resistance Soldering Set
Solder
Flux
Lacing Conductors
Single Lace
Double Lace
Spot Tying
Summary
Answers
Schematic Reading
Test Equipment Cable-Marking Systems

Shipboard Electronic Equipment Wire-Marking
Systems
Electrical Diagrams
Schematic Diagram
Wiring Diagram
Safety
Summary
Answers

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ELECTRICAL CONDUCTORS
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LEARNING OBJECTIVES

the OCC-ECC, you indicate that you have met the objectives and
have learned the information. The learning objectives are listed Join Integrated
below. Publishing's
Discussion Group
Upon completing this chapter, you should be able to:
Recall the definitions of unit

size, mil-foot, square mil, and
circular mil and the
mathematical equations and
calculations for each.
Define specific resistance and Order this
recall the three factors used information on CD-
to calculate it in ohms. Rom
Describe the proper use of
the American Wire Gauge
when making wire
measurements.
Recall the factors required in
selecting proper size wire. Order this
State the advantages and information in
disadvantages of copper or Print (Hardcopy).
aluminum as conductors.
Define insulation resistance
and dielectric strength
including how the dielectric
strength of an insulator is
determined.
Identify the safety precautions
to be taken when working with
insulating materials.
Recall the most common insulators
used for extremely high voltages.
State the type of conductor
protection normally used for
shipboard wiring.
Recall the design and use of
coaxial cable.
In the previous modules of this training series, you have learned

about various circuit components. These components provide the
majority of the operating characteristics of any electrical circuit.
They are useless, however, if they are not connected together.
Conductors are the means used to tie these components together.
Many factors determine the type of electrical conductor used to
connect components. Some of these factors are the physical size
of the conductor, its composition, and its electrical characteristics.
Other factors that can determine the choice of a conductor are the
weight, the cost, and the environment where the conductor will be
used.
CONDUCTOR SIZES
To compare the resistance and size of one conductor with that of

another, we need to establish a standard or unit size. A convenient
unit of measurement of the diameter of a conductor is the mil
(0.001, or one-thousandth of an inch). A convenient unit of
conductor length is the foot. The standard unit of size in most
cases is the MIL-FOOT. A wire will have a unit size if it has a
diameter of 1 mil and a length of 1 foot.
SQUARE MIL
The square mil is a unit of measurement used to determine the

cross-sectional area of a square or rectangular conductor (views A
and B of figure 1-1). A square mil is defined as the area of a
square, the sides of which are each 1 mil. To obtain the cross-
sectional area of a square conductor, multiply the dimension of any
side of the square by itself. For example, assume that you have a
square conductor with a side dimension of 3 mils. Multiply 3 mils by
itself (3 mils X 3 mils). This gives you a cross-sectional area of 9
square mils.
Figure 1-1. - Cross-sectional areas of conductors.
Q.1 State the reason for the establishment of a "unit size" for
conductors.
Q.2 Calculate the diameter in MILS of a conductor that has a
diameter of 0.375 inch.
Q.3 Define a mil-foot.
To determine the cross-sectional area of a rectangular conductor,

multiply the length times the width of the end face of the conductor
(side is expressed in mils). For example, assume that one side of
the rectangular cross-sectional area is 6 mils and the other side is
3 mils. Multiply 6 mils X 3 mils, which equals 18 square mils. Here
is another example. Assume that a conductor is 3/8 inch thick and
4 inches wide. The 3/8 inch can be expressed in decimal form as
0.375 inch. Since 1 mil equals 0.001 inch, the thickness of the
conductor will be 0.001 X 0.375, or 375 mils. Since the width is 4
inches and there are 1,000 mils per inch, the width will be 4 X
1,000, or 4,000 mils. To determine the cross-sectional area,
multiply the length by the width; or 375 mils X 4,000 mils. The area
will be 1,500,000 square mils.
Q.4 Define a square mil as it relates to a square conductor.
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WIRING TECHNIQUES
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WIRING TECHNIQUES
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
State the basic requirements for any

splice and terminal connection,
including the preferred wire-stripping
method. Join Integrated
State the reason the ends of the wire Publishing's
are clamped down after a Western Discussion Group
Union splice has been made.
Explain the major advantage of the
crimped terminal over the soldered
terminal.
Name the two types of insulation
commonly used for noninsulated
splices and terminal lugs.
State an advantage of using Order this
preinsulated terminal lugs and the information on CD-
color code used for each. Rom
Explain the procedures for crimping
terminal lugs with a hand crimp tool.
Recall the physical description and
operating procedures for the HT-
900B/920B compressed air/nitrogen
heating tool.
Recall the safety precautions for
Order this
using the compressed air/nitrogen
information in
heating tool.
Print (Hardcopy).
Recall the procedures, precautions,
and tools associated with soldering.
Explain the procedures and
precautions for tinning wire.
Recall the types of soldering irons
and their uses.
State the purposes and required
properties of flux.
State the purpose for lacing
conductors.
Recall when double lacing of wire
bundles is required.
Recall the requirements for using
spot ties.
WIRING TECHNIQUES
This chapter will assist you in learning the basic skills of proper wiring
techniques. It explains the different ways to terminate and splice electrical
conductors. It also discusses various soldering techniques that will assist you in
mastering the basic soldering skills. The chapter ends with a discussion of the
procedure to be followed when you lace wire bundles within electrical and
electronic equipment.
CONDUCTOR SPLICES AND TERMINAL CONNECTIONS
Conductor splices and connections are an essential part of any electrical circuit.
When conductors join each other or connect to a load, splices or terminals must
be used. Therefore, it is important that they be properly made. Any electrical
circuit is only as good as its weakest link. The basic requirement of any splice or
connection is that it be both mechanically and electrically as sound as the
conductor or device with which it is used. Quality workmanship and materials
must be used to ensure lasting electrical contact, physical strength, and
insulation. The most common methods of making splices and connections in
electrical cables is explained in the discussion that follows.
INSULATION REMOVAL
The preferred method of removing insulation is with a wire-stripping tool, if
available. A sharp knife may also be used. Other typical wire strippers in use in
the Navy are illustrated in figure 2-1. The hot-blade, rotary, and bench wire
strippers (views A, B, and C, respectively) are usually found in shops where
large wire bundles are made. When using any of these automatic wire strippers,
follow the manufacturer's instructions for adjusting the machine; this avoids
nicking, cutting, or otherwise damaging the conductors. The hand wire strippers
are common hand tools found throughout the Navy. The hand wire strippers
(view D of figure 2-1) are the ones you will most likely be using. Wire strippers
vary in size according to wire size and can be ordered for any size needed.
Figure 2-1. - Typical wire-stripping tools.
Hand Wire Stripper

The procedure for stripping wire with the hand wire stripper is as follows (refer to
figure 2-2):
Figure 2-2. - Stripping wire with a hand stripper.
Insert the wire into the center of the correct cutting slot for the wire size to be
stripped. The wire sizes are listed on the cutting jaws of the hand wire strippers
beneath each slot. After inserting the wire into the proper slot, close the handles
together as far as they will go. Slowly release the pressure on the handles so as
not to allow the cutting blades to make contact with the stripped conductor. On
some of the newer style hand wire strippers, the cutting jaws have a safety lock
that helps prevent this from happening. Continue to release pressure until the
gripper jaws release the stripped wire, then remove.
Knife Stripping
A sharp knife may be used to strip the insulation from a conductor. The
procedure is much the same as for sharpening a pencil. The knife should be held
at approximately a 60 angle to the conductor. Use extreme care when cutting
through the insulation to avoid nicking or cutting the conductor. This procedure
produces a taper on the cut insulation as shown in figure 2-3.
Figure 2-3. - Knife stripping.
Locally Made Hot-Blade Wire Stripper
If you are required to strip a large number of wires, you can use a locally made
hot-blade stripper (figure 2-4) as follows:
Figure 2-4. - Locally made hot-blade stripper.

In the end of a piece of copper strip, cut a
sharp-edged "V."
At the bottom of the "V," make a wire
slot of suitable diameter for the size
wire to be stripped.
Fasten the copper strip around the
heating element of an electric
soldering iron as shown in figure 2-4.
The iron must be rated at 100 watts
or greater in order to transfer enough
heat to the copper strip to melt the
wire insulation.
Lay the wire or cable to be stripped
in the "V"; a clean channel will be
melted in the insulation.
Remove the insulation with a slight
pull.
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SCHEMATIC READING
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SCHEMATIC READING
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
Recognize the marking

system for cables to include
shipboard and test equipment
systems. Join Integrated
Recognize the marking Publishing's
system for wire to include Discussion Group
aircraft and shipboard
electronic equipment
systems.
Recall the seven types of
electrical diagrams and the
functional design of each.
Recall basic safety practices
and precautions for working Order this
around electrical and information on CD-
electronic systems. Rom
SCHEMATIC READING
This chapter is divided into three subtopicss - (1) cable and wire-
marling systems, (2) electrical and electronic diagrams, and (3)
safety precautions.
Order this
First, we will discuss the systems used for marking cables and
information in
wires. We will then explain each of the types of diagrams you will
Print (Hardcopy).
encounter when troubleshooting, testing, repairing, or learning
about circuit or system operation. Finally, we will briefly discuss
safety practices relating to working around electrical and electronic
systems.
CABLE- AND WIRE-MARKING SYSTEMS
Cables and wires are marked to give the technician a means of

tracing them when troubleshooting and repairing electrical and
electronic systems.
Numerous cable- and wire-marking systems are used in ships,

aircraft, and equipment throughout the Navy. A few of these
systems are briefly discussed here to acquaint you with how
marking systems are used. For a specific system or equipment,
you should refer to tile applicable technical manual.
CABLE-MARKING SYSTEMS
Two typical cable-marking systems you are likely to see are the (1)
shipboard and (2) test equipment cable-marking systems.
Shipboard Cable-Marking Systems
Metal tags embossed with the cable markings are used to identify
all permanently installed shipboard electrical cables. These cable
tags (figure 3-1) are placed on cables close to each point of
connection, and on both sides of decks, bulkheads, and other
barriers to identify the cables. The markings on the cable tags
identify cables for maintenance and circuit repairs. The tags show
(1) the SERVICE LETTER, which identifies a particular electrical
system, (2) the CIRCUIT LETTER or LETTERS, which identify a
specific circuit within a particular system, and (3) the CABLE
NUMBER, which identifies an individual cable in a specific circuit.
Figure 3-1. - Cable tag.
In figure 3-1, note that the cable is marked "C-MB144." The letter C
denotes the service; in this case, the IC (interior communication)
system. The letters MB denote the circuit; in this case, the engine-
order circuit. The number 144 denotes cable number 144 of the MB
circuit.
Q.1 Why must cables and wires be identified?

Q.2 Where would you find the wire identification system for a
specific piece of equipment?
Q.3 What does the cable number identify?

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Book 5
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Direct Current Generators
The elementary dc generator

Effects of adding additional coils and poles
Electromagnetic Poles
Armature Reaction
Motor reaction in a generator
Armature Losses
Hysteresis Losses
Field Excitation
Generator Construction
Join Integrated
Voltage Control
Publishing's
Amplidynes Discussion Group
Safety Precautions
Summary
Answers
Direct Current Motors
Counter EMF Order this

information on CD-
Practical DC Motors
Rom
Shunt Motor
Direction of Rotation
Armature Reaction
Manual and Automatic Starters
Summary
Answers
Order this
information in
Alternating Current Generators Print (Hardcopy).
Practical Alternators
Single-phase alternators
Three-phase alternators
Frequency
Principles of AC voltage control
Summary
Answers
Alternating Current Motors
Rotating magnetic fields

Three-phase rotating fields
Induction Motors
Single-phase induction motors
Shaded-pole induction motors
Summary
Answers
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DIRECT CURRENT GENERATORS
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DIRECT CURRENT GENERATORS
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
Upon completion of the chapter you will be able to:
State the principle by which generators

convert mechanical energy to electrical
energy.
State the rule to be applied when you Join Integrated
determine the direction of induced emf Publishing's
in a coil. Discussion Group
State the purpose of slip rings.
State the reason why no emf is induced
in a rotating coil as it passes through a
neutral plane.
State what component causes a
generator to produce direct current
rather than alternating current.
Identify the point at which the brush Order this
contact should change from one information on CD-
commutator segment to the next. Rom
State how field strength can be varied in
a dc generator.
Describe the cause of sparking between
brushes and commutator.
State what is meant by "armature
reaction."
State the purpose of interpoles. Order this
information in
Explain the effect of motor reaction in a Print (Hardcopy).
dc generator.
Explain the causes of armature losses.
List the types of armatures used in dc
generators.
State the three classifications of dc
generators.
State the term that applies to voltage
variation from no-load to full-load
conditions and how it is expressed as a
percentage.
State the term that describes the use of
two or more generators to supply a
common load.
State the purpose of a dc generator that
has been modified to function as an
amplidyne.
INTRODUCTION
A generator is a machine that converts mechanical energy into electrical energy by

using the principle of magnetic induction. This principle is explained as follows:
Whenever a conductor is moved within a magnetic field in such a way that the
conductor cuts across magnetic lines of flux, voltage is generated in the conductor.
The AMOUNT of voltage generated depends on (1) the strength of the magnetic field,
(2) the angle at which the conductor cuts the magnetic field, (3) the speed at which the
conductor is moved, and (4) the length of the conductor within the magnetic field.
The POLARITY of the voltage depends on the direction of the magnetic lines of flux and
the direction of movement of the conductor. To determine the direction of current in a
given situation, the LEFT-HAND RULE FOR GENERATORS is used. This rule is
explained in the following manner.
Extend the thumb, forefinger, and middle finger of your left hand at right angles to one
another, as shown in figure 1-1.
Point your thumb in the direction the conductor is being moved. Point your forefinger in
the direction of magnetic flux (from north to south). Your middle finger will then point in
the direction of current flow in an external circuit to which the voltage is applied.
Figure 1-1. - Left-hand rule for generators.

THE ELEMENTARY GENERATOR
The simplest elementary generator that can be built is an ac generator. Basic

generating principles are most easily explained through the use of the elementary ac
generator. For this reason, the ac generator will be discussed first. The dc generator will
be discussed later.
An elementary generator (fig. 1-2) consists of a wire loop placed so that it can be
rotated in a stationary magnetic field. This will produce an induced emf in the loop.
Sliding contacts (brushes) connect the loop to an external circuit load in order to pick up
or use the induced emf.
Figure 1-2. - The elementary generator.

The pole pieces (marked N and S) provide the magnetic field. The pole pieces are
shaped and positioned as shown to concentrate the magnetic field as close as possible
to the wire loop. The loop of wire that rotates through the field is called the ARMATURE.
The ends of the armature loop are connected to rings called SLIP RINGS. They rotate
with the armature. The brushes, usually made of carbon, with wires attached to them,
ride against the rings. The generated voltage appears across these brushes.
The elementary generator produces a voltage in the following manner (fig. 1-3). The
armature loop is rotated in a clockwise direction. The initial or starting point is shown at
position A. (This will be considered the zero-degree position.) At 0 the armature loop is
perpendicular to the magnetic field. The black and white conductors of the loop are
moving parallel to the field. The instant the conductors are moving parallel to the
magnetic field, they do not cut any lines of flux. Therefore, no emf is induced in the
conductors, and the meter at position A indicates zero. This position is called the
NEUTRAL PLANE. As the armature loop rotates from position A (0) to position B (90),
the conductors cut through more and more lines of flux, at a continually increasing
angle. At 90 they are cutting through a maximum number of lines of flux and at
maximum angle. The result is that between 0 and 90, the induced emf in the
conductors builds up from zero to a maximum value. Observe that from 0 to 90, the
black conductor cuts DOWN through the field. At the same time the white conductor
cuts UP through the field. The induced emfs in the conductors are series-adding. This
means the resultant voltage across the brushes (the terminal voltage) is the sum of the
two induced voltages. The meter at position B reads maximum value. As the armature
loop continues rotating from 90 (position B) to 180 (position C), the conductors which
were cutting through a maximum number of lines of flux at position B now cut through
fewer lines. They are again moving parallel to the magnetic field at position C. They no
longer cut through any lines of flux. As the armature rotates from 90 to 180, the
induced voltage will decrease to zero in the same manner that it increased during the
rotation from 0 to 90. The meter again reads zero. From 0 to 180 the conductors of
the armature loop have been moving in the same direction through the magnetic field.
Therefore, the polarity of the induced voltage has remained the same. This is shown by
points A through C on the graph. As the loop rotates beyond 180 (position C), through
270 (position D), and back to the initial or starting point (position A), the direction of the
cutting action of the conductors through the magnetic field reverses. Now the black
conductor cuts UP through the field while the white conductor cuts DOWN through the
field. As a result, the polarity of the induced voltage reverses. Following the sequence
shown by graph points C, D, and back to A, the voltage will be in the direction opposite
to that shown from points A, B, and C. The terminal voltage will be the same as it was
from A to C except that the polarity is reversed (as shown by the meter deflection at
position D). The voltage output waveform for the complete revolution of the loop is
shown on the graph in figure 1-3.
Figure 1-3. - Output voltage of an elementary generator during one revolution.
Q.1 Generators convert mechanical motion to electrical energy using what principle?
Q.2 What rule should you use to determine the direction of induced emf in a coil?
Q.3 What is the purpose of the slip rings?

Q.4 Why is no emf induced in a rotating coil when it passes through the neutral plane?
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DIRECT CURRENT MOTORS
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DIRECT CURRENT MOTORS
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
State the factors that determine the

direction of rotation in a dc motor.
State the right-hand rule for motors.
Describe the main differences and Join Integrated
similarities between a dc generator Publishing's
and a dc motor. Discussion Group
Describe the cause and effect of
counter emf in a dc motor.
Explain the term "load" as it pertains
to an electric motor.
List the advantages and
disadvantages of the different types
of dc motors.
Compare the types of armatures and Order this
uses for each. information on CD-
Discuss the means of controlling the Rom
speed and direction of a dc motor.
Describe the effect of armature
reaction in a dc motor.
Explain the need for a starting
resistor in a dc motor.
INTRODUCTION
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The dc motor is a mechanical workhorse, that can be used in many different information in
ways. Many large pieces of equipment depend on a dc motor for their power to Print (Hardcopy).
move. The speed and direction of rotation of a dc motor are easily controlled.
This makes it especially useful for operating equipment, such as winches,

cranes, and missile launchers, which must move in different directions and at
varying speeds.
PRINCIPLES OF OPERATION
The operation of a dc motor is based on the following principle:
A current-carrying conductor placed in a magnetic field, perpendicular to the

lines of flux, tends to move in a direction perpendicular to the magnetic lines of
flux. There is a definite relationship between the direction of the magnetic field,
the direction of current in the conductor, and the direction in which the conductor
tends to move. This relationship is best explained by using the RIGHT-HAND
RULE FOR MOTORS (fig. 2-1).
Figure 2-1. - Right-hand rule for motors.

To find the direction of motion of a conductor, extend the thumb, forefinger, and
middle finger of your right hand so they are at right angles to each other.
If the forefinger is pointed in the direction of magnetic flux (north to south) and
the middle finger is pointed in the direction of current flow in the conductor, the
thumb will point in the direction the conductor will move.
Stated very simply, a dc motor rotates as a result of two magnetic fields

interacting with each other. The armature of a dc motor acts like an
electromagnet when current flows through its coils. Since the armature is
located within the magnetic field of the field poles, these two magnetic fields
interact.
Like magnetic poles repel each other, and unlike magnetic poles attract each
other. As in the dc generator, the dc motor has field poles that are stationary and
an armature that turns on bearings in the space between the field poles.
The armature of a dc motor has windings on it just like the armature of a dc

generator. These windings are also connected to commutator segments. A dc
motor consists of the same components as a dc generator. In fact, most dc
generators can be made to act as motors, and vice versa.
Look at the simple dc motor shown in figure 2-2.
It has two field poles, one a north pole and one a south pole. The magnetic lines
of force extend across the opening between the poles from north to south.
Figure 2-2. - Dc motor armature rotation.
The armature in this simple dc motor is a single loop of wire, just as in the
simple armature you studied at the beginning of the chapter on dc generators.
The loop of wire in the dc motor, however, has current flowing through it from an
external source. This current causes a magnetic field to be produced.
This field is indicated by the dotted line through the loops. The loop (armature)
field is both attracted and repelled by the field from the field poles. Since the
current through the loop goes around in the direction of the arrows, the north
pole of the armature is at the upper left, and the south pole of the armature is at
the lower right, as shown in figure 2-2, (view A).
Of course, as the loop (armature) turns, these magnetic poles turn with it.
Now, as shown in the illustrations, the north armature pole is repelled from the
north field pole and attracted to the right by the south field pole. Likewise, the
south armature pole is repelled from the south field pole and is attracted to the
left by the north field pole. This action causes the armature to turn in a clockwise
direction, as shown in figure 2-2 (view B).
After the loop has turned far enough so that its north pole is exactly opposite the
south field pole, the brushes advance to the next segments. This changes the
direction of current flow through the armature loop. Also, it changes the polarity
of the armature field, as shown in figure 2-2 (view C). The magnetic fields again
repel and attract each other, and the armature continues to turn.
In this simple motor, the momentum of the rotating armature carries the
armature past the position where the unlike poles are exactly lined up. However,
if these fields are exactly lined up when the armature current is turned on, there
is no momentum to start the armature moving. In this case, the motor would not
rotate. It would be necessary to give a motor like this a spin to start it. This
disadvantage does not exist when there are more turns on the armature,
because there is more than one armature field. No two armature fields could be
exactly aligned with the field from the field poles at the same time.
Q.1 What factors determine the direction of rotation in a dc motor?

Q.2 The right-hand rule for motors is used to find the relationship between what
motor characteristics?
Q.3 What are the differences between the components of a dc generator and a
dc motor?
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ALTERNATING CURRENT GENERATORS
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ALTERNATING CURRENT GENERATORS
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
Upon completion of this chapter, you will be able to:
Describe the principle of magnetic

induction as it applies to ac
generators.
Describe the differences
between the two basic Join Integrated
types of ac generators. Publishing's
List the advantages and Discussion Group
disadvantages of the two
types of ac generators.
Describe exciter
generators within
alternators; discuss
construction and purpose.
Compare the types of
rotors used in ac
generators, and the
Order this
applications of each type
to different prime movers. information on CD-
Rom
Explain the factors that
determine the maximum
power output of an ac
generator, and the effect
of these factors in rating
generators.
Order this
Explain the operation of
multiphase ac generators information in
and compare with single- Print (Hardcopy).
phase.
Describe the relationships
between the individual
output and resultant
vectorial sum voltages in
multiphase generators.
Explain, using diagrams,
the different methods of
connecting three-phase
alternators and
transformers.
List the factors that
determine the frequency
and voltage of the
alternator output.
Explain the terms voltage
control and voltage
regulation in ac
generators, and list the
factors that affect each
quantity.
Describe the purpose and
procedure of parallel
generator operation.
INTRODUCTION
Most of the electrical power used aboard Navy ships and

aircraft as well as in civilian applications is ac. As a
result, the ac generator is the most important means of
producing electrical power. Ac generators, generally
called alternators, vary greatly in size depending upon
the load to which they supply power. For example, the
alternators in use at hydroelectric plants, such as Hoover
Dam, are tremendous in size, generating thousands of
kilowatts at very high voltage levels. Another example is
the alternator in a typical automobile, which is very
small by comparison. It weighs only a few pounds and
produces between 100 and 200 watts of power, usually at a
potential of 12 volts.
Many of the terms and principles covered in this chapter
will be familiar to you. They are the same as those
covered in the chapter on dc generators. You are
encouraged to refer back, as needed, and to refer to any
other source that will help you master the subject of this
chapter. No one source meets the complete needs of
everyone.
BASIC AC GENERATORS
Regardless of size, all electrical generators, whether dc

or ac, depend upon the principle of magnetic induction. An
emf is induced in a coil as a result of (1) a coil cutting
through a magnetic field, or (2) a magnetic field cutting
through a coil. As long as there is relative motion
between a conductor and a magnetic field, a voltage will
be induced in the conductor. That part of a generator that
produces the magnetic field is called the field. That part
in which the voltage is induced is called the armature.
For relative motion to take place between the conductor
and the magnetic field, all generators must have two
mechanical parts - a rotor and a stator. The ROTor is the
part that ROTates; the STATor is the part that remains
STATionary. In a dc generator, the armature is always the
rotor. In alternators, the armature may be either the
rotor or stator.
Q.1 Magnetic induction occurs when there is relative
motion between what two elements?
ROTATING-ARMATURE ALTERNATORS
The rotating-armature alternator is similar in

construction to the dc generator in that the armature
rotates in a stationary magnetic field as shown in figure
3-1, view A. In the dc generator, the emf generated in the
armature windings is converted from ac to dc by means of
the commutator. In the alternator, the generated ac is
brought to the load unchanged by means of slip rings. The
rotating armature is found only in alternators of low
power rating and generally is not used to supply electric
power in large quantities.
Figure 3-1. - Types of ac generators.

ROTATING-FIELD ALTERNATORS
The rotating-field alternator has a stationary armature

winding and a rotating-field winding as shown in figure 3-
1, view B The advantage of having a stationary armature
winding is that the generated voltage can be connected
directly to the load.
A rotating armature requires slip rings and brushes to

conduct the current from the armature to the load. The
armature, brushes, and slip rings are difficult to
insulate, and arc-overs and short circuits can result at
high voltages. For this reason, high-voltage alternators
are usually of the rotating-field type. Since the voltage
applied to the rotating field is low voltage dc, the
problem of high voltage arc-over at the slip rings does
not exist.
The stationary armature, or stator, of this type of

alternator holds the windings that are cut by the rotating
magnetic field. The voltage generated in the armature as a
result of this cutting action is the ac power that will be
applied to the load.
The stators of all rotating-field alternators are about

the same.
The stator consists of a laminated iron core with the

armature windings embedded in this core as shown in figure
3-2. The core is secured to the stator frame.
Figure 3-2. - Stationary armature windings.

Q.2 What is the part of an alternator in which the output
voltage is generated?
Q.3 What are the two basic types of alternators?

Q.4 What is the main advantage of the rotating field
alternator?
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ALTERNATING CURRENT MOTORS
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ALTERNATING CURRENT MOTORS
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
List three basic types of ac

motors and describe the
characteristics of each type.
Describe the characteristics of Join Integrated
a series motor that enable it Publishing's
to be used as a universal Discussion Group
motor.
Explain the relationships of
the individual phases of
multiphase voltages as they
produce rotating magnetic
fields in ac motors.
Describe the placement of
stator windings in two-phase, Order this
ac motors using rotating information on CD-
fields. Rom
List the similarities and
differences between the stator
windings of two-phase and
three-phase ac motors.
State the primary application
Order this
of synchronous motors, and
information in
explain the characteristics
Print (Hardcopy).
that make them suitable for
that application.
Describe the features that
make the ac induction motor
the most widely used of
electric motors.
Describe the difference
between the rotating field of
multiphase motors and the
"apparent" rotating field of
single-phase motors.
Explain the operation of split-
phase windings in single-
phase ac induction motors.
Describe the effects of
shaded poles in single-phase,
ac induction motors.
INTRODUCTION
Most of the power-generating systems, ashore and afloat, produce

ac.
For this reason a majority of the motors used throughout the Navy
are designed to operate on ac. There are other advantages in the
use of ac motors besides the wide availability of ac power. In
general, ac motors cost less than dc motors. Some types of ac
motors do not use brushes and commutators. This eliminates many
problems of maintenance and wear. It also eliminates the problem
of dangerous sparking.
An ac motor is particularly well suited for constant-speed

applications. This is because its speed is determined by the
frequency of the ac voltage applied to the motor terminals.
The dc motor is better suited than an ac motor for some uses, such
as those that require variable-speeds. An ac motor can also be
made with variable speed characteristics but only within certain
limits.
Industry builds ac motors in different sizes, shapes, and ratings for

many different types of jobs. These motors are designed for use
with either polyphase or single-phase power systems. It is not
possible here to cover all aspects of the subject of ac motors. Only
the principles of the most commonly used types are dealt with in
this chapter.
In this chapter, ac motors will be divided into (1) series, (2)

synchronous, and (3) induction motors. Single-phase and
polyphase motors will be discussed.
Synchronous motors, for purposes of this chapter, may be

considered as polyphase motors, of constant speed, whose rotors
are energized with dc voltage. Induction motors, single-phase or
polyphase, whose rotors are energized by induction, are the most
commonly used ac motor. The series ac motor, in a sense, is a
familiar type of motor. It is very similar to the dc motor that was
covered in chapter 2 and will serve as a bridge between the old
and the new.
Q.1 What are the three basic types of ac motors?
SERIES AC MOTOR
A series ac motor is the same electrically as a dc series motor.

Refer to figure 4-1 and use the left-hand rule for the polarity of
coils. You can see that the instantaneous magnetic polarities of the
armature and field oppose each other, and motor action results.
Now, reverse the current by reversing the polarity of the input. Note
that the field magnetic polarity still opposes the armature magnetic
polarity. This is because the reversal effects both the armature and
the field. The ac input causes these reversals to take place
continuously.
Figure 4-1. - Series ac motor.

The construction of the ac series motor differs slightly from the dc
series motor. Special metals, laminations, and windings are used.
They reduce losses caused by eddy currents, hysteresis, and high
reactance. Dc power can be used to drive an ac series motor
efficiently, but the opposite is not true.
The characteristics of a series ac motor are similar to those of a

series dc motor. It is a varying-speed machine. It has low speeds
for large loads and high speeds for light loads. The starting torque
is very high. Series motors are used for driving fans, electric drills,
and other small appliances.
Since the series ac motor has the same general characteristics as

the series dc motor, a series motor has been designed that can
operate both on ac and dc. This ac/dc motor is called a universal
motor. It finds wide use in small electric appliances. Universal
motors operate at lower efficiency than either the ac or dc series
motor. They are built in small sizes only. Universal motors do not
operate on polyphase ac power.
Q.2 Series motors are generally used to operate what type of
equipment?
Q.3 Why are series motors sometimes called universal motors?
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Book 6
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INTRODUCTION TO ELECTRON TUBES
The diode tube

Diode operation with alternating voltage
Plates
The Envelope
Plate Dissipation
Introduction to grid bias
Factors affecting triode operation
Types of biasing
Shunt grid leak biasing
Join Integrated
Operating classifications of tube amplifiers
Publishing's
Mu and transconductance Discussion Group
Interelectrode capacitance
The pentode
Summary
Answers
SPECIAL
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information on CD-
Beam power and power pentode tubes
Rom
Power amplifier
Planar tubes
Gas-filled tubes
The cathode-ray tube (CRT)
Electrostatic Deflection
Summary of the CRT
Safety Order this
Summary information in
Answers Print (Hardcopy).
POWER SUPPLIES
Rectifiers
The Conventional Full-Wave Rectifier
The Bridge Rectifier
Filters
The Capacitor Filter
The LC choke input filter
Half-wave rectifier with an LC choke-input filter.
Resistor-Capacitor (RC) Filters
LC Capacitor-Input Filter
Voltage Regulation
Regulators
Basic VR Tube Regulator Circuit
VR Tubes Connected in Parallel
Current Regulation
Troubleshooting power supplies
Summary
Answers

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LEARNING OBJECTIVES

the OCC/ECC, you indicate that you have met the objectives and
below. Publishing's
Discussion Group
State the principle of

thermionic emission and the
Edison
Effect and give the reasons
for electron movement in
vacuum tubes. Order this
Identify the schematic information on CD-
representation for the various Rom
electron tubes and their
elements.
Explain how the diode, triode,
tetrode, and pentode electron
tubes are constructed, the
purpose of the various
elements of the tube, and the
Order this
theory of operation associated
information in
with each tube.
Print (Hardcopy).
State the advantages,
disadvantages, and limitations
of the various types of
electron tubes.
Describe amplification in the
electron tube, the classes of
amplification, and how
amplification is obtained.
Explain biasing and the effect
of bias in the electron tube
circuit.
Describe the effects the
physical structure of a tube
has on electron tube
operation and name the four
most important tube constants
that affect efficient tube
operation.
Describe, through the use of a
characteristic curve, the
operating parameters of the
electron tube.
In previous study you have learned that current flows in the

conductor of a completed circuit when a voltage is present. You
learned that current and voltage always obey certain laws. In
electronics, the laws still apply. You will use them continuously in
working with electronic circuits.
One basic difference in electronic circuits that will at first seem to

violate the basic laws is that electrons flow across a gap, a break in
the circuit in which there appears to be no conductor. A large part
of the field of electronics and the entire field of electron tubes are
concerned with the flow and control of these electrons "across the
gap." The following paragraphs will explain this interesting
phenomenon.
THERMIONIC EMISSION
You will remember that metallic conductors contain many free

electrons, which at any given instant are not bound to atoms.
These free electrons are in continuous motion. The higher the
temperature of the conductor, the more agitated are the free
electrons, and the faster they move. A temperature can be reached
where some of the free electrons become so agitated that they
actually escape from the conductor. They "boil" from the
conductor's surface. The process is similar to steam leaving the
surface of boiling water.
Heating a conductor to a temperature sufficiently high causing the

conductor to give off electrons is called THERMIONIC EMISSION.
The idea of electrons leaving the surface is shown in figure 1-
1.
Figure 1-1. - Thermionic emission.

Thomas Edison discovered the principle of thermionic emission as
he looked for ways to keep soot from clouding his incandescent
light bulb. Edison placed a metal plate inside his bulb along with
the normal filament. He left a gap, a space, between the filament
and the plate. He then placed a battery in series between the plate
and the filament, with the positive side toward the plate and the
negative side toward the filament. This circuit is shown in figure 1-
2.
Figure 1-2. - Edison's experimental circuit.

When Edison connected the filament battery and allowed the
filament to heat until it glowed, he discovered that the ammeter in
the filament-plate circuit had deflected and remained deflected. He
reasoned that an electrical current must be flowing in the circuit -
EVEN ACROSS THE GAP between the filament and plate.
Edison could not explain exactly what was happening. At that time,
he probably knew less about what makes up an electric circuit than
you do now. Because it did not eliminate the soot problem, he did
little with this discovery. However, he did patent the incandescent
light bulb and made it available to the scientific community.
Let's analyze the circuit in figure 1-2. You probably already have a
good idea of how the circuit works. The heated filament causes
electrons to boil from its surface. The battery in the filament-plate
circuit places a POSITIVE charge on the plate (because the plate is
connected to the positive side of the battery). The electrons
(negative charge) that boil from the filament are attracted to the
positively charged plate. They continue through the ammeter, the
battery, and back to the filament. You can see that electron flow
across the space between filament and plate is actually an
application of a basic law you already know - UNLIKE CHARGES
ATTRACT.
Remember, Edison's bulb had a vacuum so the filament would

glow without burning. Also, the space between the filament and
plate was relatively small. The electrons emitted from the filament
did not have far to go to reach the plate. Thus, the positive charge
on the plate was able to attract the negative electrons.
The key to this explanation is that the electrons were floating free
of the hot filament. It would have taken hundreds of volts, probably,
to move electrons across the space if they had to be forcibly pulled
from a cold filament. Such an action would destroy the filament and
the flow would cease.
The application of thermionic emission that Edison made in causing

electrons to flow across the space between the filament and the
plate has become known as the EDISON EFFECT. It is fairly
simple and extremely important. Practically everything that follows
will be related in some way to the Edison effect. Be sure you have
a good understanding of it before you go on.
Q.1 How can a sheet of copper be made to emit electrons
thermionically?
Q.2 Why do electrons cross the gap in a vacuum tube?

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SPECIAL-Purpose Tubes
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SPECIAL-PURPOSE TUBES
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
Determine the number and type

of individual tubes contained
within the signal envelope of a
multi-unit tube. Join Integrated
Explain the function and Publishing's
operating principle of the beam Discussion Group
power tube and the pentode
tube.
the capabilities of conventional
tubes and variable-mu tubes.
Describe the construction of uhf
tubes, and explain the effects
that ultra-high frequencies have Order this
on conventional-tube operation. information on CD-
Explain the operation of gas- Rom
filled diodes, thyratrons, and
cold-cathode tubes.
Explain the operating principles
behind cathode-ray tubes, and
the manner in which these
tubes present visual display of
electronic signals.
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information in
INTRODUCTION TO SPECIAL-PURPOSE TUBES Print (Hardcopy).
Because of their great versatility, the four basic tube types (diode,
triode, tetrode, and pentode) covered in chapter 1 have been used in
the majority of electronic circuits. However, these types of tubes do
have limits, size, frequency, and power handling capabilities.
Special-purpose tubes are designed to operate or perform functions

beyond the capabilities of the basic tube types discussed in chapter 1.
The special-purpose tubes covered in this chapter will include multi-
unit, multi-electrode, beam power, power pentode, variable-mu, uhf,
cold cathode, thyratrons, and cathode-ray tubes.
MULTI-UNIT AND MULTI-ELECTRODE TUBES
One of the problems associated with electron tubes is that they are
bulky. The size of an electron tube circuit can be decreased by
enclosing more than one tube within a single envelope, as mentioned in
chapter 1. There is a large variety of tubes that can be combined into
this grouping of "specialty tubes" called MULTI-UNIT tubes. Figure 2-1
illustrates the schematic symbols of a few of the possible combinations
found in multi-unit tubes.
Figure 2-1. - Typical multi-unit tube symbols.

An important point to remember when dealing with multi-unit tubes is
that each unit is capable of operating as a separate tube. But, how it
operates, either as a single tube or as a multi-unit tube, is determined
by the external circuit wiring. When you analyze the schematic of a
circuit, simply treat each portion of a multi-unit tube as a single tube, as
shown in figure 2-2.
Figure 2-2. - Multi-unit tube Identification.

Another type of special-purpose tube is the MULTI-ELECTRODE tube.
In some applications, tubes require more than the three grids found in
conventional tubes. In some cases, up to seven grids may be used.
These types of tubes are called multi-electrode tubes and are normally
classified according to the number of grids they contain. An example of
this is illustrated in figure 2-3. Here, you see a tube with five grids;
hence, its name is "pentagrid." The application of these tube types is
beyond the scope of this module, but because multi-electrode tubes
have been commonly used you should be aware of their existence.
Figure 2-3. - Pentagrid multi-electrode tube.

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POWER SUPPLIES
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POWER SUPPLIES
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
Identify the various sections of a power

supply.
State the purpose of each
section of a power supply.
Describe the operation of the Join Integrated
power supply from both the Publishing's
whole unit standpoint and from Discussion Group
the subunit standpoint.
Describe the purpose of the
various types of rectifier
circuits used in power
supplies.
various types of filter
circuits used in power
supplies.
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Describe the operation of the
various voltage and current information on CD-
regulators in a power supply. Rom
Trace the flow of ac and dc in
a power supply, from the ac
input to the dc output on a
schematic diagram.
Identify faulty components
through visual checks.
Identify problems within
specific areas of a power
supply by using a logical
isolation method of
Order this
troubleshooting.
Apply safety precautions when information in
working with electronic power Print (Hardcopy).
supplies.
INTRODUCTION
In the early part of this century when electronics was first

introduced, most electronic equipment was powered by batteries.
While the use of batteries allowed the equipment to be portable (to
some degree), it also placed several limitations on how the
equipment could be used. Because of their general inefficiency,
batteries had to be either replaced frequently or, if they were
rechargeable, kept near a battery charger. Thus, the advantage of
having portable equipment was more than offset by the need to
replace or recharge the batteries frequently.
Users of electronic equipment needed a power supply that was

reliable, convenient, and cost effective. Since batteries failed to
satisfy these requirements, the "electronic power supply" was
developed.
In today's Navy, all electronic equipment, both ashore and on board

ship, require some type of power supply. Therefore, this chapter is
of extreme importance to you. We will discuss the sections and
individual components of the power supply and their purposes within
the power supply. We will also discuss troubleshooting of each
section and its components.
THE BASIC POWER SUPPLY
Figure 3-1 shows the block diagram of the basic power supply. Most
power supplies are made up of four basic sections: a <emphasis
type="b">TRANSFORMER</emphasis>, a RECTIFIER, a FILTER, and a
REGULATOR.
Figure 3-1. - Block diagram of a basic power supply.

As you can see, the first section is the TRANSFORMER. The
transformer serves two primary purposes: (1) to step up or step down
the input line voltage to the desired level and (2) to couple this
voltage to the rectifier section. The RECTIFIER section converts the
ac signal to a pulsating dc voltage. However, you will see later in
this chapter that the pulsating dc voltage is not desirable. For
this reason, a FILTER section is used to convert the pulsating dc
voltage to filtered dc voltage. The final section, the REGULATOR,
does just what the name implies. It maintains the output of the
power supply at a constant level in spite of large changes in load
current or in input line voltage. Depending upon the design of the
equipment, the output of the regulator will maintain a constant dc
voltage within certain limits.
Now that you know what each section does, let's trace a signal
through the power supply and see what changes are made to the input
signal. In figure 3-2, the input signal of 120 volts ac is applied
to the primary of the transformer, which has a turns ratio of 1:3.
We can calculate the output by multiplying the input voltage by the
ratio of turns in the secondary winding to turns in the primary
winding. Therefore, the output voltage of our example is: 120 volts
ac X 3, or 360 volts ac. Depending on the type of rectifier used
(full-wave or half-wave), the output from the rectifier will be a
portion of the input. Figure 3-2 shows the ripple waveform
associated with a full-wave rectifier. The filter section contains a
network of resistors, capacitors, or inductors that controls the
rise and fall time of the varying signal so that the signal remains
at a more constant dc level. You will see this more clearly in the
discussion of the actual filter circuits. You can see that the
output of the filter is at a 180-volt dc level with an ac RIPPLE
voltage riding on it. (Ripple voltage is a small ac voltage riding
at some dc voltage level. Normally, ripple voltage is an unwanted ac
voltage created by the filter section of a power supply.) This
signal now goes to the regulator where it will be maintained at
approximately 180 volts dc to the load.
Figure 3-2. - Block diagram of a power supply.

Q.1 What are the four basic sections to a power supply?
Q.2 What is the purpose of the regulator?
THE TRANSFORMER
The transformer has several purposes: In addition to coupling the

input ac signal to the power supply, it also isolates the electronic
power supply from the external power source and either steps up or
steps down the ac voltage to the desired level. Additionally, most
input transformers have separate step-down windings to supply
filament voltages to both power supply tubes and the tubes in the
external equipment (load). Such a transformer is shown in figure 3-
3. Because the input transformer is located in the power supply and
is the ultimate source of power for both the load and the power
supply, it is called the POWER TRANSFORMER. Notice that the
transformer has the ability to deliver both 6.3 and 5 volts ac
filament voltages to the electron tubes. The High-voltage winding is
a 1:3 step-up winding and delivers 360 volts ac to the rectifier.
This transformer also has what is called a center tap. This center
tap provides the capability of developing two high-voltage outputs
from one transformer.
Figure 3-3. - Typical power transformer.

Q.3 What are the purposes of the transformer in a power supply?
Q.4 For what are the low voltage windings in a transformer used?
Q.5 For what is the center tap on a transformer used?
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SEMICONDUCTOR DIODES
Semiconductor applications
Semiconductor theory
Energy bands
Covalent bonding
Doping process
Semiconductor diode
PN Junction operation
Junction Barrier
PN Junction application
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Diode characteristics
Publishing's
Diode identification Discussion Group
Diode maintenance
Summary
Answers
TRANSISTORS
Transistor theory Order this

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PNP Transistor Operation
Rom
The basic transistor amplifier
Types of bias
Amplifier classes of operation
Transistor configurations
Transistor specifications
Precautions
Microelectronics Order this
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SPECIAL DEVICES
The tunnel diode

Tunnel diode energy diagram
Silicon Controlled Rectifier (SCR)
SCR Structure
TRIAC
Optoelectronic Devices
Photodiode
Transistors
Field Effect Transistors
JFET symbols and bias voltages
Effects of bias on N-channel depletion MOSFET
Summary
Answers
Solid-state power supplies
The power transformer

The conventional full-wave rectifier
The bridge rectifier
Filters
The capacitor filter
LC Choke-Input Filter
Ac component in an LC choke-input filter.
Resistor-Capacitor (RC) Filters
FAILURE ANALYSIS OF THE RESISTOR-
CAPACITOR (RC) FILTER
Voltage regulation
Series voltage regulator
Current regulators
Voltage multipliers
Short Circuit Protection
Summary
Answers
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LEARNING OBJECTIVES

learned the information. The learning objective are listed below. Join Integrated
Publishing's
Upon completion of this chapter, you should be able to do the Discussion Group
following:
State, in terms of energy

bands, the differences
between a conductor, an
insulator, and a
semiconductor.
Explain the electron and the Order this
hole flow theory in information on CD-
semiconductors and how the Rom
semiconductor is affected by
doping.
Define the term "diode" and
give a brief description of its
construction and operation.
Explain how the diode can be
used as a half-wave rectifier
Order this
and as a switch.
information in
Identify the diode by its
Print (Hardcopy).
symbology, alphanumerical
designation, and color code.
List the precautions that must
be taken when working with
diodes and describe the
different ways to test them.
INTRODUCTION TO SOLID-STATE DEVICES
As you recall from previous studies in this series, semiconductors

have electrical properties somewhere between those of insulators
and conductors. The use of semiconductor materials in electronic
components is not new; some devices are as old as the electron
tube. Two of the most widely known semiconductors in use today
are the JUNCTION DIODE and TRANSISTOR. These
semiconductors fall under a more general heading called solid-
state devices. A SOLID-STATE DEVICE is nothing more than an
electronic device, which operates by virtue of the movement of
electrons within a solid piece of semiconductor material.
Since the invention of the transistor, solid-state devices have been

developed and improved at an unbelievable rate. Great strides
have been made in the manufacturing techniques, and there is no
foreseeable limit to the future of these devices. Solid-state devices
made from semiconductor materials offer compactness, efficiency,
ruggedness, and versatility. Consequently, these devices have
invaded virtually every field of science and industry. In addition to
the junction diode and transistor, a whole new family of related
devices has been developed: the ZENER DIODE, LIGHT-
EMITTING DIODE, FIELD EFFECT TRANSISTOR, etc. One
development that has dominated solid-state technology, and
probably has had a greater impact on the electronics industry than
either the electron tube or transistor, is the INTEGRATED
CIRCUIT. The integrated circuit is a minute piece of semiconductor
material that can produce complete electronic circuit functions.
As the applications of solid-state devices mount, the need for
knowledge of these devices becomes increasingly important.
Personnel in the Navy today will have to understand solid-state
devices if they are to become proficient in the repair and
maintenance of electronic equipment. Therefore, our objective in
this module is to provide a broad coverage of solid-state devices
and, as a broad application, power supplies. We will begin our
discussion with some background information on the development
of the semiconductor. We will then proceed to the semiconductor
diode, the transistor, special devices and, finally, solid-state power
supplies.
SEMICONDUCTOR DEVELOPMENT
Although the semiconductor was late in reaching its present

development, its story began long before the electron tube.
Historically, we can go as far back as 1883 when Michael Faraday
discovered that silver sulfide, a semiconductor, has a negative
temperature coefficient. The term negative temperature coefficient
is just another way of saying its resistance to electrical current flow
decreases as temperature increases. The opposite is true of the
conductor. It has a positive temperature coefficient. Because of this
particular characteristic, semiconductors are used extensively in
power-measuring equipment.
Only 2 years later, another valuable characteristic was reported by

Munk A. Rosenshold. He found that certain materials have
rectifying properties. Strange as it may seem, his finding was given
such little notice that it had to be rediscovered 39 years later by F.
Braun.
Toward the close of the 19th century, experimenters began to

notice the peculiar characteristics of the chemical element
SELENIUM. They discovered that in addition to its rectifying
properties (the ability to convert ac into dc), selenium was also light
sensitive-its resistance decreased with an increase in light
intensity. This discovery eventually led to the invention of the
photophone by Alexander Graham Bell. The photophone, which
converted variations of light into sound, was a predecessor of the
radio receiver; however, it wasn't until the actual birth of radio that
selenium was used to any extent. Today, selenium is an important
and widely used semiconductor.
Many other materials were tried and tested for use in
communications. SILICON was found to be the most stable of the
materials tested while GALENA, a crystalline form of lead sulfide,
was found the most sensitive for use in early radio receivers. By
1915, Carl Beredicks discovered that GERMANIUM, another
metallic element, also had rectifying capabilities. Later, it became
widely used in electronics for low-power, low-frequency
applications.
Although the semiconductor was known long before the electron

tube was invented, the semiconductor devices of that time could
not match the performance of the tube. Radio needed a device that
could not only handle power and amplify but rectify and detect a
signal as well. Since tubes could do all these things, whereas
semiconductor devices of that day could not, the semiconductor
soon lost out.
It wasn't until the beginning of World War II that interest was

renewed in the semiconductor. There was a dire need for a device
that could work within the ultra-high frequencies of radar. Electron
tubes had interelectrode capacitances that were too high to do the
job. The point-contact semiconductor diode, on the other hand, had
a very low internal capacitance. Consequently, it filled the bill; it
could be designed to work within the ultra-high frequencies used in
radar, whereas the electron tube could not.
As radar took on greater importance and communication-electronic

equipment became more sophisticated, the demands for better
solid-state devices mounted. The limitations of the electron tube
made necessary a quest for something new and different. An
amplifying device was needed that was smaller, lighter, more
efficient, and capable of handling extremely high frequencies. This
was asking a lot, but if progress was to be made, these
requirements had to be met. A serious study of semiconductor
materials began in the early 1940's and has continued since.
In June 1948, a significant breakthrough took place in

semiconductor development. This was the discovery of POINT-
CONTACT TRANSISTOR. Here at last was a semiconductor that
could amplify. This discovery brought the semiconductor back into
competition with the electron tube. A year later, JUNCTION
DIODES and TRANSISTORS were developed. The junction
transistor was found superior to the point-contact type in many
respects. By comparison, the junction transistor was more reliable,
generated less noise, and had higher power-handling ability than
its point-contact brother. The junction transistor became a rival of
the electron tube in many uses previously uncontested.
Semiconductor diodes were not to be slighted. The initial work of

Dr. Carl Zener led to the development of ZENER DIODE, which is
frequently used today to regulate power supply voltages at precise
levels. Considerably more interest in the solid-state diode was
generated when Dr. Leo Esaki, a Japanese scientist, fabricated a
diode that could amplify. The device, named the TUNNEL DIODE,
has amazing gain and fast switching capabilities. Although it is
used in the conventional amplifying and oscillating circuits, its
primary use is in computer logic circuits.
Another breakthrough came in the late 1950's when it was

discovered that semiconductor materials could be combined and
treated so that they functioned as an entire circuit or subassembly
rather than as a circuit component. Many names have been given
to this solid-circuit concept, such as INTEGRATED CIRCUITS,
MICROELECTRONICS, and MICROCIRCUITRY.
So as we see, in looking back, that the semiconductor is not

something new, but it has come a long way in a short time.
Q.1 What is a solid-state device?
Q.2 Define the term negative temperature coefficient.

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TRANSISTORS
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TRANSISTORS
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
Upon completion of this chapter, you should be able to do the

following:
Define the term transistor and give a brief description of its

construction and operation.
Explain how the transistor can be used to Join Integrated

amplify a signal. Publishing's
Name the four classes of amplifiers and Discussion Group
give an explanation for each.
List the three different
transistor circuit
configurations and explain
their operation.
Identify the different types
of transistors by their
symbology and alphanumerical
designations.
Order this
List the precautions to be
taken when working with information on CD-
transistors and describe ways Rom
to test them.
Explain the meaning of the expression
"integrated circuits."
Give a brief description on
how integrated circuits are
constructed and the advantages
they offer over conventional
transistor circuits.
Name the two types of circuit boards. Order this
State the purpose and function of
information in
modular circuitry.
Print (Hardcopy).
INTRODUCTION TO TRANSISTORS
The discovery of the first transistor in 1948 by a team of

physicists at the Bell Telephone Laboratories sparked an interest
in solid-state research that spread rapidly. The transistor, which
began as a simple laboratory oddity, was rapidly developed into a
semiconductor device of major importance. The transistor
demonstrated for the first time in history that amplification in
solids was possible. Before the transistor, amplification was
achieved only with electron tubes. Transistors now perform numerous
electronic tasks with new and improved transistor designs being
continually put on the market. In many cases, transistors are more
desirable than tubes because they are small, rugged, require no
filament power, and operate at low voltages with comparatively high
efficiency. The development of a family of transistors has even
made possible the miniaturization of electronic circuits. Figure 2-
1 shows a sample of the many different types of transistors you may
encounter when working with electronic equipment.
Figure 2-1. - An assortment of different types of transistors.

Transistors have infiltrated virtually every area of science and
industry, from the family car to satellites. Even the military
depends heavily on transistors. The ever increasing uses for
transistors have created an urgent need for sound and basic
information regarding their operation.
From your study of the PN-junction diode in the preceding chapter,

you now have the basic knowledge to grasp the principles of
transistor operation. In this chapter you will first become
acquainted with the basic types of transistors, their construction,
and their theory of operation. You will also find out just how and
why transistors amplify. Once this basic information is understood,
transistor terminology, capabilities, limitations, and
identification will be discussed. Last, we will talk about
transistor maintenance, integrated circuits, circuit boards, and
modular circuitry.
TRANSISTOR FUNDAMENTALS
The first solid-state device discussed was the two-element

semiconductor diode. The next device on our list is even more
unique. It not only has one more element than the diode but it can
amplify as well. Semiconductor devices that have-three or more
elements are called TRANSISTORS. The term transistor was derived
from the words TRANSfer and resISTOR. This term was adopted because
it best describes the operation of the transistor - the transfer of
an input signal current from a low-resistance circuit to a high-
resistance circuit. Basically, the transistor is a solid-state
device that amplifies by controlling the flow of current carriers
through its semiconductor materials.
There are many different types of transistors, but their basic

theory of operation is all the same. As a matter of fact, the
theory we will be using to explain the operation of a transistor is
the same theory used earlier with the PN-junction diode except that
now two such junctions are required to form the three elements of a
transistor. The three elements of the two-junction transistor are
(1) the EMITTER, which gives off, or emits," current carriers
(electrons or holes); (2) the BASE, which controls the flow of
current carriers; and (3) the COLLECTOR, which collects the current
carriers.
CLASSIFICATION
Transistors are classified as either NPN or PNP according to the

arrangement of their N and P materials. Their basic construction
and chemical treatment is implied by their names, "NPN" or "PNP."
That is, an NPN transistor is formed by introducing a thin region
of P-type material between two regions of N-type material. On the
other hand, a PNP transistor is formed by introducing a thin region
of N-type material between two regions of P-type material.
Transistors constructed in this manner have two PN junctions, as
shown in figure 2-2. One PN junction is between the emitter and the
base; the other PN junction is between the collector and the base.
The two junctions share one section of semiconductor material so
that the transistor actually consists of three elements.
Figure 2-2. - Transistor block diagrams.

Since the majority and minority current carriers are different for
N and P materials, it stands to reason that the internal operation
of the NPN and PNP transistors will also be different. The theory
of operation of the NPN and PNP transistors will be discussed
separately in the next few paragraphs. Any additional information
about the PN junction will be given as the theory of transistor
operation is developed.
To prepare you for the forthcoming information, the two basic types
of transistors along with their circuit symbols are shown in figure
2-3. It should be noted that the two symbols are different. The
horizontal line represents the base, the angular line with the
arrow on it represents the emitter, and the other angular line
represents the collector. The direction of the arrow on the emitter
distinguishes the NPN from the PNP transistor. If the arrow points
in, (Points iN) the transistor is a PNP. On the other hand if the
arrow points out, the transistor is an NPN (Not Pointing iN).
Figure 2-3. - Transistor representations.
Another point you should keep in mind is that the arrow always
points in the direction of hole flow, or from the P to N sections,
no matter whether the P section is the emitter or base. On the
other hand, electron flow is always toward or against the arrow,
just like in the junction diode.
CONSTRUCTION
The very first transistors were known as point-contact transistors.

Their construction is similar to the construction of the point-
contact diode covered in chapter 1. The difference, of course, is
that the point-contact transistor has two P or N regions formed
instead of one. Each of the two regions constitutes an electrode
(element) of the transistor. One is named the emitter and the other
is named the collector, as shown in figure 2-4, view A.
Figure 2-4. - Transistor constructions.
Point-contact transistors are now practically obsolete. They have

been replaced by junction transistors, which are superior to point-
contact transistors in nearly all respects. The junction transistor
generates less noise, handles more power, provides higher current
and voltage gains, and can be mass-produced more cheaply than the
point-contact transistor. Junction transistors are manufactured in
much the same manner as the PN junction diode discussed earlier.
However, when the PNP or NPN material is grown (view B), the
impurity mixing process must be reversed twice to obtain the two
junctions required in a transistor. Likewise, when the alloy-
junction (view C) or the diffused-junction (view D) process is
used, two junctions must also be created within the crystal.
Although there are numerous ways to manufacture transistors, one of
the most important parts of any manufacturing process is quality
control. Without good quality control, many transistors would prove
unreliable because the construction and processing of a transistor
govern its thermal ratings, stability, and electrical
characteristics. Even though there are many variations in the
transistor manufacturing processes, certain structural techniques,
which yield good reliability and long life , are common to all
processes: (1) Wire leads are connected to each semiconductor
electrode; (2) the crystal is specially mounted to protect it
against mechanical damage; and (3) the unit is sealed to prevent
harmful contamination of the crystal.
Q.1 What is the name given to the semiconductor device that has
three or more elements?
Q.2 What electronic function made the transistor famous?

Q.3 In which direction does the arrow point on an NPN transistor?
Q.4 What was the name of the very first transistor?

Q.5 What is one of the most important parts of any transistor
manufacturing process?
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SPECIAL DEVICES
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SPECIAL DEVICES
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
Explain the basic operation and the major

applications of the Zener diode.
Describe the basic operation of the tunnel diode
and the varactor. Join Integrated
Explain the basic operation of the silicon Publishing's
controlled rectifier and the TRIAC, and Discussion Group
compare the advantages and
disadvantages of each.
List the five most commonly used
optoelectronic devices and explain the
uses of each.
Describe the basic operation, applications,
and major advantages of the unijunction
transistor. Order this
Describe the basic operation, applications, information on CD-
and major advantages of the field effect Rom
transistor and the metal oxide
semiconductor field effect transistor.
Explain the basic operation and the major
applications of the Zener diode.
Describe. the basic operation of the tunnel diode
and the varactor.
Explain the basic operation of the silicon Order this
controlled rectifier and the TRIAC, and information in
compare the advantages and Print (Hardcopy).
disadvantages of each.
List the five most commonly used
optoelectronic devices and explain the
uses of each.
and major advantages of the unijunction
transistor.
and major advantages of the field-effect
transistor and the metal-oxide
semiconductor field-effect transistor.
INTRODUCTION TO SPECIAL DEVICES
If you consider the sensitive nature and the various interacting properties of
semiconductors, it should not be surprising to you that solid state devices can be designed
for many different purposes. In fact, devices with special features are so numerous and new
designs are so frequently introduced that it would be beyond the scope of this chapter to
describe all of the devices in use today. Therefore, this chapter will include a variety of
representative devices that are used extensively in Navy equipment to give you an idea of
the diversity and versatility that have been made possible. These devices have been
grouped into three categories: diodes, optoelectronic devices, and transistors. In this
chapter each device will be described and the basic operation of each one will be
discussed.
DIODES
Diodes are two terminal semiconductors of various types that are used in seemingly
endless applications. The operation of normal PN-junction diodes has already been
discussed, but there are a number of diodes with special properties with which you should
be familiar. A discussion of all of the developments in the diode field would be impossible so
some of the more commonly used special diodes have been selected for explanation.
These include Zener diodes, tunnel diodes, varactors, silicon controlled rectifiers (SCR),
and TRIACs.
Zener Diodes
When a PN-junction diode is reverse biased, the majority carriers (holes in the P-material
and electrons in the N-material) move away from the junction. The barrier or depletion
region becomes wider, as illustrated in figure 3-1, (view A, view B, view C) and majority
carrier current flow becomes very difficult across the high resistance of the wide depletion
region. The presence of minority carriers causes a small leakage current that remains
nearly constant for all reverse voltages up to a certain value. Once this value has been
exceeded, there is a sudden increase in the reverse current. The voltage at which the
sudden increase in current occurs is called the BREAKDOWN VOLTAGE. At breakdown,
the reverse current increases very rapidly with a slight increase in the reverse voltage. Any
diode can be reverse biased to the point of breakdown, but not every diode can safely
dissipate the power associated with breakdown. A Zener diode is a PN junction designed to
operate in the reverse-bias breakdown region.
Figure 3-1A. - Effects of bias on the depletion region of a PN junction.

Figure 3-1B. - Effects of bias on the depletion region of a PN junction.
Figure 3-1C. - Effects of bias on the depletion region of a PN junction.
There are two distinct theories used to explain the behavior of PN junctions during
breakdown: one is the ZENER EFFECT and the other is the AVALANCHE EFFECT.
The ZENER EFFECT was first proposed by Dr. Carl Zener in 1934. According to Dr.
Zener's theory, electrical breakdown in solid dielectrics occurs by a process called
QUANTUM-MECHANICAL TUNNELING. The Zener effect accounts for the breakdown
below 5 volts; whereas, above 5 volts the breakdown is caused by the avalanche effect.
Although the avalanche effect is now accepted as an explanation of diode breakdown, the
term Zener diode is used to cover both types.
The true Zener effect in semiconductors can be described in terms of energy bands;
however, only the two upper energy bands are of interest. The two upper bands, illustrated
in figure 3-2, view A, are called the conduction band and the valence band.
Figure 3-2A. - Energy diagram for Zener diode.
The CONDUCTION BAND is a band in which the energy level of the electrons is high
enough that the electrons will move easily under the influence of an external field. Since
current flow is the movement of electrons, the readily mobile electrons in the conduction
band are capable of maintaining a current flow when an external field in the form of a
voltage is applied. Therefore, solid materials that have many electrons in the conduction
band are called conductors.
The VALENCE BAND is a band in which the energy level is the same as the valence
electrons of the atoms. Since the electrons in these levels are attached to the atoms, the
electrons are not free to move around as are the conduction band electrons. With the
proper amount of energy added, however, the electrons in the valence band may be
elevated to the conduction band energy level. To do this, the electrons must cross a gap
that exists between the valence band energy level and the conduction band energy level.
This gap is known as the FORBIDDEN ENERGY BAND or FORBIDDEN GAP. The energy
difference across this gap determines whether a solid material will act as a conductor, a
semiconductor, or an insulator.
A conductor is a material in which the forbidden gap is so narrow that it can be considered
nonexistent. A semiconductor is a solid that contains a forbidden gap, as shown in figure 3-
2, view A. Normally, a semiconductor has no electrons at the conduction band energy level.
The energy provided by room temperature heat, however, is enough energy to overcome
the binding force of a few valence electrons and to elevate them to the conduction band
energy level. The addition of impurities to the semiconductor material increases both the
number of free electrons in the conduction band and the number of electrons in the valence
band that can be elevated to the conduction band. Insulators are materials in which the
forbidden gap is so large that practically no electrons can be given enough energy to cross
the gap. Therefore, unless extremely large amounts of heat energy are available, these
materials will not conduct electricity.
View B of figure 3-2 is an energy diagram of a reverse-biased Zener diode. The energy
bands of the P and N materials are naturally at different levels, but reverse bias causes the
valence band of the P material to overlap the energy level of the conduction band in the N
material. Under this condition, the valence electrons of the P material can cross the
extremely thin junction region at the overlap point without acquiring any additional energy.
This action is called tunneling. When the breakdown point of the PN junction is reached,
large numbers of minority carriers "tunnel" across the junction to form the current that
occurs at breakdown. The tunneling phenomenon only takes place in heavily doped diodes
such as Zener diodes.
Figure 3-2B. - Energy diagram for Zener diode.
The second theory of reverse breakdown effect in diodes is known as AVALANCHE

breakdown and occurs at reverse voltages beyond 5 volts. This type of breakdown diode
has a depletion region that is deliberately made narrower than the depletion region in the
normal PN-junction diode, but thicker than that in the Zener-effect diode. The thicker
depletion region is achieved by decreasing the doping level from the level used in Zener-
effect diodes. The breakdown is at a higher voltage because of the higher resistivity of the
material. Controlling the doping level of the material during the manufacturing process can
produce breakdown voltages ranging between about 2 and 200 volts.
The mechanism of avalanche breakdown is different from that of the Zener effect. In the
depletion region of a PN junction, thermal energy is responsible for the formation of electron-
hole pairs. The leakage current is caused by the movement of minority electrons, which is
accelerated in the electric field across the barrier region. As the reverse voltage across the
depletion region is increased, the reverse voltage eventually reaches a critical value. Once
the critical or breakdown voltage has been reached, sufficient energy is gained by the
thermally released minority electrons to enable the electrons to rupture covalent bonds as
they collide with lattice atoms. The released electrons are also accelerated by the electric
field, resulting in the release of further electrons, and so on, in a chain or avalanche effect.
This process is illustrated in figure 3-3.
Figure 3-3. - Avalanche multiplication.
For reverse voltage slightly higher than breakdown, the avalanche effect releases an almost
unlimited number of carriers so that the diode essentially becomes a short circuit. The
current flow in this region is limited only by an external series current-limiting resistor.
Operating a diode in the breakdown region does not damage it, as long as the maximum
power dissipation rating of the diode is not exceeded. Removing the reverse voltage permits
all carriers to return to their normal energy values and velocities.
Some of the symbols used to represent Zener diodes are illustrated in figure 3-4 (view A,
view B, view C, view D, and view E). Note that the polarity markings indicate electron flow is
with the arrow symbol instead of against it as in a normal PN-junction diode. This is
because breakdown diodes are operated in the reverse-bias mode, which means the
current flow is by minority current carriers.
Figure 3-4A. - Schematic symbols for Zener diodes.

Figure 3-4B. - Schematic symbols for Zener diodes.
Figure 3-4C. - Schematic symbols for Zener diodes.

Figure 3-4D. - Schematic symbols for Zener diodes.
Figure 3-4E. - Schematic symbols for Zener diodes.

Zener diodes of various sorts are used for many purposes, but their most widespread use is
as voltage regulators. Once the breakdown voltage of a Zener diode is reached, the voltage
across the diode remains almost constant regardless of the supply voltage. Therefore they
hold the voltage across the load at a constant level. This characteristic makes Zener diodes
ideal voltage regulators, and they are found in almost all solid-state circuits in this capacity.
Q.1 In a reverse biased PN-junction, which current carriers cause leakage current?
Q.2 The action of a PN-junction during breakdown can be explained by what two theories?
Q.3 Which breakdown theory explains the action that takes place in a heavily doped PN-
junction with a reverse bias of less than 5 volts?

Q.4 What is the doping level of an avalanche effect diode when compared to the doping
level of a Zener-effect diode?

Q.5 During avalanche effect breakdown, what limits current flow through the diode?
Q.6 Why is electron flow with the arrow in the symbol of a Zener diode instead of against
the arrow as it is in a normal diode?

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Solid-state power supplies
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SOLID-STATE POWER SUPPLIES
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
Identify the various sections of a power supply.

State the purpose of each section of a power supply.
Describe the operation of the power
supply from both a whole unit standpoint
and from a subunit standpoint. Join Integrated
Describe the purpose of the various Publishing's
types of rectifier circuits used in Discussion Group
power supplies.
Describe the purpose of the various
types of filter circuits used in power
supplies.
Describe the operation of the various
voltage and current regulators in a
power supply.
Describe the operation of the various types of voltage
multipliers. Order this
Trace the flow of ac and dc in a power
information on CD-
supply, from the ac input to the dc
output on a schematic diagram. Rom
Identify faulty components through visual checks.
Identify problems within specific areas
of a power supply by using a logical
isolation method of troubleshooting.
Apply safety precautions when working with electronic
power supplies.
Order this
In today's Navy all electronic equipment, both ashore and on board ship, requires a information in
power supply. The discovery of the silicon diode and other solid-state components
Print (Hardcopy).
made possible the reduction in size and the increase in reliability of electronic
equipment. This is especially important on board ship where space and accessibility
to spare parts are a major concern.
In this chapter, you will read about the individual sections of the power supply,
their components, and the purpose of each within the power supply.
THE BASIC POWER SUPPLY
View A of figure 4-1 shows the block diagram of a basic power supply. Most power
supplies are made up of four basic sections: a TRANSFORMER, a RECTIFIER, a FILTER,
and a REGULATOR.
Figure 4-1A. - Block diagram of a basic power supply.
As illustrated in view B of figure 4-1, the first section is the TRANSFORMER. The
transformer steps up or steps down the input line voltage and isolates the power
supply from the power line. The RECTIFIER section converts the alternating current
input signal to a pulsating direct current. However, as you proceed in this chapter
you will learn that pulsating dc is not desirable. For this reason a FILTER section
is used to convert pulsating dc to a purer, more desirable form of dc voltage.
Figure 4-1B. - Block diagram of a basic power supply.
The final section, the REGULATOR, does just what the name implies. It maintains the
output of the power supply at a constant level in spite of large changes in load
current or input line voltages.
Now that you know what each section does, let's trace an ac signal through the power
supply. At this point you need to see how this signal is altered within each section
of the power supply. Later on in the chapter you will see how these changes take
place. In view B of figure 4-1, an input signal of 115 volts ac is applied to the
primary of the transformer. The transformer is a step-up transformer with a turns
ratio of 1:3. You can calculate the output for this transformer by multiplying the
input voltage by the ratio of turns in the primary to the ratio of turns in the
secondary; therefore, 115 volts ac X 3 = 345 volts ac (peak-to-peak) at the output.
Because each diode in the rectifier section conducts for 180 degrees of the 360-
degree input, the output of the rectifier will be one-half, or approximately 173
volts of pulsating dc. The filter section, a network of resistors, capacitors, or
inductors, controls the rise and fall time of the varying signal; consequently, the
signal remains at a more constant dc level. You will see the filter process more
clearly in the discussion of the actual filter circuits. The output of the filter is
a signal of 110 volts dc, with ac ripple riding on the dc. The reason for the lower
voltage (average voltage) will be explained later in this chapter. The regulator
maintains its output at a constant 110-volt dc level, which is used by the electronic
equipment (more commonly called the load).
Q.1 What are the four basic sections of a power supply?
Q.2 What is the purpose of the rectifier section?
Q.3 What is the purpose of the filter section?
Q.4 What is the purpose of the regulator section?
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Book 8
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AMPLIFIERS
Classification of amplifiers
Transistor Amplifiers
Amplifier coupling
Impedance considerations for amplifiers
Amplifier feedback
Positive feedback
Audio amplifiers
Push-pull amplifiers
Summary
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Answers
Publishing's
Discussion Group
VIDEO AND RF AMPLIFIERS
Reading amplifier Frequency response curves

Frequency-response curves
Video amplifiers
Low-frequency compensation for video amplifiers
Radio-frequency amplifiers Order this
information on CD-
RF amplifier coupling
Rom
Typical RF amplifier circuits
Summary
Answers
SPECIAL AMPLIFIERS
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Input signals in phase information in
Single-input, single-output differential amplifier Print (Hardcopy).
Operational amplifiers
Operational amplifier
Current flow in the operational circuit
Bandwidth limitations
Applications of operational amplifiers
Scaling amplifier
Difference amplifier
Circuit for Q31 through Q33
Circuit for Q36 through Q38
Magnetic amplifiers
Methods of changing inductance
Flux paths in a saturable-core reactor. FLUX AIDING
Simplified magnetic amplifier circuitry
Summary
Answers
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AMPLIFIERS
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AMPLIFIERS
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
Learning objectives are stated at the beginning of each chapter. These learning objectives
serve as a preview of the information you are expected to learn in the chapter. The
comprehensive check questions are based on the objectives. By successfully completing the
OCC/ECC, you indicate that you have met the objectives and have learned the information.
The learning objectives are listed below.
Join Integrated
Upon completion of this chapter, you will be able to: Publishing's
Discussion Group
Define amplification and list several
common uses; state two ways in which
amplifiers are classified.
List the four classes of operation of, four
methods of coupling for, and the
impedance characteristics of the three
configurations of a transistor amplifier.
Define feedback and list the two types of Order this
feedback. information on CD-
Describe and state one use for a phase Rom
splitter.
State a common use for and one
advantage of a push-pull amplifier.
INTRODUCTION
Order this
This chapter is a milestone in your study of electronics. Previous modules have been information in
concerned more with individual components of circuits than with the complete circuits as the Print (Hardcopy).
subject. This chapter and the other chapters of this module are concerned with the circuitry of
amplifiers. While components are discussed, the discussion of the components is not an
explanation of the working of the component itself (these have been covered in previous
modules) but an explanation of the component as it relates to the circuit.
The circuits this chapter is concerned with are AMPLIFIERS. Amplifiers are devices that
provide AMPLIFICATION. That doesn't explain much, but it does describe an amplifier if you
know what amplification is and what it is used for.
WHAT IS AMPLIFICATION?
Just as an amplifier is a device that provides amplification, amplification is the process of

providing an increase in AMPLITUDE. Amplitude is a term that describes the size of a signal.
In terms of a.c., amplitude usually refers to the amount of voltage or current. A 5-volt peak-to-
peak a.c.signal would be larger in amplitude than a 4-volt peak-to-peak a.c. signal. "SIGNAL"
is a general term used to refer to any a.c. or d.c. of interest in a circuit; e.g., input signal and
output signal. A signal can be large or small, ac. or d.c., a sine wave or nonsinusoidal, or even
nonelectrical such as sound or light. "Signal" is a very general term and, therefore, not very
descriptive by itself, but it does sound more technical than the word "thing". It is not very
impressive to refer to the "input thing" or the "thing that comes out of this circuit."
Perhaps the concept of the relationship of amplifier-amplification-amplitude will be clearer if

you consider a parallel situation (an analogy). A magnifying glass is a magnifier. As such, it
provides magnification which is an increase in the magnitude (size) of an object. This
relationship of magnifier-magnification-magnitude is the same as the relationship of amplifier-
amplification-amplitude. The analogy is true in one other aspect as well. The magnifier does
not change the object that is being magnified; it is only the image that is larger, not the object
itself. With the amplifier, the output signal differs in amplitude from the input signal, but the
input signal still exists unchanged. So, the object (input signal) and the magnifier (amplifier)
control the image (output signal).
An amplifier can be defined as a device that enables an input signal to control an output
signal. The output signal will have some (or all) of the characteristics of the input signal but
will generally be larger than the input signal in terms of voltage, current, or power.
USES OF AMPLIFICATION
Most electronic devices use amplifiers to provide various amounts of signal amplification.
Since most signals are originally too small to control or drive the desired device, some
amplification is needed.
For example, the audio signal taken from a record is too small to drive a speaker, so
amplification is needed. The signal will be amplified several times between the needle of the
record player and the speaker. Each time the signal is amplified it is said to go through a
STAGE of amplification.
The audio amplifier shown connected between the turntable and speaker system in figure 1-1
contains several stages of amplification.
Figure 1-1. - Amplifier as used with turntable and speaker.

Notice the triangle used in figure 1-1 to represent the amplifier. This triangle is the standard
block diagram symbol for an amplifier.
Another example of the use of an amplifier is shown in figure 1-2. In a radio receiver, the
signal picked up by the antenna is too weak (small) to be used as it is. This signal must be
amplified before it is sent to the detector. (The detector separates the audio signal from the
frequency that was sent by the transmitter. The way in which this is done will be discussed
later in this training series.)
Figure 1-2. - Amplifiers as used in radio receiver.

The audio signal from the detector will then be amplified to make it large enough to drive the
speaker of the radio.
Almost every electronic device contains at least one stage of amplification, so you will be
seeing amplifiers in many devices that you work on. Amplifiers will also be used in most of the
NEETS modules that follow this one.
Q.1 What is amplification?
Q.2 Does an amplifier actually change an input signal? Why or why not?
Q.3 Why do electronic devices use amplifiers?
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LEARNING OBJECTIVES
Define the term "bandwidth of an

amplifier."
Determine the upper and
lower frequency limits of
an amplifier from a Join Integrated
frequency-response curve.
Publishing's
List the factors that
limit Frequency response Discussion Group
in an amplifier.
List two techniques used
to increase the high-
Frequency response for a
video amplifier.
State one technique used
to increase the low-
frequency response of a
video amplifier. Order this
information on CD-
Rom
Identify the purpose of
various components on a
schematic of a complete
typical video amplifier
circuit.
State the purpose of a
Order this
frequency-determining
network in an rf information in
amplifier. Print (Hardcopy).
State one method by which
an rf amplifier can be
neutralized.
various components on a
schematic of a complete
typical rf amplifier.
INTRODUCTION
In this chapter you will be given information on the

Frequency response of amplifiers as well as specific
information on video and rf amplifiers.
For all practical purposes, all the general information

you studied in chapter 1 about audio amplifiers will apply
to the video and rf amplifiers which you are about to
study.
You may be wondering why you need to learn about video and
rf amplifiers. You need to understand these circuits
because, as a technician, you will probably be involved in
working on equipment in which these circuits are used.
Many of the circuits shown in this and the next chapter
are incomplete and would not be used in actual equipment.
For example, the complete biasing network may not be
shown. This is done so you can concentrate on the concepts
being presented without being overwhelmed by an abundance
of circuit elements. With this idea in mind, the
information that is presented in this chapter is real,
practical information about video and rf amplifiers. It is
the sort of information that you will use in working with
these circuits. Engineering information (such as design
specifications) will not be presented because it is not
needed to understand the concepts that a technician needs
to perform the job of circuit analysis and repair. Before
you are given the specific information on video and rf
amplifiers, you may be wondering how these circuits are
used.
Video amplifiers are used to amplify signals that
represent video information. (That's where the term
"video" comes from.) Video is the "picture" portion of a
television signal. The "sound" portion is audio. Although
the Navy uses television in many ways, video signals are
used for more than television. Radar systems (discussed
later in this training series) use video signals and,
therefore, video amplifiers. Video amplifiers are also
used in video recorders and some communication and control
devices. In addition to using video amplifiers,
televisions use rf amplifiers. Many other devices also use
rf amplifiers, such as radios, navigational devices, and
communications systems. Almost any device that uses
broadcast, or transmitted, information will use an rf
amplifier.
As you should recall, rf amplifiers are used to amplify

signals between 10 kilohertz (10 kHz) and 100,000
megahertz (100,000 MHz) (not this entire band of
frequencies, but any band of frequencies within these
limits). Therefore, any device that uses frequencies
between 10 kilohertz and 100,000 megahertz will most
likely use an rf amplifier.
Before you study the details of video and rf amplifiers,

you need to learn a little more about the Frequency
response of an amplifier and frequency-response curves.
AMPLIFIER Frequency response
In chapter 1 of this module you were shown the frequency-

response curve of an audio amplifier. Every amplifier has
a frequency-response curve associated with it. Technicians
use frequency-response curves because they provide a
"picture" of the performance of an amplifier at various
frequencies.
You will probably never have to draw a frequency-response

curve, but, in order to use one, you should know how a
frequency-response curve is created. The amplifier for
which the frequency-response curve is created is tested at
various frequencies. At each frequency, the input signal
is set to some predetermined level of voltage (or
current). This same voltage (or current) level for all of
the input signals is used to provide a standard input and
to allow evaluation of the output of the circuit at each
of the frequencies tested. For each of these frequencies,
the output is measured and marked on a graph. The graph is
marked "frequency" along the horizontal axis and "voltage"
or "current" along the vertical axis. When points have
been plotted for all of the frequencies tested, the points
are connected to form the frequency-response curve. The
shape of the curve represents the Frequency response of
the amplifier.
Some amplifiers should be "flat" across a band of

frequencies. In other words, for every frequency within
the band, the amplifier should have equal gain (equal
response). For frequencies outside the band, the amplifier
gain will be much lower.
For other amplifiers, the desired Frequency response is

different. For example, perhaps the amplifier should have
high gain at two frequencies and low gain for all other
frequencies. The frequency-response curve for this type of
amplifier would show two "peaks." In other amplifiers the
frequency-response curve will have one peak indicating
high gain at one frequency and lower gain at all others.
Note the frequency-response curve shown in figure 2-1.
This is the frequency-response curve for an audio

amplifier as described in chapter 1. It is "flat" from 15
hertz (15 Hz) to 20 kilohertz (20 kHz).
Figure 2-1. - Frequency response curve of audio amplifier.

Notice in the figure that the lower frequency limit is
labeled f1 and the upper frequency limit is labeled f2.
Note also the portion inside the frequency-response curve

marked "BANDWIDTH."
You may be wondering just what a "bandwidth" is.
BANDWIDTH OF AN AMPLIFIER
The bandwidth represents the amount or "width" of

frequencies, or the "band of frequencies," that the
amplifier is MOST effective in amplifying. However, the
bandwidth is NOT the same as the band of frequencies that
is amplified. The bandwidth (BW) of an amplifier is the
difference between the frequency limits of the amplifier.
For example, the band of frequencies for an amplifier may
be from 10 kilohertz (10 kHz) to 30 kilohertz (30 kHz).
In this case, the bandwidth would be 20 kilohertz (20

kHz). As another example, if an amplifier is designed to
amplify frequencies between 15 hertz (15 Hz) and 20
kilohertz (20 kHz), the bandwidth will be equal to 20
kilohertz minus 15 hertz or 19,985 hertz (19,985 Hz). This
is shown in figure 2-1.
Mathematically:
You should notice on the figure that the frequency-

response curve shows output voltage (or current) against
frequency. The lower and upper frequency limits (f1 and
f2) are also known as HALF-POWER POINTS. The half-power
points are the points at which the output voltage (or
current) is 70.7 percent of the maximum output voltage (or
current). Any frequency that produces less than 70.7
percent of the maximum output voltage (or current) is
outside the bandwidth and, in most cases, is not
considered a useable output of the amplifier.
The reason these points are called "half-power points" is

that the true output power will be half (50 percent) of
the maximum true output power when the output voltage (or
current) is 70.7 percent of the maximum output voltage (or
current), as shown below. (All calculations are rounded
off to two decimal places.)
As you learned in NEETS, module 2, in an a.c. circuit true

power is calculated using the resistance (R) of the
circuit, NOT the impedance (Z). If the circuit produces a
maximum output voltage of 10 volts across a 50-ohm load,
then:
When the output voltage drops to 70.7 percent of the
maximum voltage of 10 volts, then:
As you can see, the true power is 50 percent (half) of the

maximum true power when the output voltage is 70.7 percent
of the maximum output voltage. If, instead, you are using
the output current of the above circuit, the maximum
current is
The calculations are:

At 70.7 percent of the output current (.14 A):
On figure 2-1, the two points marked f1 and f2 will enable

you to determine the frequency-response limits of the
amplifier. In this case, the limits are 15 hertz (15 Hz)
and 20 kilohertz (20 kHz). You should now see how a
frequency-response curve can enable you to determine the
frequency limits and the bandwidth of an amplifier.
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LEARNING OBJECTIVES
Upon completion of this

chapter, you will be able to:
Describe the basic operation of a
differential amplifier.
Describe the operation of a
differential amplifier under the
following conditions: Join Integrated
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Differential input, differential
output
List the characteristics of an
operational amplifier.
Identify the symbol for an
operational amplifier.
Label the blocks on a block Order this
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amplifier. Rom
Describe the operation of an
operational amplifier with
inverting and noninverting
configurations.
Describe the bandwidth of a
Order this
typical operational amplifier
information in
and methods to modify the
Print (Hardcopy).
bandwidth.
Identify the following
applications of operational
amplifiers:
Adder
Subtractor
State the common usage for a
magnetic amplifier.
Describe the basic operation
of a magnetic amplifier.
Describe various methods of
changing inductance.
components in a simple
magnetic amplifier.
INTRODUCTION
If you were to make a quick review of the subjects discussed in this

module up to this point, you would see that you have been given a
considerable amount of information about amplifiers. You have
been shown what amplification is and how the different classes of
amplifiers affect amplification. You also have been shown that
many factors must be considered when working with amplifiers,
such as impedance, feedback, Frequency response, and coupling.
With all this information behind you, you might ask yourself "what
more can there be to know about amplifiers?"
There is a great deal more to learn about amplifiers. Even after you
finish this chapter you will have only "scratched the surface" of the
study of amplifiers. But, you will have prepared yourself for the
remainder of the NEETS. This, in turn, should prepare you for
further study and, perhaps, a career in electronics.
As in chapter 2, the circuits shown in this chapter are intended to

present particular concepts to you. Therefore, the circuits may be
incomplete or not practical for use in an actual piece of electronic
equipment. You should keep in mind the fact that this text is
intended to teach certain facts about amplifiers, and in order to
simplify the illustrations used, complete operational circuits are not
always shown.
In this chapter three types of special amplifiers are discussed.

These are: DIFFERENTIAL AMPLIFIERS, OPERATIONAL
AMPLIFIERS, and MAGNETIC AMPLIFIERS. These are called
special amplifiers because they are used only in certain types of
equipment.
The names of each of these special amplifiers describe the

operation of the amplifier, NOT what is amplified. For example, a
magnetic amplifier does not amplify magnetism but uses magnetic
effects to produce amplification of an electronic signal.
A differential amplifier is an amplifier that can have two input

signals and/or two output signals. This amplifier can amplify the
difference between two input signals. A differential amplifier will
also "cancel out" common signals at the two inputs.
One of the more interesting aspects of an operational amplifier is

that it can be used to perform mathematical operations
electronically. Properly connected, an operational amplifier can
add, subtract, multiply, divide, and even perform the calculus
operations of integration and differentiation. These amplifiers were
originally used in a type of computer known as the "analog
computer" but are now used in many electronic applications.
The magnetic amplifier uses a device called a "saturable core

reactor" to control an a.c.output signal. The primary use of
magnetic amplifiers is in power control systems.
These brief descriptions of the three special amplifiers are intended

to provide you with a general idea of what these amplifiers are and
how they can be used. The remaining sections of this chapter will
provide you with more detailed information on these special
amplifiers.
DIFFERENTIAL AMPLIFIERS
A differential amplifier has two possible inputs and two possible
outputs. This arrangement means that the differential amplifier can
be used in a variety of ways. Before examining the three basic
configurations that are possible with a differential amplifier, you
need to be familiar with the basic circuitry of a differential amplifier.
BASIC DIFFERENTIAL AMPLIFIER CIRCUIT
Before you are shown the operation of a differential amplifier, you

will be shown how a simpler circuit works. This simpler circuit,
known as the DIFFERENCE AMPLIFIER, has one thing in common
with the differential amplifier: It operates on the difference between
two inputs. However, the difference amplifier has only one output
while the differential amplifier can have two outputs.
By now, you should be familiar with some amplifier circuits, which

should give you an idea of what a difference amplifier is like. In
NEETS, module 7, you were shown the basic configurations for
transistor amplifiers. Figure 3-1 shows two of these configurations:
the common emitter and the common base. In view (A) of figure 3-
1 a common-emitter amplifier is shown. The output signal is an
amplified version of the input signal and is 180 degrees out of
phase with the input signal. View (B) is a common-base amplifier.
In this circuit the output signal is an amplified version of the input
signal and is in phase with the input signal. In both of these circuits,
the output signal is controlled by the base-to-emitter bias. As this
bias changes (because of the input signal) the current through the
transistor changes. This causes the output signal developed across
the collector load (R2) to change. None of this information is new, it
is just a review of what you have already been shown regarding
transistor amplifiers.
Figure 3-1A. - Common-emitter and common-base amplifiers.

Figure 3-1B. - Common-emitter and common-base amplifiers.
NOTE: Bias arrangements for the following explanations will be

termed base-to-emitter. In other publications you will see the term
emitter-to-base used to describe the same bias arrangement.
THE TWO-INPUT, SINGLE-OUTPUT, DIFFERENCE AMPLIFIER
If you combine the common-base and common-emitter

configurations into a single transistor amplifier, you will have a
circuit like the one shown in figure 3-2. This circuit is the two-input,
single-output, difference amplifier.
Figure 3-2. - Two-input, single-output, difference amplifier.
In figure 3-2, the transistor has two inputs (the emitter and the
base) and one output (the collector). Remember, the current
through the transistor (and therefore the output signal) is controlled
by the base-to-emitter bias. In the circuit shown in figure 3-2, the
combination of the two input signals controls the output signal. In
fact, the DIFFERENCE BETWEEN THE INPUT SIGNALS
determines the base-to-emitter bias.
For the purpose of examining the operation of the circuit shown in

figure 3-2, assume that the circuit has a gain of -10. This means
that for each 1-volt change in the base-to-emitter bias, there would
be a 10-volt change in the output signal. Assume, also, that the
input signals will peak at 1-volt levels (+1 volt for the positive peak
and -1 volt for the negative peak). The secret to understanding this
circuit (or any transistor amplifier circuit) is to realize that the
collector current is controlled by the base-to-emitter bias. In other
words, in this circuit the output signal (the voltage developed
across R3) is determined by the difference between the voltage on
the base and the voltage on the emitter.
Figure 3-3 shows this two-input, single-output amplifier with input

signals that are equal in amplitude and 180 degrees out of phase.
Input number one has a positive alternation when input number two
has a negative alternation and vice versa.
Figure 3-3. - Input signals 180 out of phase.
The circuit and the input and output signals are shown at the top of
the figure. The lower portion of the figure is a comparison of the
input signals and the output signal. Notice the vertical lines marked
"T0" through "T8." These represent "time zero" through "time
eight." In other words, these lines provide a way to examine the
two input signals and the output signal at various instants of time.
In figure 3-3 at time zero (T0) both input signals are at 0 volts. The
output signal is also at 0 volts. Between time zero (T0) and time
one (T1), input signal number one goes positive and input signal
number two goes negative. Each of these voltage changes causes
an increase in the base-to-emitter bias which causes current
through Q1 to increase. Increased current through Q1 results in a
greater voltage drop across the collector load (R3) which causes
the output signal to go negative.
By time one (T1), input signal number one has reached +1 volt and
input signal number two has reached -1 volt. This is an overall
increase in base-to-emitter bias of 2 volts. Since the gain of the
circuit is -10, the output signal has decreased by 20 volts. As you
can see, the output signal has been determined by the difference
between the two input signals. In fact, the base-to-emitter bias can
be found by subtracting the value of input signal number two from
the value of input signal number one.
Between time one (T1) and time two (T2), input signal number one
goes from +1 volt to 0 volts and input signal number two goes from -
1 volt to 0 volts. At time two (T2) both input signals are at 0 volts
and the base-to-emitter bias has returned to 0 volts. The output
signal is also 0 volts.
Between time two (T2) and time three (T3), input signal number
one goes negative and input signal number two goes positive. At
time three (T3), the value of the base-to-emitter bias is -2 volts.
This causes the output signal to be +20 volts at time three (T3).
Between time three (T3) and time four (T4), input signal #1 goes
from -1 volt to 0 volts and input signal #2 goes from +1 volt to 0
volts. At time four (T4) both input signals are 0 volts, the bias is 0
volts, and the output is 0 volts.
During time four (T4) through time eight (T8), the circuit repeats the
sequence of events that took place from time zero (T0) through
time four (T4).
You can see that when the input signals are equal in amplitude and
180 degrees out of phase, the output signal is twice as large (40
volts peak to peak) as it would be from either input signal alone (if
the other input signal were held at 0 volts).
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Book 9
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TUNED CIRCUITS
Effect of Frequency on Inductive Reactance

Resonance
The ideal series-resonant circuit
How the Parallel-LC Circuit Stores Energy
Parallel resonance
Resonant circuits as filter circuits
Bandwidth
Filters
High-pass filter
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Multisection filters
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Summary Discussion Group
Answers
OSCILLATORS
LC Network
Solid-state LC Oscillators
Oscillator circuits Order this
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Tuned-base Armstrong oscillator
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Colpitts oscillator
Crystal oscillators
Pulsed oscillators
Harmonics
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Answer
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Astable Multivibrator
Monostable multivibrator block diagram
Bistable Multivibrator
Bistable multivibrator (flip-flop)
Blocking oscillator
Circuit damping
Time-base generators
Relationship of gate to linearity
Improved unijunction sawtooth generator
Series LR circuit.
Summary
Answers
WAVE SHAPING
Series-positive limiter with positive bias

Parallel Limiters
Parallel-negative limiter with negative bias
Dual-diode limiter
Positive-diode clampers
Negative diode clampers
Common-base transistor clamper
Nonsinusoidal Voltages Applied to an RC Circuit
RL Integrators
Integrator waveform analysis
Differentiators
Counters
Negative counters
Summary
Answers
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TUNED CIRCUITS
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TUNED CIRCUITS
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
Learning objectives are stated at the beginning of each chapter. These learning objectives serve as a
preview of the information you are expected to learn in the chapter. The comprehensive check
questions are based on the objectives. By successfully completing the OCC/ECC, you indicate that you
have met the objectives and have learned the information. The learning objectives are listed below.
Upon completion of this chapter, you will be able to: Join Integrated
Publishing's
State the applications of a resonant circuit. Discussion Group
Identify the conditions that exist in a resonant
circuit.
State and apply the formula for resonant
frequency of an a.c. circuit.
State the effect of changes in inductance (L)
and capacitance (C) on resonant frequency (fr).
Identify the characteristics peculiar to a series
resonant circuit. Order this
Identify the characteristics peculiar to a parallel information on CD-
resonant circuit. Rom
State and apply the formula for Q.
State what is meant by the bandwidth of a
resonant circuit and compute the bandwidth for
a given circuit.
Identify the four general types of filters.
Identify how the series- and parallel-resonant
Order this
circuit can be used as a bandpass or a band-
information in
reject filter.
Print (Hardcopy).
INTRODUCTION TO TUNED CIRCUITS
When your radio or television set is turned on, many events take place within the "receiver" before you
hear the sound or see the picture being sent by the transmitting station.
Many different signals reach the antenna of a radio receiver at the same time. To select a station, the
listener adjusts the tuning dial on the radio receiver until the desired station is heard. Within the radio or
TV receiver, the actual "selecting" of the desired signal and the rejecting of the unwanted signals are
accomplished by what is called a TUNED CIRCUIT. A tuned circuit consists of a coil and a capacitor
connected in series or parallel. Later in this chapter you will see the application and advantages of both
series- and parallel-tuned circuits. Whenever the characteristics of inductance and capacitance are
found in a tuned circuit, the phenomenon as RESONANCE takes place.
You learned earlier in the Navy Electricity and Electronics Training Series, Module 2, chapter 4, that
inductive reactance (XL) and capacitive reactance (XC) have opposite effects on circuit impedance (Z).
You also learned that if the frequency applied to an LCR circuit causes XL and XC to be equal, the
circuit is RESONANT.
If you realize that XL and XC can be equal ONLY at ONE FREQUENCY (the resonant frequency), then
you will have learned the most important single fact about resonant circuits. This fact is the principle
that enables tuned circuits in the radio receiver to select one particular frequency and reject all others.
This is the reason why so much emphasis is placed on XL and XC in the discussions that follow.
Examine figure 1-1. Notice that a basic tuned circuit consists of a coil and a capacitor, connected either
in series, view (A), or in parallel, view (B). The resistance (R) in the circuit is usually limited to the
inherent resistance of the components (particularly the resistance of the coil). For our purposes we are
going to disregard this small resistance in future diagrams and explanations.
Figure 1-1A. - Basic tuned circuits.SERIES TUNED CIRCUIT

Figure 1-1B. - Basic tuned circuits.PARALLEL TUNED CIRCUIT
You have already learned how a coil and a capacitor in an a.c. circuit perform. This action will be the
basis of the following discussion about tuned circuits.
Why should you study tuned circuits? Because the tuned circuit that has been described above is used
in just about every electronic device, from remote-controlled model airplanes to the most sophisticated
space satellite.
You can assume, if you are going to be involved in electricity or electronics, that you will need to have
a good working knowledge of tuned circuits and how they are used in electronic and electrical circuits.
REVIEW OF SERIES/PARALLEL A.C. CIRCUITS
First we will review the effects of frequency on a circuit which contains resistance, inductance, and
capacitance. This review recaps what you previously learned in the Inductive and Capacitive
Reactance chapter in module 2 of the NEETS.
FREQUENCY EFFECTS ON RLC CIRCUITS
Perhaps the most often used control of a radio or television set is the station or channel selector. Of
course, the volume, tone, and picture quality controls are adjusted to suit the individual's taste, but very
often they are not adjusted when the station is changed. What goes on behind this station selecting? In
this chapter, you will learn the basic principles that account for the ability of circuits to "tune" to the
desired station.
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OSCILLATORS
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LEARNING OBJECTIVES
List the two broad

classifications of oscillators
(wave generators).
Identify the three frequency-
Join Integrated
determining devices for sine-
Publishing's
wave oscillators.
Discussion Group
between series-fed and shunt-
fed oscillators.
Explain how the crystal is
equivalent to the series and
parallel LC circuit.
Identify the Armstrong
oscillator.
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Identify the Hartley oscillator.
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Identify the Colpitts oscillator.
Rom
Identify the resistive-
capacitive oscillator.
Determine the frequency of a
resistive-capacitive oscillator.
Explain the operation of a
pulsed oscillator.
Determine how many cycles
Order this
are present in the output of a
information in
pulsed oscillator.
Print (Hardcopy).
Explain how frequency
multiplication takes place.
INTRODUCTION
WAVE GENERATORS play a prominent role in the field of

electronics. They generate signals from a few hertz to several
gigahertz (109 hertz). Modern wave generators use many different
circuits and generate such outputs as SINUSOIDAL, SQUARE,
RECTANGULAR, SAWTOOTH, and TRAPEZOIDAL waveshapes.
These waveshapes serve many useful purposes in the electronic
circuits you will be studying. For example, they are used
extensively throughout the television receiver to reproduce both
picture and sound.
One type of wave generator is known as an OSCILLATOR. An

oscillator can be regarded as an amplifier which provides its own
input signal. Oscillators are classified according to the waveshapes
they produce and the requirements needed for them to produce
oscillations.
CLASSIFICATION OF OSCILLATORS (GENERATORS)
Wave generators can be classified into two broad categories

according to their output waveshapes, SINUSOIDAL and
NONSINUSOIDAL.
Sinusoidal Oscillators
A sinusoidal oscillator produces a sine-wave output signal. Ideally,

the output signal is of constant amplitude with no variation in
frequency. Actually, something less than this is usually obtained.
The degree to which the ideal is approached depends upon such
factors as class of amplifier operation, amplifier characteristics,
frequency stability, and amplitude stability.
Sine-wave generators produce signals ranging from low audio
frequencies to ultrahigh radio and microwave frequencies. Many
low-frequency generators use resistors and capacitors to form their
frequency-determining networks and are referred to as RC
OSCILLATORS. They are widely used in the audio-frequency
range.
Another type of sine-wave generator uses inductors and capacitors

for its frequency-determining network. This type is known as the LC
OSCILLATOR. LC oscillators, which use tank circuits, are
commonly used for the higher radio frequencies. They are not
suitable for use as extremely low-frequency oscillators because the
inductors and capacitors would be large in size, heavy, and costly
to manufacture.
A third type of sine-wave generator is the CRYSTAL-

CONTROLLED OSCILLATOR.
The crystal-controlled oscillator provides excellent frequency

stability and is used from the middle of the audio range through the
radio frequency range.
Nonsinusoidal Oscillators
Nonsinusoidal oscillators generate complex waveforms, such as

square, rectangular, trigger, sawtooth, or trapezoidal. Because their
outputs are generally characterized by a sudden change, or
relaxation, they are often referred to as RELAXATION
OSCILLATORS. The signal frequency of these oscillators is usually
governed by the charge or discharge time of a capacitor in series
with a resistor. Some types, however, contain inductors that affect
the output frequency. Thus, like sinusoidal oscillators, both RC and
LC networks are used for determining the frequency of oscillation.
Within this category of nonsinusoidal oscillators are
MULTIVIBRATORS, BLOCKING OSCILLATORS, SAWTOOTH
GENERATORS, and TRAPEZOIDAL GENERATORS.
THE BASIC OSCILLATOR
An oscillator can be thought of as an amplifier that provides itself

(through feedback) with an input signal. By definition, it is a
nonrotating device for producing alternating current, the output
frequency of which is determined by the characteristics of the
device. The primary purpose of an oscillator is to generate a given
waveform at a constant peak amplitude and specific frequency and
to maintain this waveform within certain limits of amplitude and
frequency.
An oscillator must provide amplification. Amplification of signal

power occurs from input to output. In an oscillator, a portion of the
output is fed back to sustain the input, as shown in figure 2-
1.Enough power must be fed back to the input circuit for the
oscillator to drive itself as does a signal generator. To cause the
oscillator to be self-driven, the feedback signal must also be
Figure 2-1. - Basic oscillator block diagram.
REGENERATIVE (positive). Regenerative signals must have

enough power to compensate for circuit losses and to maintain
oscillations.
Since a practical oscillator must oscillate at a predetermined

frequency, a FREQUENCY-DETERMINING DEVICE (fdd),
sometimes referred to as a FREQUENCY-DETERMINING
NETWORK (fdn), is needed. This device acts as a filter, allowing
only the desired frequency to pass. Without a frequency-
determining device, the stage will oscillate in a random manner,
and a constant frequency will not be maintained.
Before discussing oscillators further, let's review the requirements

for an oscillator. First, amplification is required to provide the
necessary gain for the signal. Second, sufficient regenerative
feedback is required to sustain oscillations. Third, a frequency-
determining device is needed to maintain the desired output
frequency.
The basic oscillator requirements, in addition to the application,

determine the type of oscillator to be used. Let's consider some
factors that account for the complexity and unique characteristics of
oscillators.
Virtually every piece of equipment that uses an oscillator has two

stability requirements, AMPLITUDE STABILITY and FREQUENCY
STABILITY. Amplitude stability refers to the ability of the oscillator
to maintain a constant amplitude in the output waveform. The more
constant the amplitude of the output waveform, the better the
amplitude stability. Frequency stability refers to the ability of the
oscillator to maintain its operating frequency. The less the oscillator
varies from its operating frequency, the better the frequency
stability.
A constant frequency and amplitude can be achieved by taking

extreme care to prevent variations in LOAD, BIAS, and
COMPONENT CHARACTERISTICS. Load variations can greatly
affect the amplitude and frequency stability of the output of an
oscillator. Therefore, maintaining the load as constant as possible
is necessary to ensure a stable output.
As you should know from your study of transistor biasing, bias

variations affect the operating point of the transistor. These
variations may alter the amplification capabilities of the oscillator
circuits as well. A well-regulated power supply and a bias-
stabilizing circuit are required to ensure a constant, uniform signal
output.
As a result of changing temperature and humidity conditions, the

value or characteristics of components such as capacitors,
resistors, and transistors can change. The changes in these
components also cause changes in amplitude and frequency.
Output power is another consideration in the use of oscillators.

Generally speaking, high power is obtained at some sacrifice to
stability. When both requirements are to be met, a low-power,
stable oscillator can be followed by a higher-power BUFFER
AMPLIFIER. The buffer provides isolation between the oscillator
and the load to prevent changes in the load from affecting the
oscillator.
If the oscillator stage must develop high power, efficiency becomes

important. Many oscillators use class C bias to increase efficiency.
Other types of oscillators may use class A bias when a high
efficiency is not required but distortion must be kept at a minimum.
Other classes of bias may also be used with certain oscillators.
SINE-WAVE OSCILLATOR
RC networks, LC tanks, and crystals may appear in sine-wave

oscillator circuits. An amplifier can be made into a sine-wave
oscillator by providing regenerative feedback through an RC
network.
RC Network
Figure 2-2, view (A), shows the block diagram of an amplifier with
an RC network through which regenerative feedback is provided.
The RC network also acts as the frequency-determining device.
View (B) shows a vector analysis of the signal E at various points in
the circuit.
Figure 2-2A. - RC oscillator. AMPLIFIER WITH AND RC

FEEDBACK NETWORK
Figure 2-2B. - RC oscillator. VECTOR ANALYSIS
To analyze the operation of the circuit in view (A), assume that the
amplifier is a common-emitter configuration. The signal on the
collector (M) is 180 degrees out of phase with the signal (input) on
the base (R). For the circuit to produce regenerative feedback, the
RC network must provide a 180-degree phase shift of the collector
signal. When power is applied to the circuit, a noise voltage (noise
contains many different frequencies) will appear on the collector.
This noise signal is represented by vector LM in view (B). As the
signal couples through C1 and across R1 (view (A)), a phase shift
occurs. The voltage across R1 (ER1), represented by vector LN,
has been shifted in phase (about 60 degrees) and reduced in
amplitude. The signal at point N (view (A)) is then coupled to the
next RC section (R2 and C2). Using the same size resistor and
capacitor as before will cause another 60-degree phase shift to
take place. The signal at point P is the voltage across R2,
represented by vector LP. Now the signal at point P has been
shifted about 120 degrees and its amplitude is reduced still further.
The same actions occur for the last section (R3 and C3). This
signal experiences another 60-degree phase shift and has further
amplitude reduction. The signal at point R (ER3) has been shifted
180 degrees and is represented by vector LR.
Notice that point R is the input to the base of the common-emitter

amplifier. Also, vector LR shows that the signal on the base is
regenerative (aiding the circuit operation). This meets the
regenerative feedback requirement. An exact 60-degree phase
shift per stage is not required, but the sum of the three phase shifts
must equal 180 degrees.
For a given RC network, only one frequency of the initial noise
signal will be shifted exactly 180 degrees. In other words, the
network is frequency selective. Therefore, the RC network is the
frequency-determining device since the lengths of the vectors and
their phase relationships depend on frequency. The frequency of
oscillations is governed by the values of resistance and
capacitance in these sections. Variable resistors and capacitors
may be used to provide tuning in the feedback network to allow for
minor variations in phase shift. For an RC phase-shift oscillator, the
amplifier is biased for class A operation to minimize distortion of the
wave or signal.
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WAVEFORMS AND WAVE GENERATORS
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WAVEFORMS AND WAVE GENERATORS
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
Explain the operation of astable,

monostable, and bistable
multivibrators.
blocking oscillator. Join Integrated
Explain the operation of a Publishing's
sawtooth generator. Discussion Group
trapezoidal wave
generator.
Explain how the jump
voltage is produced in a
trapezoidal wave
generator.
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This chapter will present methods of generating waveforms. Rom
Before you begin to study how waveforms are generated, you
need to know the basic characteristics of waveforms. This
section will discuss basic periodic waveforms.
PERIODIC WAVEFORMS
A waveform which undergoes a pattern of changes, returns

to its original pattern, and repeats the same pattern of Order this
changes is called a PERIODIC waveform. Periodic waveforms information in
are nonsinusoidal except for the sine wave. Periodic Print (Hardcopy).
waveforms which will be discussed are the sine wave,
square wave, rectangular wave, sawtooth wave, trapezoidal
wave, and trigger pulses.
Sine Wave
Each completed pattern of a periodic waveform is called a

CYCLE, as shown by the SINE WAVE in figure 3-1, view
(A).Sine waves were presented in NEETS, Module 2,
Alternating Current and Transformers, Chapter 1.
Figure 3-1. - Periodic waveforms.

Square Wave
A SQUARE WAVE is shown in figure 3-1, view (B). As shown,

it has two alternations of equal duration and a square
presentation for each complete cycle. Figure 3-2 shows a
breakdown of the square wave and is the figure you should
view throughout the square wave discussion. The amplitude
is measured vertically. The time for a complete cycle is
measured between corresponding points on the wave (T0 to
T2, or T1 to T3).
Figure 3-2. - Square wave.

One alternation is called a PULSE. The time for one
complete cycle is called the PULSE-REPETITION TIME (prt).
The number of times in 1 second that the cycle repeats
itself is called the PULSE-REPETITION FREQUENCY (prf) or
PULSE-REPETITION RATE (prr). If each alternation in figure
3-2 is 200 microseconds (s), the prt will be 400
microseconds, and the prf will be 2,500 hertz. The
following examples are provided to illustrate the
mathematical relationship between prf and prt:
You should readily see that prt is just the inverse of
prf. Therefore:
Given:
The length of the pulse measured in time (T0 to T1) is

referred to as the PULSE WIDTH (pw). The left side of the
pulse is called the LEADING EDGE and the right side is
called the TRAILING EDGE.
Time is required for a voltage or current to change in

amplitude. The interval of time needed for the voltage to
go from 0 to 100 percent (or from 100 to 0 percent) of its
maximum value is called the TRANSIENT INTERVAL. The two
types of transient intervals are RISE TIME and FALL TIME.
Rise time is more accurately defined as the time required
for the voltage to build up from 10 percent to 90 percent
of the maximum amplitude point. Fall time is the time
required for the voltage to drop from 90 percent to 10
percent of the maximum amplitude point.
In this text you will be presented with information in

which waveforms appear to have instantaneous rise and fall
times. This is done to simplify the presentation of the
material. In reality these waveforms do have rise and fall
times (transient intervals).
Rectangular Wave
A rectangular wave is similar to the square wave. The

difference is that in the rectangular waveform, the two
alternations of the waveform are of unequal time duration.
Figure 3-1, view (C), shows that the negative alternation
(pulse) is shorter (in time) than the positive
alternation. The negative alternation could be represented
as the longer of the two alternations. Either way, the
appearance is that of a rectangle.
Sawtooth Wave
The SAWTOOTH waveform is shown in figure 3-1 , view (D). A

sawtooth wave resembles the teeth of a saw blade. There is
a rapid vertical rise of voltage from T0 to T1, which is
linear (straight). At T1 this voltage abruptly falls
(essentially no time used) to its previous static value.
The voltage remains at this value until T2 when it again
has a linear rise. You can see this action in an
oscilloscope where there are two voltage input locations,
vertical and horizontal. If you apply a linear voltage to
the vertical input, the electron beam will be forced to
move in a vertical direction on the crt. A linear voltage
applied to the horizontal input will cause the electron
beam to move horizontally across the crt. The application
of two linear voltages, one to the vertical input and one
to the horizontal input at the same time, will cause the
beam to move in both a vertical and horizontal (diagonal)
direction at the same time. This then is how a sawtooth
wave is made to appear on an oscilloscope. You should
refer to NEETS, Module 6, Electronic Emission, Tubes, and
Power Supplies, Chapter 2, for a review of oscilloscopes.
Trapezoidal Wave
A TRAPEZOIDAL wave looks like a sawtooth wave on top of a

square or rectangular wave, as shown in figure 3-1 , view
(E). The leading edge of a trapezoidal wave is called the
JUMP voltage. The next portion of the wave is the linear
rise or SLOPE. The trailing edge is called the FALL or
DECAY. A trapezoidal wave is used to furnish deflection
current in the electromagnetic cathode ray tube and is
found in television and radar display systems.
Electromagnetic cathode ray tubes use coils for the
deflection system, and a linear rise in current is
required for an accurate horizontal display. The square or
rectangular wave portion provides the jump voltage for a
linear rise in current through the resistance of the coil.
This will be explained further in a discussion of the
trapezoidal sweep generator.
Triggers
A trigger is a very narrow pulse, as shown in figure 3-1 ,

view (F). Trigger pulses are normally used to turn other
circuits on or off.
WAVEFORM GENERATOR
Nonsinusoidal oscillators generate complex waveforms such

as those just discussed. Because the outputs of these
oscillators are generally characterized by a sudden
change, or relaxation, these oscillators are often called
RELAXATION OSCILLATORS. The pulse repetition rate of these
oscillators is usually governed by the charge and
discharge timing of a capacitor in series with a resistor.
However, some oscillators contain inductors that, along
with circuit resistance, affect the output frequency.
These RC and LC networks within oscillator circuits are
used for frequency determination. Within this category of
relaxation oscillators are MULTIVIBRATORS, BLOCKING
OSCILLATORS, and SAWTOOTH- and TRAPEZOIDAL-WAVE
GENERATORS.
Many electronic circuits are not in an "on" condition all

of the time. In computers, for example, waveforms must be
turned on and off for specific lengths of time. The time
intervals vary from tenths of microseconds to several
thousand microseconds. Square and rectangular waveforms
are normally used to turn such circuits on and off because
the sharp leading and trailing edges make them ideal for
timing purposes.
MULTIVIBRATORS
The type of circuit most often used to generate square or

rectangular waves is the multivibrator. A multivibrator,
as shown in figure 3-3, is basically two amplifier
circuits arranged with regenerative feedback. One of the
amplifiers is conducting while the other is cut off.
Figure 3-3. - Astable Multivibrator.

When an input signal to one amplifier is large enough, the
transistor can be driven into cutoff, and its collector
voltage will be almost VCC. However, when the transistor
is driven into saturation, its collector voltage will be
about 0 volts. A circuit that is designed to go quickly
from cutoff to saturation will produce a square or
rectangular wave at its output. This principle is used in
multivibrators.
Multivibrators are classified according to the number of

steady (stable) states of the circuit. A steady state
exists when circuit operation is essentially constant;
that is, one transistor remains in conduction and the
other remains cut off until an external signal is applied.
The three types of multivibrators are the ASTABLE,
MONOSTABLE, and BISTABLE.
The astable circuit has no stable state. With no external

signal applied, the transistors alternately switch from
cutoff to saturation at a frequency determined by the RC
time constants of the coupling circuits.
The monostable circuit has one stable state; one

transistor conducts while the other is cut off. A signal
must be applied to change this condition. After a period
of time, determined by the internal RC components, the
circuit will return to its original condition where it
remains until the next signal arrives.
The bistable multivibrator has two stable states. It

remains in one of the stable states until a trigger is
applied. It then FLIPS to the other stable condition and
remains there until another trigger is applied. The
multivibrator then changes back (FLOPS) to its first
stable state.
Q.1 What type circuit is used to produce square or
rectangular waves?
Q.2 What type of multivibrator does not have a stable
state?
Q.3 What type of multvibrator has one stable state?
Q.4 What type of multivibrator has two stable states?
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WAVE SHAPING
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WAVE SHAPING
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
Explain the operation of series-

limiter circuits.
parallel-limiter circuits.
Describe the operation of Join Integrated
a dual-diode limiter Publishing's
circuit. Discussion Group
clamper circuits.
Explain the composition of
nonsinusoidal waves.
Explain how RC and RL
circuits are used as
integrators.
Explain how RC and RL
circuits are used as
Order this
differentiators.
Explain the operation of a information on CD-
counting circuit. Rom
step-by-step counter used
as a frequency divider.
LIMITERS
Order this
As a technician, you will be confronted with many information in
different types of LIMITING circuits. A LIMITER is defined Print (Hardcopy).
as a device which limits some part of a waveform from
exceeding a specified value. Limiting circuits are used
primarily for wave shaping and circuit-protection
applications.
A limiter is little more than the half-wave rectifier you

studied in NEETS, Module 6, Introduction to Electronic
Emission, Tubes, and Power Supplies. By using a diode, a
resistor, and sometimes a dc bias voltage, you can build a
limiter that will eliminate the positive or negative
alternations of an input waveform. Such a circuit can also
limit a portion of the alternations to a specific voltage
level. In this chapter you will be introduced to five
types of limiters: SERIES-POSITIVE, SERIES-NEGATIVE,
PARALLEL-POSITIVE, PARALLEL-NEGATIVE, and DUAL-DIODE
LIMITERS. Both series- and parallel-positive and negative
limiters use biasing to obtain certain wave shapes. They
will be discussed in this chapter.
The diode in these circuits is the voltage-limiting

component. Its polarity and location, with respect to
ground, are the factors that determine circuit action. In
series limiters, the diode is in series with the output.
In parallel limiters, the diode is in parallel with the
output.
SERIES LIMITERS
You should remember, from NEETS, Module 7, Introduction to

Solid-State Devices and Power Supplies, that a diode will
conduct when the anode voltage is positive with respect to
the cathode voltage. The diode will not conduct when the
anode is negative in respect to the cathode. Keeping these
two simple facts in mind as you study limiters will help
you understand their operation. Your knowledge of voltage
divider action from NEETS, Module 1, Introduction to
Matter, Energy, and Direct Current will also help you
understand limiters.
In a SERIES LIMITER, a diode is connected in series with
the output, as shown in view (A) of figure 4-1. The input
signal is applied across the diode and resistor and the
output is taken across the resistor. The series-limiter
circuit can limit either the positive or negative
alternation, depending on the polarity of the diode
connection with respect to ground. The circuit shown in
figure 4-1, view (B), is a SERIES-POSITIVE LIMITER.
Reversing D1 would change the circuit to a SERIES-NEGATIVE
LIMITER.
Figure 4-1A. - Series-positive limiter.
Figure 4-1B. - Series-positive limiter.

Series-Positive Limiter
Let's look at the series-positive limiter and its outputs

in figure 4-1. Diode D1 is in series with the output and
the output is taken across resistor R1. The input must be
negative with respect to the anode of the diode to make
the diode conduct. When the positive alternation of the
input signal (T0 to T1) is applied to the circuit, the
cathode is positive with respect to the anode. The diode
is reverse biased and will not conduct. Since no current
can flow, no output is developed across the resistor
during the positive alternation of the input signal.
During the negative half cycle of the input signal (T1 to

T2), the cathode is negative with respect to the anode.
This causes D1 to be forward biased. Current flows through
R1 and an output is developed. The output during each
negative alternation of the input is approximately the
same as the input (-10 volts) because most of the voltage
is developed across the resistor.
Ideally, the output wave shape should be exactly the same

as the input wave shape with only the limited portion
removed. When the diode is reverse biased, the circuit has
a small amount of reverse current flow, as shown just
above the 0-volt reference line in figure 4-2.During the
limiting portion of the input signal, the diode resistance
should be high compared to the resistor. During the time
the diode is conducting, the resistance of the diode
should be small as compared to that of the resistor. In
other words, the diode should have a very high front-to-
back ratio (forward resistance compared to reverse
resistance). This relationship can be better understood if
you study the effects that a front-to-back resistance
ratio has on circuit output.
Figure 4-2. - Actual output of a series-positive limiter.
The following formula can be used to determine the output

amplitude of the signal:
Let's use the formula to compare the front-to-back ratio

of the diode in the forward- and reverse-biased
conditions.
Given:
You can readily see that the formula comparison of the
forward- and reverse-bias resistance conditions shows that
a small amount of reverse current will flow during the
limited portion of the input waveform. This small amount
of reverse current will develop as the small positive
voltage (0.09 volt) shown in figure 4-2 (T0 to T1 and T2
to T3). The actual amount of voltage developed will depend
on the type of diode used. For the remainder of this
chapter, we will use only idealized waveforms and
disregard this small voltage.
SERIES-POSITIVE LIMITER WITH BIAS. - In the series-

positive limiter (figure 4-1, view (A)), the reference
point at the bottom of resistor R1 is ground, or 0 volts.
By placing a dc potential at point (1) in figure 4-3
(views (A) and (B)), you can change the reference point.
The reference point changes by the amount of dc potential
that is supplied by the battery. The battery can either
aid or oppose the flow of current in the series-limiter
circuit. POSITIVE BIAS (aiding) is shown in view (A) and
NEGATIVE BIAS (opposing) is shown in view (B).
Figure 4-3A. - Positive and negative bias. POSITIVE BIAS

Figure 4-3B. - Positive and negative bias. NEGATIVE BIAS
When the dc aids forward bias, as in view (A), the diode
conducts even with no signal applied. An input signal
sufficiently positive to overcome the dc bias potential is
required to reverse bias and cut off the diode.
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Book 10
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WAVE PROPAGATION
Transverse waves
Terms used in wave motion
Characteristics of wave motion
Refraction
Sound waves
Elasticity and density and velocity of transmission
Light waves
Speed of Light
Electric Field
Join Integrated
Combined Electric and Magnetic Fields
Publishing's
Answers
Radio wave propagation
Radio Waves
Polarization
The effect of the earth's atmosphere on radio waves
Order this
Sky Wave information on CD-
Refraction in the ionosphere Rom
Skip Distance/Skip Zone
Transmission Losses
Variations in the Ionosphere
Frequency selection considerations
Weather versus propagation
Tropospheric propagation
Summary Order this
Answers information in
Print (Hardcopy).
Principles of transmission lines
Types of transmission mediums

Losses in transmission lines
Length of a transmission line
Leakage Current
Characteristic Impedance and the Infinite Line
Voltage change along a transmission line
Velocity of wave propagation
Reflections on a transmission line
Reflections of AC voltage from a short circuit
Terminating a transmission line
Standing waves on a transmission line
Summary
Answers
Antennas
Radiation of electromagnetic energy

Antenna characteristics
Polarization Requirements for Various Frequencies
Radiation resistance
Polar-coordinate graph for anisotropic radiator
Methods of Feeding Energy to an Antenna
Folded dipole
Array antennas
Directional arrays
Broadside arrays
End-Fire arrays
Parasitic arrays
Multielement Parasitic Array
Special Antennas
Rhombic antennas
RF safety precautions
RF Burns
Summary
Answers
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WAVE PROPAGATION
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WAVE PROPAGATION
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
Learning objectives are stated at the beginning of each chapter. These learning objectives
serve as a preview of the information you are expected to learn in the chapter. The
comprehensive check questions are based on the objectives. By successfully completing the
NRTC, you indicate that you have met the objectives and have learned the information. The
learning objectives are listed below.
Join Integrated
Upon completion of this chapter, you should be able to: Publishing's
Discussion Group
State what wave motion is, define the terms
reflection, refraction, and diffraction, and
describe the Doppler effect.
State what sound waves are and define a
propagating medium.
List and define terms as applied to sound
waves, such as cycle, frequency,
wavelength, and velocity. Order this
List the three requirements for sound. information on CD-
Define pitch, intensity, loudness, and quality Rom
and their application to sound waves.
State the acoustical effects that echoes,
reverberation, resonance, and noise have
on sound waves.
Define light waves and list their characteristics.
List the various colors of light and define the
terms reflection, refraction, diffusion, and Order this
absorption as applied to light waves. information in
State the difference between sound waves and Print (Hardcopy).
light waves.
State the electromagnetic wave theory and
list the components of the electromagnetic
wave.
INTRODUCTION TO WAVE PROPAGATION
Of the many technical subjects that naval personnel are expected to know, probably the one
least susceptible to change is the theory of wave propagation. The basic principles that enable
waves to be propagated (transmitted) through space are the same today as they were 70 years
ago. One would think, then, that a thorough understanding of these principles is a relatively
simple task. For the electrical engineer or the individual with a natural curiosity for the
unknown, it is indeed a simple task. Most technicians, however, tend to view wave propagation
as something complex and confusing, and would just as soon see this chapter completely
disappear from training manuals. This attitude undoubtedly stems from the fact that wave
propagation is an invisible force that cannot be detected by the sense of sight or touch.
Understanding wave propagation requires the use of the imagination to visualize the
associated concepts and how they are used in practical application. This manual was
developed to help you visualize and understand those concepts. Through ample use of
illustrations and a step-by-step transition from the simple to the complex, we will help you
develop a better understanding of wave propagation. In this chapter, we will discuss
propagation theory on an introductory level, without going into the technical details that concern
the engineer. However, you must still use thought and imagination to understand the new ideas
and concepts as they are presented.
To understand radio wave propagation, you must first learn what wave propagation is and
some of the basic physics or properties that affect propagation. Many of these properties are
common everyday occurrences, with which you are already familiar.
WHAT IS PROPAGATION?
Early man was quick to recognize the need to communicate beyond the range of the human
voice. To satisfy this need, he developed alternate methods of communication, such as hand
gestures, beating on a hollow log, and smoke signals. Although these methods were effective,
they were still greatly limited in range. Eventually, the range limitations were overcome by the
development of courier and postal systems; but there was then a problem of speed. For
centuries the time required for the delivery of a message depended on the speed of a horse.
During the latter part of the 19th century, both distance and time limitations were largely
overcome. The invention of the telegraph made possible instantaneous communication over
long wires. Then a short time later, man discovered how to transmit messages in the form of
RADIO WAVES.
As you will learn in this chapter, radio waves are propagated. PROPAGATION means
"movement through a medium." This is most easily illustrated by light rays. When a light is
turned on in a darkened room, light rays travel from the light bulb throughout the room. When a
flashlight is turned on, light rays also radiate from its bulb, but are focused into a narrow beam.
You can use these examples to picture how radio waves propagate. Like the light in the room,
radio waves may spread out in all directions. They can also be focused (concentrated) like the
flashlight, depending upon the need. Radio waves are a form of radiant energy, similar to light
and heat. Although they can neither be seen nor felt, their presence can be detected through
the use of sensitive measuring devices. The speed at which both forms of waves travel is the
same; they both travel at the speed of light.
You may wonder why you can see light but not radio waves, which consist of the same form of
energy as light. The reason is that you can only "see" what your eyes can detect. Your eyes
can detect radiant energy only within a fixed range of frequencies. Since the frequencies of
radio waves are below the frequencies your eyes can detect, you cannot see radio waves.
The theory of wave propagation that we discuss in this module applies to Navy electronic
equipment, such as radar, navigation, detection, and communication equipment. We will not
discuss these individual systems in this module, but we will explain them in future modules.
Q.1 What is propagation?
PRINCIPLES OF WAVE MOTION
All things on the earth - on the land, or in the water - are showered continually with waves of
energy. Some of these waves stimulate our senses and can be seen, felt, or heard. For
instance, we can see light, hear sound, and feel heat. However, there are some waves that do
not stimulate our senses. For example, radio waves, such as those received by our portable
radio or television sets, cannot be seen, heard, or felt. A device must be used to convert radio
waves into light (TV pictures) and sound (audio) for us to sense them.
A WAVE can be defined as a DISTURBANCE (sound, light, radio waves) that moves through a
MEDIUM (air, water, vacuum). To help you understand what is meant by "a disturbance which
moves through a medium," picture the following illustration. You are standing in the middle of a
wheat field. As the wind blows across the field toward you, you can see the wheat stalks
bending and rising as the force of the wind moves into and across them. The wheat appears to
be moving toward you, but it isn't. Instead, the stalks are actually moving back and forth. We
can then say that the "medium "in this illustration is the wheat and the "disturbance " is the
wind moving the stalks of wheat.
WAVE MOTION can be defined as a recurring disturbance advancing through space with or
without the use of a physical medium. Wave motion, therefore, is a means of moving or
transferring energy from one point to another point. For example, when sound waves strike a
microphone, sound energy is converted into electrical energy. When light waves strike a
phototransistor or radio waves strike an antenna, they are likewise converted into electrical
energy. Therefore, sound, light, and radio waves are all forms of energy that are moved by
wave motion. We will discuss sound waves, light waves, and radio waves later.
Q.2 How is a wave defined as it applies to wave propagation?
Q.3 What is wave motion?
Q.4 What are some examples of wave motion?
WAVE MOTION IN WATER
A type of wave motion familiar to almost everyone is the movement of waves in water. We will
explain these waves first to help you understand wave motion and the terms used to describe
it.
Basic wave motion can be shown by dropping a stone into a pool of water (see figure 1-1). As
the stone enters the water, a surface disturbance is created, resulting in an expanding series of
circular waves. Figure 1-2 is a diagram of this action. View A shows the falling stone just an
instant before it strikes the water. View B shows the action taking place at the instant the stone
strikes the surface, pushing the water that is around it upward and outward. In view C, the
stone has sunk deeper into the water, which has closed violently over it causing some spray,
while the leading wave has moved outward. An instant later, the stone has sunk out of sight,
leaving the water disturbed as shown in view D. Here the leading wave has continued to move
outward and is followed by a series of waves gradually diminishing in amplitude. Meanwhile,
the disturbance at the original point of contact has gradually subsided.
Figure 1-1. - Formation of waves in water.
Figure 1-2. - How a falling stone creates wave motion to the surface of water.
In this example, the water is not actually being moved outward by the motion of the waves, but
up and down as the waves move outward. The up and down motion is transverse, or at right
angles, to the outward motion of the waves. This type of wave motion is called TRANSVERSE
WAVE MOTION.
Q.5 What type of wave motion is represented by the motion of water?
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RADIO WAVE PROPAGATION
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
Upon completion of this unit, you should be able to:
State what the electromagnetic field is and

what components make up the
electromagnetic field.
State the difference between the induction field and Join Integrated
the radiation field. Publishing's
State what radio waves are.
Discussion Group
List the components of a radio wave and
define the terms cycle, frequency, harmonics,
period, wavelength, and velocity as applied to
radio wave propagation.
Compute the wavelength of radio waves.
State how radio waves are polarized, vertically and
horizontally.
State what reflection, refraction, and
diffraction are as applied to radio waves. Order this
State what influence the Earth's atmosphere information on CD-
has on radio waves and list the different Rom
layers of the Earth's atmosphere.
Identify a ground wave, a sky wave, and state
the effects of the ionosphere on the sky wave.
Identify the structure of the ionosphere.
Define density of layer, frequency, angle of
incidence, skip distance, and skip zone.
Describe propagation paths. Order this
Describe fading, multipath fading, and information in
selective fading. Describe propagation paths. Print (Hardcopy).
State how transmission losses affect radio wave
propagation.
State how electromagnetic interference, man-
made/natural interference, and ionospheric
disturbances affect radio wave propagation.
State how transmission losses affect radio
wave propagation.
Identify variations in the ionosphere.
Identify the maximum, optimum, and lowest
usable frequencies of radio waves.
State what temperature inversion is, how
frequency predictions are made, and how
weather affects frequency.
State what tropospheric scatter is and how it affects
radio wave propagation.
ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELDS
The way energy is propagated into free space is a source of great dispute among people
concerned with it. Although many theories have been proposed, the following theory adequately
explains the phenomena and has been widely accepted. There are two basic fields associated with
every antenna; an INDUCTION FIELD and a RADIATION FIELD. The field associated with the
energy stored in the antenna is the induction field. This field is said to provide no part in the
transmission of electromagnetic energy through free space. However, without the presence of the
induction field, there would be no energy radiated.
INDUCTION FIELD
Figure 2-1, a low-frequency generator connected to an antenna, will help you understand how the
induction field is produced. Let's follow the generator through one cycle of operation.
Figure 2-1. - Induction field about an antenna.

Initially, you can consider that the generator output is zero and that no fields exist about the
antenna, as shown in view A. Now assume that the generator produces a slight potential and has
the instantaneous polarity shown in view B. Because of this slight potential, the antenna
capacitance acts as a short, allowing a large flow of current (I) through the antenna in the direction
shown. This current flow, in turn, produces a large magnetic field about the antenna. Since the flow
of current at each end of the antenna is minimum, the corresponding magnetic fields at each end of
the antenna are also minimum. As time passes, charges, which oppose antenna current and
produce an electrostatic field (E field), collect at each end of the antenna. Eventually, the antenna
capacitance becomes fully charged and stops current flow through the antenna. Under this
condition, the electrostatic field is maximum, and the magnetic field (H field) is fully collapsed, as
shown in view C.
As the generator potential decreases back to zero, the potential of the antenna begins to discharge.
During the discharging process, the electrostatic field collapses and the direction of current flow
reverses, as shown in view D. When the current again begins to flow, an associated magnetic field
is generated. Eventually, the electrostatic field completely collapses, the generator potential
reverses, and current is maximum, as shown in view E. As charges collect at each end of the
antenna, an electrostatic field is produced and current flow decreases. This causes the magnetic
field to begin collapsing. The collapsing magnetic field produces more current flow, a greater
accumulation of charge, and a greater electrostatic field. The antenna gradually reaches the
condition shown in view F, where current is zero and the collected charges are maximum.
As the generator potential again decreases toward zero, the antenna begins to discharge and the
electrostatic field begins to collapse. When the generator potential reaches zero, discharge current
is maximum and the associated magnetic field is maximum. A brief time later, generator potential
reverses, and the condition shown in view B recurs.
NOTE: The electric field (E field) and the electrostatic field (E field) are the same. They will be used
interchangeably throughout this text.
The graph shown in figure 2-2 shows the relationship between the magnetic (H) field and the
electric (E) field plotted against time. Note that the two fields are 90 degrees out of phase with each
other. If you compare the graph in figure 2-2 with figure 2-1, you will notice that the two fields
around the antenna are displaced 90 degrees from each other in space. (The H field exists in a
plane perpendicular to the antenna. The E field exists in a plane parallel with the antenna, as
shown in figure 2-1.)
Figure 2-2. - Phase relationship of induction field components.
All the energy supplied to the induction field is returned to the antenna by the collapsing E and H
fields. No energy from the induction field is radiated from the antenna. Therefore, the induction field
is considered a local field and plays no part in the transmission of electromagnetic energy. The
induction field represents only the stored energy in the antenna and is responsible only for the
resonant effects that the antenna reflects to the generator.
RADIATION FIELDS
The E and H fields that are set up in the transfer of energy through space are known collectively as
the radiation field. This radiation field is responsible for electromagnetic radiation from the antenna.
The radiation field decreases as the distance from the antenna is increased. Because the decrease
is linear, the radiation field reaches great distances from the antenna.
Let's look at a half-wave antenna to illustrate how this radiation actually takes place. Simply stated,
a half-wave antenna is one that has an electrical length equal to half the wavelength of the signal
being transmitted. Assume, for example, that a transmitter is operating at 30 megahertz. If a half-
wave antenna is used with the transmitter, the antenna's electrical length would have to be at least
16 feet long. (The formula used to compute the electrical length of an antenna will be explained in
chapter 4.) When power is delivered to the half-wave antenna, both an induction field and a
radiation field are set up by the fluctuating energy. At the antenna, the intensities of these fields are
proportional to the amount of power delivered to the antenna from a source such as a transmitter.
At a short distance from the antenna and beyond, only the radiation field exists. This radiation field
is made up of an electric component and a magnetic component at right angles to each other in
space and varying together in intensity.
With a high-frequency generator (a transmitter) connected to the antenna, the induction field is
produced as described in the previous section. However, the generator potential reverses before
the electrostatic field has had time to collapse completely. The reversed generator potential
neutralizes the remaining antenna charges, leaving a resultant E field in space.
Figure 2-3 is a simple picture of an E field detaching itself from an antenna. (The H field will not be
considered, although it is present.) In view A the voltage is maximum and the electric field has
maximum intensity. The lines of force begin at the end of the antenna that is positively charged and
extend to the end of the antenna that is negatively charged. Note that the outer E lines are
stretched away from the inner lines. This is because of the repelling force that takes place between
lines of force in the same direction. As the voltage drops (view B), the separated charges come
together, and the ends of the lines move toward the center of the antenna. But, since lines of force
in the same direction repel each other, the centers of the lines are still being held out.
Figure 2-3. - Radiation from an antenna.
As the voltage approaches zero (view B), some of the lines collapse back into the antenna. At the
same time, the ends of other lines begin to come together to form a complete loop. Notice the
direction of these lines of force next to the antenna in view C. At this point the voltage on the
antenna is zero. As the charge starts to build up in the opposite direction (view D), electric lines of
force again begin at the positive end of the antenna and stretch to the negative end of the antenna.
These lines of force, being in the same direction as the sides of the closed loops next to the
antenna, repel the closed loops and force them out into space at the speed of light. As these loops
travel through space, they generate a magnetic field in phase with them.
Since each successive E field is generated with a polarity that is opposite the preceding E field
(that is, the lines of force are opposite), an oscillating electric field is produced along the path of
travel. When an electric field oscillates, a magnetic field having an intensity that varies directly with
that of the E field is produced. The variations in magnetic field intensity, in turn, produce another E
field. Thus, the two varying fields sustain each other, resulting in electromagnetic wave
propagation.
During this radiation process, the E and H fields are in phase in time but physically displaced 90
degrees in space. Thus, the varying magnetic field produces a varying electric field; and the varying
electric field, in turn, sustains the varying magnetic field. Each field supports the other, and neither
can be propagated by itself. Figure 2-4 shows a comparison between the induction field and the
radiation field.
Figure 2-4. - E and H components of induction and radiation fields.
Q.1 Which two composite fields (composed of E and H fields) are associated with every antenna?
Q.2 What composite field (composed of E and H fields) is found stored in the antenna?
Q.3 What composite field (composed of E and H fields) is propagated into free space?

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PRINCIPLES OF TRANSMISSION LINES
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
State what a transmission line is and

how transmission lines are used.
Explain the operating principles of
transmission lines.
Describe the five types of transmission Join Integrated
lines. Publishing's
State the length of a transmission Discussion Group
line.
Explain the theory of the transmission
line.
Define the term LUMPED CONSTANTS in
relation to a transmission line.
Define the term DISTRIBUTED CONSTANTS
in relation to a transmission line.
Define LEAKAGE CURRENT.
Describe how the electromagnetic lines
Order this
of force around a transmission line are
affected by the distributed constants. information on CD-
Define the term CHARACTERISTIC Rom
IMPEDANCE and explain how it affects
the transfer of energy along a
transmission line.
State how the energy transfer along a
transmission line is affected by
characteristic impedance and the
infinite line.
Identify the cause of and describe the Order this
characteristics of reflections on a information in
transmission line. Print (Hardcopy).
Define the term STANDING WAVES as
applied to a transmission line.
Describe how standing waves are
produced on a transmission line and
identify the types of terminations.
Describe the types of standing-wave
ratios.
INTRODUCTION TO TRANSMISSION LINES
A TRANSMISSION LINE is a device designed to guide electrical energy from one point to
another. It is used, for example, to transfer the output rf energy of a transmitter
to an antenna. This energy will not travel through normal electrical wire without
great losses. Although the antenna can be connected directly to the transmitter, the
antenna is usually located some distance away from the transmitter. On board ship,
the transmitter is located inside a radio room and its associated antenna is mounted
on a mast. A transmission line is used to connect the transmitter and the antenna.
The transmission line has a single purpose for both the transmitter and the antenna.
This purpose is to transfer the energy output of the transmitter to the antenna with
the least possible power loss. How well this is done depends on the special physical
and electrical characteristics (impedance and resistance) of the transmission line.
TERMINOLOGY
All transmission lines have two ends (see figure 3-1). The end of a two-wire
transmission line connected to a source is ordinarily called the INPUT END or the
GENERATOR END. Other names given to this end are TRANSMITTER END, SENDING END, and
SOURCE. The other end of the line is called the OUTPUT END or RECEIVING END. Other
names given to the output end are LOAD END and SINK.
Figure 3-1. - Basic transmission line.
You can describe a transmission line in terms of its impedance. The ratio of voltage
to current (Ein/Iin) at the input end is known as the INPUT IMPEDANCE (Zin). This is
the impedance presented to the transmitter by the transmission line and its load, the
antenna. The ratio of voltage to current at the output (E out/Iout) end is known as
the OUTPUT IMPEDANCE (Zout). This is the impedance presented to the load by the
transmission line and its source. If an infinitely long transmission line could be
used, the ratio of voltage to current at any point on that transmission line would be
some particular value of impedance. This impedance is known as the CHARACTERISTIC
IMPEDANCE.
Q.1 What connecting link is used to transfer energy from a radio transmitter to its
antenna located on the mast of a ship?

Q.2 What term is used for the end of the transmission line that is connected to a
transmitter?
Q.3 What term is used for the end of the transmission line that is connected to an
antenna?
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Antennas
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ANTENNAS
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
State the basic principles of

antenna radiation and list the
parts of an antenna.
Explain current and voltage Join Integrated
distribution on an antenna. Publishing's
Describe how electromagnetic
Discussion Group
energy is radiated from an
antenna.
Explain polarization, gain, and
radiation resistance
characteristics of an antenna.
Describe the theory of operation of
half- wave and quarter-wave
antennas.
List the various array antennas. Order this
Describe the directional array information on CD-
antennas presented and Rom
explain the basic operation of
each.
Identify various special
antennas presented, such as
long-wire, V, rhombic,
turnstile, ground-plane, and
corner-reflector; describe the
Order this
operation of each.
information in
List safety precautions when
working aloft and around antennas. Print (Hardcopy).
INTRODUCTION
If you had been around in the early days of electronics, you would
have considered an ANTENNA (AERIAL) to be little more than a
piece of wire strung between two trees or upright poles. In those
days, technicians assumed that longer antennas automatically
provided better reception than shorter antennas. They also
believed that a mysterious MEDIUM filled all space, and that an
antenna used this medium to send and receive its energy. These
two assumptions have since been discarded. Modern antennas
have evolved to the point that highly directional, specially designed
antennas are used to relay worldwide communications in space
through the use of satellites and Earth station antennas (fig. 4-1).
Present transmission theories are based on the assumption that
space itself is the only medium necessary to propagate (transmit)
radio energy.
Figure 4-1. - Satellite/earth station communications system.

A tremendous amount of knowledge and information has been
gained about the design of antennas and radio-wave propagation.
Still, many old-time technicians will tell you that when it comes to
designing the length of an antenna, the best procedure is to
perform all calculations and try out the antenna. If it doesn't work
right, use a cut-and-try method until it does. Fortunately, enough
information has been collected over the last few decades that it is
now possible to predict the behavior of antennas. This chapter will
discuss and explain the basic design and operation of antennas.
PRINCIPLES OF ANTENNA RADIATION
After an rf signal has been generated in a transmitter, some means

must be used to radiate this signal through space to a receiver. The
device that does this job is the antenna. The transmitter signal
energy is sent into space by a TRANSMITTING ANTENNA; the rf
signal is then picked up from space by a RECEIVING ANTENNA.
The rf energy is transmitted into space in the form of an

electromagnetic field. As the traveling electromagnetic field arrives
at the receiving antenna, a voltage is induced into the antenna (a
conductor). The rf voltages induced into the receiving antenna are
then passed into the receiver and converted back into the
transmitted rf information.
The design of the antenna system is very important in a

transmitting station. The antenna must be able to radiate efficiently
so the power supplied by the transmitter is not wasted. An efficient
transmitting antenna must have exact dimensions. The dimensions
are determined by the transmitting frequencies. The dimensions of
the receiving antenna are not critical for relatively low radio
frequencies. However, as the frequency of the signal being
received increases, the design and installation of the receiving
antenna become more critical. An example of this is a television
receiving antenna. If you raise it a few more inches from the ground
or give a slight turn in direction, you can change a snowy blur into a
clear picture.
The conventional antenna is a conductor, or system of conductors,

that radiates or intercepts electromagnetic wave energy. An ideal
antenna has a definite length and a uniform diameter, and is
completely isolated in space. However, this ideal antenna is not
realistic. Many factors make the design of an antenna for a
communications system a more complex problem than you would
expect. These factors include the height of the radiator above the
earth, the conductivity of the earth below it, and the shape and
dimensions of the antenna. All of these factors affect the radiated-
field pattern of the antenna in space. Another problem in antenna
design is that the radiation pattern of the antenna must be directed
between certain angles in a horizontal or vertical plane, or both.
Most practical transmitting antennas are divided into two basic

classifications, HERTZ (half-wave) ANTENNAS and MARCONI
(quarter-wave) ANTENNAS. Hertz antennas are generally installed
some distance above the ground and are positioned to radiate
either vertically or horizontally. Marconi antennas operate with one
end grounded and are mounted perpendicular to the Earth or to a
surface acting as a ground. Hertz antennas are generally used for
frequencies above 2 megahertz. Marconi antennas are used for
frequencies below 2 megahertz and may be used at higher
frequencies in certain applications.
A complete antenna system consists of three parts: (1) The

COUPLING DEVICE, (2) the FEEDER, and (3) the ANTENNA, as
shown in figure 4-2. The coupling device (coupling coil) connects
the transmitter to the feeder. The feeder is a transmission line that
carries energy to the antenna. The antenna radiates this energy
into space.
Figure 4-2. - Typical antenna system.

The factors that determine the type, size, and shape of the antenna
are (1) the frequency of operation of the transmitter, (2) the amount
of power to be radiated, and (3) the general direction of the
receiving set. Typical antennas are shown in figure 4-3.
Figure 4-3. - Typical antennas.

CURRENT AND VOLTAGE DISTRIBUTION ON AN ANTENNA
A current flowing in a wire whose length is properly related to the rf

produces an electro magnetic field. This field is radiated from the
wire and is set free in space. We will discuss how these waves are
set free later in this chapter. Remember, the principles of radiation
of electromagnetic energy are based on two laws:
1. A MOVING ELECTRIC FIELD CREATES A MAGNETIC (H)

FIELD.
2. A MOVING MAGNETIC FIELD CREATES AN ELECTRIC (E)
FIELD.
In space, these two fields will be in phase and perpendicular to

each other at any given time. Although a conductor is usually
considered present when a moving electric or magnetic field is
mentioned, the laws that govern these fields say nothing about a
conductor. Therefore, these laws hold true whether a conductor is
present or not.
Figure 4-4 shows the current and voltage distribution on a half-

wave (Hertz) antenna. In view A, a piece of wire is cut in half and
attached to the terminals of a high-frequency ac generator. The
frequency of the generator is set so that each half of the wire is 1/4
wavelength of the output. The result is a common type of antenna
known as a DIPOLE.
Figure 4-4. - Current and voltage distribution on an antenna.
At a given time the right side of the generator is positive and the left
side negative. Remember that like charges repel. Because of this,
electrons will flow away from the negative terminal as far as
possible, but will be attracted to the positive terminal. View B
shows the direction and distribution of electron flow. The
distribution curve shows that most current flows in the center and
none flows at the ends. The current distribution over the antenna
will always be the same no matter how much or how little current is
flowing. However, current at any given point on the antenna will
vary directly with the amount of voltage developed by the
generator.
One-quarter cycle after electrons have begun to flow, the generator

will develop its maximum voltage and the current will decrease to 0.
At that time the condition shown in view C will exist. No current will
be flowing, but a maximum number of electrons will be at the left
end of the line and a minimum number at the right end. The charge
distribution view C along the wire will vary as the voltage of the
generator varies. Therefore, you may draw the following
conclusions:
1. A current flows in the antenna with an amplitude that varies with

the generator voltage.
2. A sinusoidal distribution of charge exists on the antenna. Every
1/2 cycle, the charges reverse polarity.
3. The sinusoidal variation in charge magnitude lags the sinusoidal
variation in current by 1/4 cycle.
Q.1 What are the two basic classifications of antennas?

Q.2 What are the three parts of a complete antenna system?
Q.3 What three factors determine the type, size, and shape of an
antenna?

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Waveguide theory and application
Waveguide theory
Developing the Waveguide from Parallel Lines
Energy Propagation in Waveguides
Magnetic field pattern in a waveguide
Radiation from probe placed in a waveguide
Waveguide Modes of Operation
Waveguide operation in other than dominant mode
Waveguide Input/Output Methods
Waveguide Impedance Matching
Join Integrated
Waveguide Terminations
Publishing's
Waveguide Plumbing Discussion Group
Waveguide Devices
Cavity Resonators
Several types of cavities
Waveguide junctions
Hybrid Rings
Ferrite Devices
Summary
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Answers information on CD-
Rom
Microwave components and circuits

Velocity Modulation
Microwave tubes
The Multicavity Power Klystron
The Reflex Klystron
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The Decibel Measurement System
information in
The magnetron Print (Hardcopy).
Split-anode magnetron
Probable electron paths in an electron-resonance
magnetron oscillator
Magnetron coupling methods
Solid-state microwave devices
Varactor Devices
Energy transfer from pump signal to input signal
Bulk-Effect Semiconductors
The Point-Contact Diode
Microwave Transistors
Summary
Answers
Microwave antennas
Reflector antennas
Horn radiators
Antenna arrays
Summary
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WAVEGUIDE THEORY AND APPLICATION
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
Upon completion of this chapter the student will be able to:
Describe the development of

the various types of
waveguides in terms of their
advantages and Join Integrated
disadvantages. Publishing's
Describe the physical Discussion Group
dimensions of the various
types of waveguides and
explain the effects of those
dimensions on power and
frequency.
Explain the propagation of
energy in waveguides in
terms of electromagnetic field Order this
theory. information on CD-
Identify the modes of operation in Rom
waveguides.
Explain the basic input/output
methods used in waveguides.
Describe the basic principles of
waveguide plumbing.
Explain the reasons for and the
methods of terminating Order this
waveguides.
information in
Explain the basic theory of
Print (Hardcopy).
operation and applications of
directional couplers.
Describe the basic theory of
operation, construction, and
applications of cavity
resonators.
Describe the basic theory of
operation of waveguide junctions.
Explain the operation of ferrite
devices in terms of their
applications.
INTRODUCTION TO WAVEGUIDE THEORY AND APPLICATION
That portion of the electromagnetic spectrum which falls between

1000 megahertz and 100,000 megahertz is referred to as the
MICROWAVE region. Before discussing the principles and
applications of microwave frequencies, the meaning of the term
microwave as it is used in this module must be established. On the
surface, the definition of a microwave would appear to be simple
because, in electronics, the prefix "micro" normally means a
millionth part of a unit. Micro also means small, which is a relative
term, and it is used in that sense in this module. Microwave is a
term loosely applied to identify electromagnetic waves above 1000
megahertz in frequency because of the short physical wavelengths
of these frequencies. Short wavelength energy offers distinct
advantages in many applications. For instance, excellent directivity
can be obtained using relatively small antennas and low-power
transmitters. These features are ideal for use in both military and
civilian radar and communication applications. Small antennas and
other small components are made possible by microwave
frequency applications. This is an important consideration in
shipboard equipment planning where space and weight are major
problems. Microwave frequency usage is especially important in
the design of shipboard radar because it makes possible the
detection of smaller targets.
Microwave frequencies present special problems in transmission,
generation, and circuit design that are not encountered at lower
frequencies. Conventional circuit theory is based on voltages and
currents while microwave theory is based on electromagnetic
fields. The concept of electromagnetic field interaction is not
entirely new, since electromagnetic fields form the basis of all
antenna theory. However, many students of electronics find
electromagnetic field theory very difficult to visualize and
understand. This module will present the principles of microwave
theory in the simplest terms possible but many of the concepts are
still somewhat difficult to thoroughly understand. Therefore, you
must realize that this module will require very careful study for you
to properly understand microwave theory. Antenna fundamentals
were covered in NEETS, Module 10, Introduction to Wave
Propagation, Transmission Lines, and Antennas.
This module will show you the solutions to problems encountered

at microwave frequencies, beginning with the transmission of
microwave energy and continuing through to waveguides in
chapter 1. Later chapters will cover the theory of operation of
microwave components, circuits, and antennas. The application of
these concepts will be discussed more thoroughly in later NEETS
modules on radar and communications.
Q.1 What is the region of the frequency spectrum from 1000 MHz
to 100,000 MHz called?
Q.2 Microwave theory is based upon what concept?
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MICROWAVE COMPONENTS AND CIRCUITS
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
Upon completion of this chapter the student will be able to:
Explain the basic principles of

microwave tubes and describe the
limitations of conventional tubes.
Describe the basic principles of velocity Join Integrated
modulation. Publishing's
Outline the development of microwave tubes.
Discussion Group
Describe the basic theory of operation
of klystrons including multicavity and
reflex klystrons.
Explain the basic theory of operation of
traveling-wave tubes and backward-
wave oscillators.
Describe the construction, basic
theories of operation, and typical
Order this
applications of magnetrons and
information on CD-
amplitrons.
Rom
Describe the basic theory of operation
of tunnel diodes when used in
oscillator-, amplifier-, and frequency-
converter circuits.
Explain the operation of varactors
when used in parametric amplifiers
and frequency converters. Order this
State the basic principles of operation information in
of bulk-effect diodes and the gunn Print (Hardcopy).
oscillator.
Explain the basic operation of passive
microwave diodes in terms of theory
and application.
Explain the basic operation of
microwave transistors in terms of
theory and application.
MICROWAVE COMPONENTS
The waveguides discussed in chapter 1 serve to transport microwave energy from

one place to another. Energy is transported after it has been generated or amplified
in a previous stage of the circuit. In this chapter you will be introduced to the special
components used in those circuits.
Microwave energy is used in both radar and communications applications. The fact
that the frequencies are very high and the wavelengths very short presents special
problems in circuit design. Components that were previously satisfactory for signal
generation and amplification use are no longer useful in the microwave region. The
theory of operation for these components is discussed in this chapter. Because the
theory of operation is sometimes difficult to understand, you need to pay particular
attention to detail as you study this chapter. It is written in the simplest manner
possible while retaining the necessary technical complexity.
MICROWAVE TUBE PRINCIPLES
The efficiency of conventional tubes is largely independent of frequency up to a

certain limit. When frequency increases beyond that limit, several factors combine to
rapidly decrease tube efficiency. Tubes that are efficient in the microwave range
usually operate on the theory of VELOCITY MODULATION, a concept that avoids
the problems encountered in conventional tubes. Velocity modulation is more easily
understood if the factors that limit the frequency range of a conventional tube are
thoroughly understood. Therefore, the frequency limitations of conventional tubes will
be discussed before the concepts and applications of velocity modulation are
explained. You may want to review NEETS, Module 6, Introduction to Electronic
Emission, Tubes, and Power Supplies, Chapters 1 and 2, for a refresher on vacuum
tubes before proceeding.
Frequency Limitations of Conventional Tubes
Three characteristics of ordinary vacuum tubes become increasingly important as

frequency rises. These characteristics are interelectrode capacitance, lead
inductance, and electron transit time.
The INTERELECTRODE CAPACITANCES in a vacuum tube, at low or medium

radio frequencies, produce capacitive reactances that are so large that no serious
effects upon tube operation are noticeable. However, as the frequency increases, the
reactances become small enough to materially affect the performance of a circuit.
For example, in figure 2-1, view (A), a 1-picofarad capacitor has a reactance of
159,000 ohms at 1 megahertz. If this capacitor was the interelectrode capacitance
between the grid and plate of a tube, and the rf voltage between these electrodes
was 500 volts, then 3.15 milliamperes of current would flow through the
interelectrode capacitance. Current flow in this small amount would not seriously
affect circuit performance. On the other hand, at a frequency of 100 megahertz the
reactance would decrease to approximately 1,590 ohms and, with the same voltage
applied, current would increase to 315 milliamperes (view (B)). Current in this
amount would definitely affect circuit performance.
Figure 2-1A. - Interelectrode capacitance in a vacuum tube. 1 MEGAHERTZ
Figure 2-1B. - Interelectrode capacitance in a vacuum tube. 100
MEGAHERTZ
Figure 2-1C. - Interelectrode capacitance in a vacuum tube. INTERELECTRODE
CAPACITANCE IN A TUNED-PLATE TUNED-GRID OSCILLATOR
A good point to remember is that the higher the frequency, or the larger the
interelectrode capacitance, the higher will be the current through this capacitance.
The circuit in figure 2-1, view (C), shows the interelectrode capacitance between the
grid and the cathode (Cgk) in parallel with the signal source. As the frequency of the
input signal increases, the effective grid-to-cathode impedance of the tube decreases
because of a decrease in the reactance of the interelectrode capacitance. If the
signal frequency is 100 megahertz or greater, the reactance of the grid-to-cathode
capacitance is so small that much of the signal is short-circuited within the tube.
Since the interelectrode capacitances are effectively in parallel with the tuned
circuits, as shown in views (A), (B), and (C), they will also affect the frequency at
which the tuned circuits resonate.
Another frequency-limiting factor is the LEAD INDUCTANCE of the tube elements.

Since the lead inductances within a tube are effectively in parallel with the
interelectrode capacitance, the net effect is to raise the frequency limit. However, the
inductance of the cathode lead is common to both the grid and plate circuits. This
provides a path for degenerative feedback which reduces overall circuit efficiency.
A third limitation caused by tube construction is TRANSIT TIME. Transit time is the
time required for electrons to travel from the cathode to the plate. While some small
amount of transit time is required for electrons to travel from the cathode to the plate,
the time is insignificant at low frequencies. In fact, the transit time is so insignificant
at low frequencies that it is generally not considered to be a hindering factor.
However, at high frequencies, transit time becomes an appreciable portion of a
signal cycle and begins to hinder efficiency. For example, a transit time of 1
nanosecond, which is not unusual, is only 0.001 cycle at a frequency of 1 megahertz.
The same transit time becomes equal to the time required for an entire cycle at 1,000
megahertz. Transit time depends on electrode spacing and existing voltage
potentials. Transit times in excess of 0.1 cycle cause a significant decrease in tube
efficiency. This decrease in efficiency is caused, in part, by a phase shift between
plate current and grid voltage.
If the tube is to operate efficiently, the plate current must be in phase with the grid-
signal voltage and 180 degrees out of phase with the plate voltage. When transit time
approaches 1/4 cycle, this phase relationship between the elements does not hold
true. A positive swing of a high-frequency grid signal causes electrons to leave the
cathode and flow to the plate. Initially this current is in phase with the grid voltage.
However, since transit time is an appreciable part of a cycle, the current arriving at
the plate now lags the grid-signal voltage. As a result, the power output of the tube
decreases and the plate power dissipation increases. Another loss of power occurs
because of ELECTROSTATIC INDUCTION.
The electrons forming the plate current also electrostatically induce potentials in the
grid as they move past it. This electrostatic induction in the grid causes currents of
positive charges to move back and forth in the grid structure. This back and forth
action is similar to the action of hole current in semiconductor devices. When transit-
time effect is not a factor (as in low frequencies), the current induced in one side of
the grid by the approaching electrons is equal to the current induced on the other
side by the receding electrons. The net effect is zero since the currents are in
opposite directions and cancel each other. However, when transit time is an
appreciable part of a cycle, the number of electrons approaching the grid is not
always equal to the number going away. As a result, the induced currents do not
cancel. This uncancelled current produces a power loss in the grid that is considered
resistive in nature. In other words, the tube acts as if a resistor were connected
between the grid and the cathode. The resistance of this imaginary resistor
decreases rapidly as the frequency increases. The resistance may become so low
that the grid is essentially short-circuited to the cathode, preventing proper operation
of the tube.
Several methods are available to reduce the limitations of conventional tubes, but
none work well when frequency increases beyond 1,000 megahertz. Interelectrode
capacitance can be reduced by moving the electrodes further apart or by reducing
the size of the tube and its electrodes. Moving the electrodes apart increases the
problems associated with transit time, and reducing the size of the tube lowers the
power-handling capability. You can see that efforts to reduce certain limitations in
conventional tubes are compromises that are often in direct opposition to each other.
The net effect is an upper limit of approximately 1,000 megahertz, beyond which
conventional tubes are not practical.
Q.1 What happens to the impedance of interelectrode capacitance as frequency
increases?
Q.2 What undesirable effect is caused by the inductance of the cathode lead?
Q.3 How does transit time affect the relationship of the grid voltage and the plate
current at high frequencies?

Q.4 Moving tube electrodes apart to decrease interelectrode capacitance causes an
increase in the effect of what property?
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MICROWAVE ANTENNAS
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
Upon completion of this section the

student will be able to:
Explain the basic characteristics of
coupling, directivity, reciprocity, and
efficiency in microwave antennas.
Describe the construction and basic Join Integrated
theory of operation of reflector antennas Publishing's
and horn radiators. Discussion Group
Explain construction and operation of
microwave lens antennas.
Describe the construction and theory of
operation of driven and parasitic
antenna arrays.
Explain the basic operation and
applications of frequency-sensitive
antennas.
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INTRODUCTION Rom
In this chapter you will study the general characteristics of microwave antennas that are
widely used in radar and communications applications. The basic principles of operation
of microwave antennas are similar to those of antennas used at lower frequencies. You
might want to review the principles presented in NEETS, Module 10, Introduction to
Wave Propagation, Transmission Lines, and Antennas, at this time. Pay particular
attention to basic antenna principles in chapter 4 for a review of microwave antennas. Order this
information in
Antennas are devices used to radiate electromagnetic energy into space. The Print (Hardcopy).
characteristics of transmitting and receiving antennas are similar, so a good transmitting
antenna is often a good receiving antenna. A single antenna performs both functions in
many modern applications.
ANTENNA CHARACTERISTICS
Since the operating principles of low-frequency and microwave antennas are essentially
the same, the electrical characteristics are also very similar. You will need a
fundamental knowledge of radar and communications antenna electrical theory in your
shipboard antenna maintenance work. Antenna theory is primarily a design
consideration of antenna size and shape requirements that depend on the frequency
used. A brief description of antenna electrical characteristics is sufficient for the needs
of most students of electronics.
Antenna Efficiency
The effectiveness of an antenna depends upon its ability to couple or radiate energy
into the air. An efficient antenna is one which wastes very little energy during the
radiation process. The efficiency of an antenna is usually referred to as the POWER
GAIN or POWER RATIO as compared to a standard reference antenna. The power
gain of an antenna is a ratio of the radiated power to that of the reference antenna,
which is usually a basic dipole. Both antennas must be fed rf energy in the same
manner and must be in the same position when the energy is radiated. The power gain
of a single dipole without a reflector is unity (one). An array of several dipoles in the
same position as the single dipole, and fed with the same line, has a power gain of
more than one.
The effectiveness of an entire transmitting/ receiving system depends largely on

impedance matching between the elements of the system. Impedance matching is
particularly critical at the antenna connection. If a good impedance match is maintained
between the system and the antenna throughout the operating frequency band, power
transfer to and from the antenna is always maximum. The transmission line or
waveguide used to transport energy to and from the antenna should have a
characteristic impedance equal to that of the antenna. A proper impedance match
allows all available power to be absorbed and radiated by the antenna without
reflections back down the line.
If you have a transmission line or waveguide with an impedance mismatch at the

termination, standing waves are set up by the reflections. Standing waves cause losses
in the form of unwanted radiations, heat losses in transmission lines, and arcing in
waveguides.
The STANDING-WAVE RATIO, abbreviated swr, is a way to measure the degree of

mismatch between the transmission line and its load. The swr can be expressed as a
ratio of the maximum and minimum values of the current or voltage in the standing
waves that are set up on the lines as follows:
A transmission line or waveguide approaches a perfectly matched condition when the
swr approaches a value of 1. A ratio that is a little higher than 1 is usually acceptable in
practical applications.
Measurement of swr is the only practical method of detecting an impedance mismatch

between a transmitting/receiving system and its antenna. As such, the system swr is an
important indication of the overall efficiency of the system during operation.
The line impedance can usually be matched to the antenna at only one frequency.
However, the swr will NOT become too high if the antenna is used over a small range of
frequencies and the line is matched to the center frequency.
Antenna Directivity
You can divide antennas into two general classes based on directivity, omnidirectional
and directional. OMNIDIRECTIONAL antennas radiate and receive energy from all
directions at once (SPHERICAL WAVEFRONT). They are seldom used in modern
radar systems as the primary antenna, but are commonly used in radio equipment and
iff (identification friend or foe) receivers. DIRECTIONAL antennas radiate energy in
LOBES (or BEAMS) that extend outward from the antenna in either one or two
directions. The radiation pattern contains small minor lobes, but these lobes are weak
and normally have little effect on the main radiation pattern. Directional antennas also
receive energy efficiently from only one or two directions, depending upon whether it is
unidirectional or bidirectional.
Directional antennas have two characteristics that are important to you in radar and
communications systems. One is DIRECTIVITY and the other is POWER GAIN. The
directivity of an antenna refers to the NARROWNESS of the radiated beam. If the beam
is NARROW in either the horizontal or vertical plane, the antenna has a high degree of
directivity in that plane. An antenna may be designed for high directivity in one plane
only or in both planes, depending on the application. The power gain of an antenna
increases as the degree of directivity increases because the power is concentrated into
a narrow beam and less power is required to cover the same distance.
Since microwave antennas are predominantly unidirectional, the examples you will
study in this chapter are all of the unidirectional type.
Reciprocity
You read in this chapter that an antenna is able to both transmit and receive
electromagnetic energy. This is known as RECIPROCITY. Antenna reciprocity is
possible because antenna characteristics are essentially the same regardless of
whether an antenna is transmitting or receiving electromagnetic energy. Reciprocity
allows most radar and communications systems to operate with only one antenna. An
automatic switch, called a DUPLEXER, connects either the transmitter or the receiver to
the antenna at the proper time. Duplexer operation will be. explained in later NEETS
modules dealing with radar and communications systems. Because of the reciprocity of
antennas, this chapter will discuss antennas from the viewpoint of the transmitting
cycle. However, you should understand that the same principles apply on the receiving
cycle.
Radar Fundamentals
Radio, television, radar, and the human eye have much in common because they all
process the same type of electromagnetic energy. The major difference between the
light processed by the human eye and the radio-frequency energy processed by radio
and radar is frequency. For example, radio transmitters send out signals in all
directions. These signals can be detected by receivers tuned to the same frequency.
Radar works somewhat differently because it uses reflected energy (echo) instead of
directly transmitted energy. The echo, as it relates to sound, is a familiar concept to
most of us. An experienced person can estimate the distance and general direction of
an object causing a sound echo. Radar uses microwave electromagnetic energy in
much the same way.
Radar transmits microwave energy that reflects off an object and returns to the radar.
The returned portion of the energy is called an ECHO, as it is in sound terminology. It is
used to determine the direction and distance of the object causing the reflection.
Determination of direction and distance to an object is the primary function of most
radar systems.
Telescopes and radars, in terms of locating objects in space, have many common
problems. Both have a limited field of view and both require a geographic reference
system to describe the position of an object (target). The position of an object viewed
with a telescope is usually described by relating it to a familiar object with a known
position. Radar uses a standard system of reference coordinates to describe the
position of an object in relation to the position of the radar. Normally ANGULAR
measurements are made from true north in an imaginary flat plane called the
HORIZONTAL PLANE. All angles in the UP direction are measured in a second
imaginary plane perpendicular to the horizontal plane called the VERTICAL PLANE.
The center of the coordinate system is the radar location. As shown in figure 3-1, the
target position with respect to the radar is defined as 60 degrees true, 10 degrees up,
and 10 miles distant. The line directly from the radar to the target is called the LINE OF
SIGHT. The distance from point 1 to point 2, measured along the line of sight, is called
TARGET RANGE. The angle between the horizontal plane and the line of sight is
known as the ELEVATION ANGLE. The angle measured in a clockwise direction in the
horizontal plane between true north and the line of sight is known as BEARING
(sometimes referred to as AZIMUTH). These three coordinates of range, bearing, and
elevation determine the location of the target with respect to the radar.
Figure 3-1. - Radar target position.
Bearing and elevation angles are determined by measuring the angular position of the
radar antenna (the transmitted beam) when it is pointing directly at the target. Range is
more difficult to determine because it cannot be directly measured. The radar system is
designed to measure range as a function of time. Since the speed of electromagnetic
energy is the same as the speed of light, range is determined by measuring the time
required for a pulse of energy to reach the target and return to the radar. Because the
speed of the pulse is known, the two-way distance can be determined by multiplying the
time by the speed of travel. The total must be divided by two to obtain the one-way
range because the time value used initially is the time required for the pulse to travel to
the target and return.
The discussion of microwave antennas in this chapter requires only the most basic
understanding of radar concepts! Radar fundamentals will be discussed in more detail
in a later NEETS module.
Q.1 Microwave antennas and low-frequency antennas are similar in what ways?
Q.2 What term is used to express the efficiency of an antenna?
Q.3 What term is used to express the measurement of the degree of mismatch between
a line and its load?

Q.4 What type of antenna radiates in and receives energy from all directions at once?
Q.5 What is the term that is used to describe narrowness in the radiated beam of an
antenna?
Q.6 What characteristic allows the same antenna to both transmit and receive?
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Book 12
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Amplitude modulation
Sine wave characteristics

Amplitude
Heterodyning
Nonlinear impedance
Two sine wave generators in linear circuits
Spectrum Analysis
Amplitude-modulated systems
Blocked-grid keying
Single-Stage Transmitters
Join Integrated
Publishing's
AM transmitter principles Discussion Group
Analysis of an AM wave
The amplitude of the audio-modulating voltage
Modulation systems
Control-Grid Modulator
Summary
Answers
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information on CD-
Angle and pulse modulation
Rom
Comparison of AM and fm receiver response to an AM

signal
Frequency Modulation
Frequency spectra of fm waves under various
conditions
Methods of frequency modulation Order this
Phase modulation information in
Basic Modulator Print (Hardcopy).
Simulated phase-shift keying. TIMING
Pulse Timing
Radar modulation
Communications pulse modulators
Pulse-Time Modulation
Pulse-Code Modulation
Summary
Answers
Demodulation
Regenerative detector
Shunt-Diode Detector
FM Demodulation
Ratio detector
Gated-Beam detector
Phase demodulation
Low-pass filter
Summary
Answers
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AMPLITUDE MODULATION
LEARNING OBJECTIVES

below. Publishing's
Discussion Group
Discuss the generation of a

sine wave by describing its
three characteristics:
amplitude, phase, and
frequency.
Describe the process of Order this
heterodyning. information on CD-
Discuss the development of Rom
continuous-wave (cw)
modulation.
Describe the two primary
methods of cw
communications keying.
Discuss the radio frequency
(rf) spectrum usage by cw
Order this
transmissions.
information in
Discuss the advantages and
Print (Hardcopy).
disadvantages of cw
transmissions.
typical cw transmitter circuitry.
Discuss the method of
changing sound waves into
electrical impulses.
Describe the rf usage of an
AM signal.
Calculate the percent of
modulation for an AM signal.
Discuss the difference
between high- and low-level
modulation.
Describe the circuit
description, operation,
advantages, and
disadvantages of the following
common AM tube/transistor
modulating circuits:
plate/collector, control
grid/base, and
cathode/emitter.
Discuss the advantages and
disadvantages of AM
communications.
INTRODUCTION TO MODULATION PRINCIPLES
People have always had the desire to communicate their ideas to

others. Communications have not only been desired from a social
point of view, but have been an essential element in the building of
civilization. Through communications, people have been able to
share ideas of mutual benefit to all mankind. Early attempts to
maintain communications between distant points were limited by
several factors. For example, the relatively short distance sound
would carry and the difficulty of hand-carrying messages over great
distances hampered effective communications.
As the potential for the uses of electricity were explored, scientists

in the United States and England worked to develop the telegraph.
The first practical system was established in London, England, in
1838. Just 20 years later, the final link to connect the major
countries with electrical communications was completed when a
transatlantic submarine cable was connected. Commercial
telegraphy was practically worldwide by 1890. The telegraph key,
wire lines, and Morse code made possible almost instantaneous
communications between points at great distances. Submarine
cables solved the problems of transoceanic communications, but
communications with ships at sea and mobile forces were still poor.
In 1897 Marconi demonstrated the first practical wireless

transmitter. He sent and received messages over a distance of 8
miles. By 1898 he had demonstrated the usefulness of wireless
telegraph communications at sea. In 1899 he established a
wireless telegraphic link across the English Channel. His company
also established general usage of the wireless telegraph between
coastal light ships (floating lighthouses) and land. The first
successful transatlantic transmissions were achieved in 1902.
From that time to the present, radio communication has grown at
an extraordinary rate. Early systems transmitted a few words per
minute with doubtful reliability. Today, communications systems
reliably transmit information across millions of miles.
The desire to communicate directly by voice, at a higher rate of

speed than possible through basic telegraphy, led to further
research. That research led to the development of MODULATION.
Modulation is the ability to impress intelligence upon a
TRANSMISSION MEDIUM, such as radio waves. A transmission
medium can be described as light, smoke, sound, wire lines, or
radio-frequency waves. In this module, you will study the basic
principles of modulation and DEMODULATION (removing
intelligence from the medium).
In your studies, you will learn about modulation as it applies to

radio-frequency communications. To modulate is to impress the
characteristics (intelligence) of one waveform onto a second
waveform by varying the amplitude, frequency, phase, or other
characteristics of the second waveform. First, however, you will
review the characteristics and generation of a sine wave. This
review will help you to better understand the principles of
modulation. Then, an important principle called HETERODYNING
(mixing two frequencies across a nonlinear impedance) will be
studied and applied to modulation. Nonlinear impedance will be
discussed in the heterodyning section. You will also study several
methods of modulating a radio-frequency carrier. You will come to
a better understanding of the demodulation principle by studying
the various circuits used to demodulate a modulated carrier.
Q.1 What is modulation?
Q.2 What is a transmission medium?
Q.3 What is heterodyning?
Q.4 What is demodulation?
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Angle and pulse modulation
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ANGLE AND PULSE MODULATION
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
Describe frequency-shift
keying (fsk) and methods of
providing this type of
modulation. Join Integrated
Describe the development of Publishing's
frequency modulation (fm) and Discussion Group
methods of frequency
modulating a carrier.
Discuss the development of
phase modulation (pm) and
methods of phase modulating
a carrier.
Describe phase-shift keying
(psk), its generation, and Order this
application. information on CD-
Discuss the development and Rom
characteristics of pulse
modulation.
Describe the operation of the
spark gap and thyratron
modulators.
Discuss the characteristics of
a pulse train that may be
Order this
varied to provide
information in
communications capability.
Print (Hardcopy).
Describe pulse-amplitude
modulation (pam) and
generation.
Describe pulse-duration
modulation (pdm) and
generation.
Describe pulse-position
modulation (ppm) and
generation.
Describe pulse-frequency
modulation (pfm) and
generation.
Describe pulse-code
modulation (pcm) and
generation.
INTRODUCTION
In chapter 1 you learned that modulation of a carrier frequency was

necessary to allow fast communications between two points. As the
volume of transmissions increased, a need for more reliable
methods of communication was realized. In this chapter you will
study angle modulation and pulse modulation. These two types of
modulation have been developed to overcome one of the main
disadvantages of amplitude modulation - susceptibility to noise
interference. In addition, a special application of pulse type
modulation for ranging and detection equipment will be discussed.
ANGLE MODULATION
ANGLE MODULATION is modulation in which the angle of a sine-

wave carrier is varied by a modulating wave. FREQUENCY
MODULATION (fm) and PHASE MODULATION (pm) are two types
of angle modulation. In frequency modulation the modulating signal
causes the carrier frequency to vary. These variations are controlled
by both the frequency and the amplitude of the modulating wave. In
phase modulation the phase of the carrier is controlled by the
modulating waveform. Let's study these modulation methods for an
understanding of their similarities and differences.
FREQUENCY-MODULATION SYSTEMS
In frequency modulation an audio signal is used to shift the

frequency of an oscillator at an audio rate. The simplest form of this
is seen in FREQUENCY-SHIFT KEYING (fsk). Frequency-shift
keying is somewhat similar to continuous-wave keying (cw) in AM
transmissions.
Frequency-Shift Keying
Consider figure 2-1, views (A) through (D). View (A) is a radio
frequency (rf) carrier which is actually several thousand or million
hertz. View (B) represents the intelligence to be transmitted as
MARKS and SPACES. Recall that in cw transmission, this
intelligence was applied to the rf carrier by interrupting the signal, as
shown in view (C). The amplitude of the rf alternated between
maximum and 0 volts. By comparing views (B) and (C), you can see
the mark/space intelligence of the Morse code character on the rf.
The spacing of the waveform in view (D) is an example of the same
intelligence as it is applied to the frequency instead of the amplitude
of the rf. This is simple frequency-shift keying of the same Morse
code character.
Figure 2-1A. - Comparison of ON-OFF and frequency-shift keying.

RF CARRIER (CW) (EACH CYCLE REPRESENTS SEVERAL
THOUSAND OR SEVERAL MILLION CYCLES)
Figure 2-1B. - Comparison of ON-OFF and frequency-shift keying.
AMPLITUDE VARYING (ON-OFF) MODULATING WAVE (MORSE
CODE CHARACTER "N")
Figure 2-1C. - Comparison of ON-OFF and frequency-shift keying.

TRANSMITTED ON-OFF KEYED CW SIGNAL
Figure 2-1D. - Comparison of ON-OFF and frequency-shift keying.
TRANSMITTED FREQUENCY-SHIFT KEYED SIGNAL (FSK)
In fsk the output is abruptly changed between two differing

frequencies by opening and closing the key. This is shown in view
(D). For illustrative purposes, the spacing frequency in view (D) is
shown as double the marking frequency. However, in practice the
difference is usually less than 1,000 hertz, even when operating at
several megahertz. You should also note that the limit of frequency
shift is determined without reference to the amplitude of the keying
signal in the fsk system. The frequency shift may be set at plus or
minus 425 hertz from the allocated channel frequency. The total shift
between mark and space would be 850 hertz. Either the mark or
space may use the higher of the two frequencies. The upper
frequency of the transmitted signal is usually the spacing interval
and the lower frequency is the marking interval.
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Book 13
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Number systems
Carry and Borrow Principles

Addition of Binary Numbers
Subtraction of Binary Numbers
Complementary Subtraction
Octal number system
Subtraction of Octal Numbers
Hexadecmial (HEX) number system
Subtraction of Hex Numbers
Conversion of bases
Join Integrated
Decimal to Octal
Publishing's
Decimal to Hex Discussion Group
Binary conversion
Binary to Hex
Octal to Binary
Octal to Hex
Binary to Decimal
Octal to Decimal
Hex to Decimal
Order this
Binary-coded decimal information on CD-
Summary Rom
Answers
Fundamental logic circuits
Logic Symbol
The or gate Order this
The inverter information in
The nand gate Print (Hardcopy).
The nor gate
Variations of fundamental gates
Logic gates in combination
Boolean algebra
Summary
Answers
Special logic circuits
A quarter adder is a circuit

Subtraction is accomplished in computers
Flip-flops
Toggle flip-flops
J-K Flip-Flop
Clocks and counters
Counters
Decade Counter
Down Counters
Shift registers
Logic families
Summary
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Number systems
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NUMBER SYSTEMS
LEARNING OBJECTIVES

learned the information. The learning objectives are listed below. Join Integrated
Publishing's
Upon completion of this chapter, you should be able to do the Discussion Group
following:
Recognize different types of

number systems as they relate to
computers.
Identify and define unit,
number, base/radix,
positional notation, and
most and least significant Order this
digits as they relate to information on CD-
decimal, binary, octal, Rom
and hexadecimal number
systems.
Add and subtract in binary, octal,
and hexadecimal number systems.
Convert values from
decimal, binary, octal,
hexadecimal, and binary-
coded decimal number
Order this
systems to each other and
back to the other systems. information in
Add in binary-coded decimal. Print (Hardcopy).
INTRODUCTION
How many days' leave do you have on the books? How much
money do you have to last until payday? It doesn't matter
what the question is - if the answer is in dollars or days
or cows, it will be represented by numbers.
Just try to imagine going through one day without using

numbers. Some things can be easily described without using
numbers, but others prove to be difficult. Look at the
following examples:
I am stationed on the aircraft carrier Nimitz.
He owns a green Chevrolet.
The use of numbers wasn't necessary in the preceding

statements, but the following examples depend on the use
of numbers:
I have $25 to last until payday.
I want to take 14 days' leave.
You can see by these statements that numbers play an

important part in our lives.
BACKGROUND AND HISTORY
Mans' earliest number or counting system was probably

developed to help determine how many possessions a person
had. As daily activities became more complex, numbers
became more important in trade, time, distance, and all
other phases of human life.
As you have seen already, numbers are extremely important

in your military and personal life. You realize that you
need more than your fingers and toes to keep track of the
numbers in your daily routine.
Ever since people discovered that it was necessary to

count objects, they have been looking for easier ways to
count them. The abacus, developed by the Chinese, is one
of the earliest known calculators. It is still in use in
some parts of the world.
The first adding machine was invented by Blaise Pascal

(French) in 1642. Twenty years later, an Englishman, Sir
Samuel Moreland, developed a more compact device that
could multiply, add, and subtract. About 1672, Gottfried
Wilhelm von Leibniz (German) perfected a machine that
could perform all the basic operations (add, subtract,
multiply, divide), as well as extract the square root.
Modern electronic digital computers still use von
Liebniz's principles.
MODERN USE
Computers are now employed wherever repeated calculations

or the processing of huge amounts of data is needed. The
greatest applications are found in the military,
scientific, and commercial fields. They have applications
that range from mail sorting, through engineering design,
to the identification and destruction of enemy targets.
The advantages of digital computers include speed,
accuracy, and man-power savings. Often computers are able
to take over routine jobs and release personnel for more
important work - work that cannot be handled by a
computer.
People and computers do not normally speak the same

language. Methods of translating information into forms
that are understandable and usable to both are necessary.
Humans generally speak in words and numbers expressed in
the decimal number system, while computers only understand
coded electronic pulses that represent digital
information.
In this chapter you will learn about number systems in

general and about binary, octal, and hexadecimal (which we
will refer to as hex) number systems specifically. Methods
for converting numbers in the binary, octal, and hex
systems to equivalent numbers in the decimal system (and
vice versa) will also be described. You will see that
these number systems can be easily converted to the
electronic signals necessary for digital equipment.
TYPES OF NUMBER SYSTEMS
Until now, you have probably used only one number system,
the decimal system. You may also be familiar with the
Roman numeral system, even though you seldom use it.
THE DECIMAL NUMBER SYSTEM
In this module you will be studying modern number systems.

You should realize that these systems have certain things
in common. These common terms will be defined using the
decimal system as our base. Each term will be related to
each number system as that number system is introduced.
Each of the number systems you will study is built around

the following components: the UNIT, NUMBER, and BASE
(RADIX).
Unit and Number
The terms unit and number when used with the decimal
system are almost self-explanatory. By definition the unit
is a single object; that is, an apple, a dollar, a day. A
number is a symbol representing a unit or a quantity. The
figures 0, 1, 2, and 3 through 9 are the symbols used in
the decimal system. These symbols are called Arabic
numerals or figures. Other symbols may be used for
different number systems. For example, the symbols used
with the Roman numeral system are letters - V is the
symbol for 5, X for 10, M for 1,000, and so forth. We will
use Arabic numerals and letters in the number system
discussions in this chapter.
Base (Radix)
The base, or radix, of a number system tells you the

number of symbols used in that system. The base of any
system is always expressed in decimal numbers. The base,
or radix, of the decimal system is 10. This means there
are 10 symbols - 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, and 9 - used
in the system. A number system using three symbols - 0, 1,
and 2 - would be base 3; four symbols would be base 4; and
so forth. Remember to count the zero or the symbol used
for zero when determining the number of symbols used in a
number system.
The base of a number system is indicated by a subscript

(decimal number) following the value of the number. The
following are examples of numerical values in different
bases with the subscript to indicate the base:
You should notice the highest value symbol used in a

number system is always one less than the base of the
system. In base 10 the largest value symbol possible is 9;
in base 5 it is 4; in base 3 it is 2.
Positional Notation and Zero
You must observe two principles when counting or writing

quantities or numerical values. They are the POSITIONAL
NOTATION and the ZERO principles.
Positional notation is a system where the value of a

number is defined not only by the symbol but by the
symbol's position. Let's examine the decimal (base 10)
value of 427.5. You know from experience that this value
is four hundred twenty-seven and one-half. Now examine the
position of each number:
If 427.5 is the quantity you wish to express, then each

number must be in the position shown. If you exchange the
positions of the 2 and the 7, then you change the value.
Each position in the positional notation system represents

a power of the base, or radix. A POWER is the number of
times a base is multiplied by itself. The power is written
above and to the right of the base and is called an
EXPONENT. Examine the following base 10 line graph:
Now let's look at the value of the base 10 number 427.5
with the positional notation line graph:
You can see that the power of the base is multiplied by
the number in that position to determine the value for
that position.
The following graph illustrates the progression of powers

of 10:
All numbers to the left of the decimal point are whole
numbers, and all numbers to the right of the decimal point
are fractional numbers. A whole number is a symbol that
represents one, or more, complete objects, such as one
apple or $5. A fractional number is a symbol that
represents a portion of an object, such as half of an
apple (.5 apples) or a quarter of a dollar ($0.25). A
mixed number represents one, or more, complete objects,
and some portion of an object, such as one and a half
apples (1.5 apples). When you use any base other than the
decimal system, the division between whole numbers and
fractional numbers is referred to as the RADIX POINT. The
decimal point is actually the radix point of the decimal
system, but the term radix point is normally not used with
the base 10 number system.
Just as important as positional notation is the use of the

zero. The placement of the zero in a number can have quite
an effect on the value being represented. Sometimes a
position in a number does not have a value between 1 and
9. Consider how this would affect your next paycheck. If
you were expecting a check for $605.47, you wouldn't want
it to be $65.47. Leaving out the zero in this case means a
difference of $540.00. In the number 605.47, the zero
indicates that there are no tens. If you place this value
on a bar graph, you will see that there are no multiples
of 101.
Most Significant Digit and Least Significant Digit (MSD
and LSD) Other important factors of number systems that
you should recognize are the MOST SIGNIFICANT DIGIT (MSD)
and the LEAST SIGNIFICANT DIGIT (LSD).
The MSD in a number is the digit that has the greatest
effect on that number.
The LSD in a number is the digit that has the least effect
on that number.
Look at the following examples:

You can easily see that a change in the MSD will increase
or decrease the value of the number the greatest amount.
Changes in the LSD will have the smallest effect on the
value. The nonzero digit of a number that is the farthest
LEFT is the MSD, and the nonzero digit farthest RIGHT is
the LSD, as in the following example:
In a whole number the LSD will always be the digit
immediately to the left of the radix point.
Q.1 What term describes a single object?

Q.2 A symbol that represents one or more objects is called
a _________.
Q.3 The symbols 0, 1, 2, and 3 through 9 are what type of
numerals?
Q.4 What does the base, or radix, of a number system tell
you about the system?

Q.5 How would you write one hundred seventy-three base 10?
Q.6 What power of 10 is equal to 1,000? 100? 10? 1?
Q.7 The decimal point of the base 10 number system is also
known as the _________.

Q.8 What is the MSD and LSD of the following numbers? (a)
420. (b) 1045.06 (c) 0.0024 (d) 247.0001

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FUNDAMENTAL LOGIC CIRCUITS
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
Upon completing this chapter, you should be able to do the

following:
Identify general logic conditions, logic states, logic levels, and

positive and negative logic as these terms and characteristics apply
to the inputs and outputs of fundamental logic circuits. Join Integrated
Publishing's
Indentify the following logic circuit gates and interpret and solve the Discussion Group
associated Truth Tables:
AND
OR
Inverters (NOT circuits)
NAND
NOR
Identify variations of the
fundamental logic gates Order this
and interpret the information on CD-
associated Truth Tables. Rom
Determine the output expressions
of logic gates in combination.
Recognize the laws, theorems, and
purposes of Boolean algebra.
INTRODUCTION
In chapter 1 you learned that the two digits of the binary Order this
number system can be represented by the state or condition information in
of electrical or electronic devices. A binary 1 can be Print (Hardcopy).
represented by a switch that is closed, a lamp that is
lit, or a transistor that is conducting. Conversely, a
binary 0 would be represented by the same devices in the
opposite state: the switch open, the lamp off, or the
transistor in cut-off.
In this chapter you will study the four basic logic gates
that make up the foundation for digital equipment. You
will see the types of logic that are used in equipment to
accomplish the desired results. This chapter includes an
introduction to Boolean algebra, the logic mathematics
system used with digital equipment. Certain Boolean
expressions are used in explanation of the basic logic
gates, and their expressions will be used as each logic
gate is introduced.
COMPUTER LOGIC
Logic is defined as the science of reasoning. In other

words, it is the development of a reasonable or logical
conclusion based on known information.
GENERAL LOGIC
Consider the following example: If it is true that all

Navy ships are gray and the USS Lincoln is a Navy ship,
then you would reach the logical conclusion that the USS
Lincoln is gray.
To reach a logical conclusion, you must assume the

qualifying statement is a condition of truth. For each
statement there is also a corresponding false condition.
The statement "USS Lincoln is a Navy ship" is true;
therefore, the statement "USS Lincoln is not a Navy ship"
is false. There are no in-between conditions.
Computers operate on the principle of logic and use the

TRUE and FALSE logic conditions of a logical statement to
make a programmed decision.
The conditions of a statement can be represented by
symbols (variables); for instance, the statement "Today is
payday" might be represented by the symbol P. If today
actually is payday, then P is TRUE. If today is not
payday, then P is FALSE. As you can see, a statement has
two conditions. In computers, these two conditions are
represented by electronic circuits operating in two LOGIC
STATES. These logic states are 0 (zero) and 1 (one).
Respectively, 0 and 1 represent the FALSE and TRUE
conditions of a statement.
When the TRUE and FALSE conditions are converted to

electrical signals, they are referred to as LOGIC LEVELS
called HIGH and LOW. The 1 state might be represented by
the presence of an electrical signal (HIGH), while the 0
state might be represented by the absence of an electrical
signal (LOW).
If the statement "Today is payday" is FALSE, then the

statement "Today is NOT payday" must be TRUE. This is
called the COMPLEMENT of the original statement. In the
case of computer math, complement is defined as the
opposite or negative form of the original statement or
variable. If today were payday, then the statement "Today
is not payday" would be FALSE. The complement is shown by
placing a bar, or VINCULUM, over the statement symbol (in
this case, P). This variable is spoken as NOT P. Table 2-1
shows this concept and the relationship with logic states
and logic levels.
Table 2-1. - Relationship of Digital Logic Concepts and

Terms
Example 1: Assume today is payday
LOGIC LOGIC
STATEMENT SYMBOL CONDITION
STATE LEVEL
Original: TODAY
P TRUE 1 HIGH
IS PAYDAY
Complement:
TODAY IS NOT P FALSE 0 LOW
PAYDAY
Example 2:
Assume today is
not payday
Complement:
TODAY IS NOT P FALSE 0 LOW
PAYDAY
Complement:
TODAY IS NOT P TRUE 1 HIGH
PAYDAY
In some cases, more than one variable is used in a single

expression. For example, the expression ABCD is spoken "A AND
B AND NOT C AND D."
POSITIVE AND NEGATIVE LOGIC
To this point, we have been dealing with one type of LOGIC

POLARITY, positive. Let's further define logic polarity and expand
to cover in more detail the differences between positive and
negative logic.
Logic polarity is the type of voltage used to represent the logic 1

state of a statement. We have determined that the two logic states
can be represented by electrical signals. Any two distinct voltages
may be used. For instance, a positive voltage can represent the 1
state, and a negative voltage can represent the 0 state. The
opposite is also true.
Logic circuits are generally divided into two broad classes

according to their polarity - positive logic and negative logic. The
voltage levels used and a statement indicating the use of positive
or negative logic will usually be specified on logic diagrams
supplied by manufacturers.
In practice, many variations of logic polarity are used; for example,

from a high-positive to a low-positive voltage, or from positive to
ground; or from a high-negative to a low-negative voltage, or from
negative to ground. A brief discussion of the two general classes of
logic polarity is presented in the following paragraphs.
Positive Logic
Positive logic is defined as follows: If the signal that activates the

circuit (the 1 state) has a voltage level that is more POSITIVE than
the 0 state, then the logic polarity is considered to be POSITIVE.
Table 2-2 shows the manner in which positive logic may be used.
Table 2-2. - Examples of Positive Logic

As you can see, in positive logic the 1 state is at a more positive
voltage level than the 0 state.
Negative Logic
As you might suspect, negative logic is the opposite of positive

logic and is defined as follows: If the signal that activates the circuit
(the 1 state) has a voltage level that is more NEGATIVE than the 0
state, then the logic polarity is considered to be NEGATIVE. Table
2-3 shows the manner in which negative logic may be used.
Table 2-3. - Examples of Negative Logic

NOTE: The logic level LOW now represents the 1 state. This is
because the 1 state voltage is more negative than the 0 state.
In the examples shown for negative logic, you notice that the
voltage for the logic 1 state is more negative with respect to the
logic 0 state voltage. This holds true in example 1 where both
voltages are positive. In this case, it may be easier for you to think
of the TRUE condition as being less positive than the FALSE
condition. Either way, the end result is negative logic.
The use of positive or negative logic for digital equipment is a

choice to be made by design engineers. The difficulty for the
technician in this area is limited to understanding the type of logic
being used and keeping it in mind when troubleshooting.
NOTE: UNLESS OTHERWISE NOTED, THE REMAINDER OF

THIS BOOK WILL DEAL ONLY WITH POSITIVE LOGIC.
LOGIC INPUTS AND OUTPUTS
As you study logic circuits, you will see a variety of symbols

(variables) used to represent the inputs and outputs. The purpose
of these symbols is to let you know what inputs are required for the
desired output.
If the symbol A is shown as an input to a logic device, then the

logic level that represents A must be HIGH to activate the logic
device. That is, it must satisfy the input requirements of the logic
device before the logic device will issue the TRUE output.
Look at view A of figure 2-1. The symbol X represents the input. As
long as the switch is open, the lamp is not lit. The open switch
represents the logic 0 state of variable X.
Figure 2-1. - Logic switch: A. Logic 0 state; B. Logic 1 state.
Closing the switch (view B), represents the logic 1 state of X.

Closing the switch completes the circuit causing the lamp to light.
The 1 state of X satisfied the input requirement and the circuit
therefore produced the desired output (logic HIGH); current was
applied to the lamp causing it to light.
If you consider the lamp as the output of a logic device, then the
same conditions exist. The TRUE (1 state) output of the logic
device is to have the lamp lit. If the lamp is not lit, then the output of
the logic device is FALSE (0 state).
As you study logic circuits, it is important that you remember the

state (1 or 0) of the inputs and outputs.
So far in this chapter, we have discussed the two conditions of

logical statements, the logic states representing these two
conditions, logic levels and associated electrical signals and
positive and negative logic. We are now ready to proceed with
individual logic device operations. These make up the majority of
computer circuitry.
As each of the logic devices are presented, a chart called a TRUTH

TABLE will be used to illustrate all possible input and
corresponding output combinations. Truth Tables are particularly
helpful in understanding a logic device and for showing the
differences between devices.
The logic operations you will study in this chapter are the AND, OR,
NOT, NAND, and NOR. The devices that accomplish these
operations are called logic gates, or more informally, <emphasis
type="i.GIF">gates. These gates are the foundation for all digital
equipment. They are the "decision-making" circuits of computers
and other types of digital equipment. By making decisions, we
mean that certain conditions must exist to produce the desired
output.
In studying each gate, we will introduce various mathematical

SYMBOLS known as BOOLEAN ALGEBRA expressions. These
expressions are nothing more than descriptions of the input
requirements necessary to activate the circuit and the resultant
circuit output.
THE AND GATE
The AND gate is a logic circuit that requires all inputs to be TRUE
at the same time in order for the output to be TRUE.

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Special logic circuits
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SPECIAL LOGIC CIRCUITS
LEARNING OBJECTIVES

following:
Recognize the types of special

logic circuits used in digital
equipment.
Identify exclusive OR and Join Integrated
exclusive NOR circuits and Publishing's
interpret their respective Discussion Group
Truth Tables.
Identify adder and subtracter
circuits.
Identify the types of flip-
flops used in digital
equipment and their uses.
Identify counters, registers, and
clock circuits.
Describe the elements that make Order this
up logic families - RTL, DTL, TTL, information on CD-
CMOS.
Rom
INTRODUCTION
Figure 3-1 is a portion of a typical logic diagram. It is
similar to the diagrams you will encounter as your study
of digital circuitry progresses.
Figure 3-1. - Typical logic diagram.

Order this
information in
Print (Hardcopy).
Look closely at the figure. You will see many familiar

logic gates. You will also see several that you may not
recognize.
Digital equipment must be capable of many more operations

than those described in chapter 2. Provisions must be made
for accepting information; performing arithmetic or logic
operations; and transferring, storing, and outputting
information. Timing circuits are included to ensure that
all operations occur at the proper time.
In this chapter you will become acquainted with the logic

circuits used to perform the operations mentioned above.
THE EXCLUSIVE OR GATE
The exclusive OR gate is a modified OR gate that produces

a HIGH output when only one of the inputs is HIGH. You
will often see the abbreviation X-OR used to identify this
gate. When both inputs are HIGH or when both inputs are
LOW, the output is LOW.
The standard symbol for an exclusive OR gate is shown in

figure 3-2 along with the associated Truth Table. The
operation function sign for the exclusive OR gate is .
Figure 3-2. - Exclusive OR gate and Truth Table.
If you were to observe the input and output signals of an

X-OR gate, the results would be similar to those shown in
figure 3-3. At T0, both inputs are LOW and the output is
LOW. At T1, A goes to HIGH and remains HIGH until T2.
During this time the output is HIGH. At T3, B goes HIGH
and remains HIGH through T5. At T4, A again goes HIGH and
remains HIGH through T5. Between T3and T4 , the output is
HIGH. At T4, when both A and B are HIGH, the output goes
LOW.
Figure 3-3. - Exclusive OR gate timing diagram.
THE EXCLUSIVE NOR GATE
The exclusive NOR (X-NOR) gate is nothing more than an X-

OR gate with an inverted output. It produces a HIGH output
when the inputs are either all HIGH or all LOW. The
standard symbol and the Truth Table are shown in figure 3-
4. The operation function sign is with a vinculum over
the entire expression.
Figure 3-4. - Exclusive NOR gate and Truth Table.

A timing diagram for the X-NOR gate is shown in figure 3-
5. You can see that from T0 to T1, when both inputs are
LOW, the output is HIGH. The output goes LOW when the
inputs are opposite; one HIGH and the other LOW. At time
T3, both inputs go HIGH causing the output to go HIGH.
Figure 3-5. - Exclusive NOR gate timing diagram.

Q.1 What is the sign of operation for the X-OR gate?
Q.2 What will be the output of an X-OR gate when both
inputs are HIGH?

Q.3 A two-input X-OR gate will produce a HIGH output when
the inputs are at what logic levels?

Q.4 What type of gate is represented by the output Boolean
expression T R?
Q.5 What will be the output of an X-NOR gate when both
inputs are LOW?
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Book 14
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Microelectronics
Solid-State devices
Integrated Circuits
Fabrication of microelectronic devices
Fabrication of IC devices
Thin Film
Packaging Techniques
Dual Inline Package
Equivalent circuits
Microelectronic system design concepts
Join Integrated
System packaging
Publishing's
Interconnections in printed circuit boards Discussion Group
Environmental considerations
Summary
Answers
Miniature/microminiature (2M) repair program and high-reliability
Test Equipment Order this

information on CD-
Repair Stations
Rom
High-Intensity Light
Safety Equipment
Summary
Answers
Miniature and microminature repair procedures Order this

information in
Removal and replacement of discrete components Print (Hardcopy).
Above-the-board termination
Component Desoldering
Installation and soldering of printed circuit components
Soldering of PCB Components
Removal and replacement of dips
Repair of printed circuit boards and cards
Safety
Grounded Work Benches
Summary
Answers
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Microelectronics
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MICROELECTRONICS
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
Learning objectives are stated at the beginning of each topic. These learning objectives
serve as a preview of the information you are expected to learn in the topic. The
comprehensive check questions are based on the objectives. By successfully completing
the OCC-ECC, you indicate that you have met the objectives and have learned the
information. The learning objectives are listed below.
Join Integrated
Upon completion of this topic, you will be able to: Publishing's
Discussion Group
Outline the progress made in the history
of microelectronics.
Describe the evolution of
microelectronics from point-to-point
wiring through high element density state-
of-the-art microelectronics.
List the advantages and disadvantages
of point-to-point wiring and high element Order this
density state-of-the-art microelectronics. information on CD-
Identify printed circuit boards, diodes, Rom
transistors, and the various types of
integrated circuits. Describe the
fabrication techniques of these
components.
Define the terminology used in
microelectronic technology including the
following terms used by the Naval Order this
information in
Systems Commands:
Print (Hardcopy).
microelectronics
microcircuit
microcircuit module
miniature electronics
system packaging
levels of packaging (0 to IV)
modular assemblies
cordwood modules
micromodules
Describe typical packaging levels
presently used for microelectronic
systems.
Describe typical interconnections used in
microelectronic systems.
Describe environmental considerations
for microelectronics.
INTRODUCTION
In NEETS, Module 6, Introduction to Electronic Emission, Tubes, and Power Supplies,

you learned that Thomas Edison's discovery of thermionic emission opened the door to
electronic technology. Progress was slow in the beginning, but each year brought new
and more amazing discoveries. The development of vacuum tubes soon led to the simple
radio. Then came more complex systems of communications. Modern systems now allow
us to communicate with other parts of the world via satellite. Data is now collected from
space by probes without the presence of man because of microelectronic technology.
Sophisticated control systems allow us to operate equipment by remote control in

hazardous situations, such as the handling of radioactive materials. We can remotely pilot
aircraft from takeoff to landing. We can make course corrections to spacecraft millions of
miles from Earth. Space flight, computers, and even video games would not be possible
except for the advances made in microelectronics.
The most significant step in modern electronics was the development of the transistor by
Bell Laboratories in 1948. This development was to solid-state electronics what the
Edison Effect was to the vacuum tube. The solid-state diode and the transistor opened
the door to microelectronics.
MICROELECTRONICS is defined as that area of technology associated with and applied

to the realization of electronic systems made of extremely small electronic parts or
elements. As discussed in topic 2 of NEETS, Module 7, Introduction to Solid-State
Devices and Power Supplies, the term microelectronics is normally associated with
integrated circuits (IC). Microelectronics is often thought to include only integrated
circuits. However, many other types of circuits also fall into the microelectronics category.
These will be discussed in greater detail under solid-state devices later in this topic.
During World War II, the need to reduce the size, weight, and power of military electronic
systems became important because of the increased use of these systems. As systems
became more complex, their size, weight, and power requirements rapidly increased. The
increases finally reached a point that was unacceptable, especially in aircraft and for
infantry personnel who carried equipment in combat. These unacceptable factors were
the driving force in the development of smaller, lighter, and more efficient electronic
circuit components. Such requirements continue to be important factors in the
development of new systems, both for military and commercial markets. Military
electronic systems, for example, continue to become more highly developed as their
capability, reliability, and maintainability is increased. Progress in the development of
military systems and steady advances in technology point to an ever-increasing need for
increased technical knowledge of microelectronics in your Navy job.
Q.1 What problems were evident about military electronic systems during World War II?
Q.2 What discovery opened the door to solid-state electronics?
Q.3 What is microelectronics?
EVOLUTION OF MICROELECTRONICS
The earliest electronic circuits were fairly simple. They were composed of a few tubes,
transformers, resistors, capacitors, and wiring. As more was learned by designers, they
began to increase both the size and complexity of circuits. Component limitations were
soon identified as this technology developed.
VACUUM-TUBE EQUIPMENT
Vacuum tubes were found to have several built-in problems. Although the tubes were
lightweight, associated components and chassis were quite heavy. It was not uncommon
for such chassis to weigh 40 to 50 pounds. In addition, the tubes generated a lot of heat,
required a warm-up time from 1 to 2 minutes, and required hefty power supply voltages of
300 volts dc and more.
No two tubes of the same type were exactly alike in output characteristics. Therefore,
designers were required to produce circuits that could work with any tube of a particular
type. This meant that additional components were often required to tune the circuit to the
output characteristics required for the tube used.
Figure 1-1 shows a typical vacuum-tube chassis. The actual size of the transformer is
approximately 4 X 4 X 3 inches. Capacitors are approximately 1 X 3 inches. The
components in the figure are very large when compared to modern microelectronics.
Figure 1-1. - Typical vacuum tube circuit.

A circuit could be designed either as a complete system or as a functional part of a larger
system. In complex systems, such as radar, many separate circuits were needed to
accomplish the desired tasks. Multiple-function tubes, such as dual diodes, dual triodes,
tetrodes, and others helped considerably to reduce the size of circuits. However, weight,
heat, and power consumption continued to be problems that plagued designers.
Another major problem with vacuum-tube circuits was the method of wiring components
referred to as POINT-TO-POINT WIRING. Figure 1-2 is an excellent example of point-to-
point wiring. Not only did this wiring look like a rat's nest, but it often caused unwanted
interactions between components. For example, it was not at all unusual to have
inductive or capacitive effects between wires. Also, point-to-point wiring posed a safety
hazard when troubleshooting was performed on energized circuits because of exposed
wiring and test points. Point-to-point wiring was usually repaired with general purpose test
equipment and common hand tools.
Figure 1-2. - Point-to-point wiring.

Vacuum-tube circuits proved to be reliable under many conditions. Still, the drawbacks of
large size, heavy weight, and significant power consumption made them undesirable in
most situations. For example, computer systems using tubes were extremely large and
difficult to maintain. ENIAC, a completely electronic computer built in 1945, contained
18,000 tubes. It often required a full day just to locate and replace faulty tubes.
In some applications, we are still limited to vacuum tubes. Cathode-ray tubes used in
radar, television, and oscilloscopes do not, as yet, have solid-state counterparts.
One concept that eased the technician's job was that of MODULAR PACKAGING.
Instead of building a system on one large chassis, it was built of MODULES or blocks.
Each module performed a necessary function of the system. Modules could easily be
removed and replaced during troubleshooting and repair. For instance, a faulty power
supply could be exchanged with a good one to keep the system operational. The faulty
unit could then be repaired while out of the system. This is an example of how the module
concept improved the efficiency of electronic systems. Even with these advantages,
vacuum tube modules still had faults. Tubes and point-to-point wiring were still used and
excessive size, weight, and power consumption remained as problems to be overcome.
Vacuum tubes were the basis for electronic technology for many years and some are still
with us. Still, emphasis in vacuum-tube technology is rapidly becoming a thing of the
past. The emphasis of technology is in the field of microelectronics.
Q.4 What discovery proved to be the foundation for the development of the vacuum tube?
Q.5 Name the components which greatly increase the weight of vacuum-tube circuitry.
Q.6 What are the disadvantages of point-to-point wiring?
Q.7 What is a major advantage of modular construction?

Q.8 When designing vacuum-tube circuits, what characteristics of tubes must be taken
into consideration?
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Miniature/microminiature (2M) repair program and

high-reliability
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MINIATURE/MICROMINIATURE (2M) REPAIR PROGRAM AND

HIGH-RELIABILITY
SOLDERING
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
Upon completion of this topic, the student will be able to:
State the purpose and need Join Integrated

for training and certification of Publishing's
2M repair technicians. Discussion Group
Explain the maintenance
levels at which maintenance
is performed.
Identify the specialized and
general test equipment used
in fault isolation.
Recognize the specialized
types of tools used and the Order this
importance of repair facilities. information on CD-
Rom
Explain the principles of high-
reliability soldering.
INTRODUCTION
Order this
As mentioned in topic 1, advances in the field of microelectronics
information in
are impressive. With every step forward in production development, Print (Hardcopy).
a corresponding step forward must be made in maintenance and
repair techniques.
This topic will teach you how the Navy is coping with the new
technology and how personnel are trained to carry out the
maintenance and repair of complex equipment. The program
discussed in this topic is up to date at this time, but as industry
advances, so must the capabilities of the technician.
MINIATURE AND MICROMINIATURE (2M) ELECTRONIC

REPAIR PROGRAM
Training requirements for miniature and microminiature repair

personnel were developed under guidelines established by the
Chief of Naval Operations. The Naval Sea Systems Command
(NAVSEA) developed a program which provides for the proper
training in miniature and microminiature repair. This program,
NAVSEA Miniature/Microminiature (2M) Electronic Repair,
authorizes and provides proper tools and equipment and
establishes a personnel certification program to maintain quality
repair.
The Naval Air Systems Command has developed a similar program

specifically for the aviation community. The two programs are
patterned after the National Aeronautics and Space Administration
(NASA) high-reliability soldering studies and have few differences
other than the administrative chain of command. For purposes of
this topic, we will use the NAVSEA manual for reference.
The 2M program covers all phases of miniature and microminiature

repair. It establishes the training curriculum for repair personnel,
outlines standards of workmanship, and provides guidelines for
specific repairs to equipment, including the types of tools to use.
This part of the program ensures high-reliability repairs by qualified
technicians.
Upon satisfactory completion of a 2M training course, a technician
will be CERTIFIED to perform repairs. The CERTIFICATION is
issued at the level at which the technician qualifies and specifies
what type of repairs the technician is permitted to perform. The two
levels of qualification for technicians are MINIATURE
COMPONENT REPAIR and MICROMINIATURE COMPONENT
REPAIR. Miniature component repair is limited to discrete
components and single- and double-sided printed circuit boards,
including removal and installation of most integrated circuit devices.
Microminiature component repair consists of repairs to highly
complex, densely packaged, multilayer printed circuit boards.
Sophisticated repair equipment is used that may include a
binocular microscope.
To ensure that a technician is maintaining the required qualification

level, periodic evaluations are conducted. By inspecting and
evaluating the technician's work, certification teams ensure that the
minimum standards for the technician's level of qualification are
met. If the standards are met, the technician is recertified; if not, the
certification is withheld pending retraining and requalification. This
portion of the program ensures the high-quality, high-reliability
repairs needed to meet operational requirements.
Q.1 Training requirements for (2M) repair personnel were

developed under guidelines established by what organization?
Q.2 What agencies provide training, tools, equipment, and
certification of the 2M system?

Q.3 To perform microminiature component repair, a 2M technician
must be currently certified in what area?

Q.4 Multilayer printed circuit board repair is the responsibility of
what 2M repair technician?
LEVELS OF MAINTENANCE
Effective maintenance and repair of microelectronic devices require

one of three levels of maintenance. Level-of-repair designations
called SOURCE, MAINTENANCE, and RECOVERABILITY
CODES (SM&R) have been developed and are assigned by the
Chief of Naval Material. These codes are D for DEPOT LEVEL, I
for INTERMEDIATE LEVEL, and O for ORGANIZATIONAL LEVEL.
DEPOT-LEVEL MAINTENANCE.
SM&R Code D maintenance is the responsibility of maintenance

activities designated by the systems command (NAVSEA, NAVAIR,
NAVELEX). This code augments stocks of serviceable material. It
also supports codes I and O activities by providing more extensive
shop facilities and equipment and more highly skilled technicians.
Code D maintenance includes repair, modification, alteration,
modernization, and overhaul as well as reclamation or
reconstruction of parts, assemblies, subassemblies, and
components. Finally, it includes emergency manufacture of
nonavailable parts. Code D maintenance also provides technical
assistance to user activities and to code I maintenance
organizations. Code D maintenance is performed in shops, located
in shipyards and shore-based facilities, including contractor
maintenance organizations.
INTERMEDIATE-LEVEL MAINTENANCE
SM&R code I maintenance, performed at mobile shops, tenders or

shore-based repair facilities (SIMAS) provides direct support to
user organizations. Code I maintenance includes calibration, repair,
or replacement of damaged or unserviceable parts, components, or
assemblies, and emergency manufacture of nonavailable parts. It
also provides technical assistance to ships and stations.
ORGANIZATIONAL-LEVEL MAINTENANCE
SM&R code O maintenance is the responsibility of the activity who

owns the equipment. Code O maintenance consists of inspecting,
servicing, lubricating, adjusting, and replacing parts, minor
assemblies, and subassemblies.
An INTEGRATED LOGISTICS SUPPORT PLAN (ILSP)

determines the maintenance level for electronic assemblies,
modules, and boards for each equipment assigned to an activity.
The ILSP codes the items according to the normal maintenance
capabilities of that activity. This results in two additional repair-level
categories - NORMAL and EMERGENCY.
Normal Repairs
Generally, 2M repairs are performed at the level set forth in the

maintenance plan and specified by the appropriate SM&R coding
for each board or module. Therefore, normal repairs include all
repairs except organizational-level repair of D- and I-coded items
and intermediate-level repair of D-coded items.
Emergent/Emergency Repairs
In the NAVSEA 2M Electronic Repair Program,

emergent/emergency repairs are those arising unexpectedly. They
may require prompt repair action to restore a system or piece of
equipment to operating condition where normal repairs are not
authorized. These Code O repairs on boards or modules are
normally SM&R-coded for Code D repairs. Emergent/emergency
2M repairs may be performed only to meet an urgent operational
commitment as directed by the operational commander.
SOURCE, MAINTENANCE, AND RECOVERABILITY (SM&R)

CODES
The Allowance Parts List (APL) is a technical document prepared

by the Navy for specific equipment/system support. This document
lists the repair parts requirements for a ship having the exact
equipment/component. To determine the availability of repair parts,
the 2M technician must be familiar with these documents. SM&R
codes, found in APLs, determine where repair parts can be
obtained, who is authorized to make the repair, and at what
maintenance level the item may be recovered or condemned.
Q.5 What are the three levels of maintenance?

Q.6 Maintenance performed by the user activity is what
maintenance level?

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Miniature and microminature repair procedures
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MINIATURE AND MICROMINIATURE REPAIR PROCEDURES
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
Upon completion of this topic, the student will be able to:
Explain the purpose of conformal coatings and the methods used for
removal and replacement of these coatings.
Explain the methods and practices for the removal and replacement of
discrete components on printed circuit boards. Join Integrated
Identify types of damage to printed circuit boards, and describe the repair Publishing's
procedures for each type of repair. Discussion Group
Describe the removal and replacement of the dual-in-line integrated circuit.
Describe the removal and replacement of the TO-5 integrated circuit.
Describe the removal and replacement of the flat-pack integrated circuit.
Describe the types of damage to which many microelectronic components
are susceptible and methods of preventing damage.
Explain safety precautions as they relate to 2M repair.
INTRODUCTION Order this

information on CD-
As you progress in your training as a technician, you will find that the skill and knowledge levels required to maintain electronic systems become more Rom
demanding. The increased use of miniature and microminiature electronic circuits, circuit complexity, and new manufacturing techniques will make your job
more challenging. To maintain and repair equipment effectively, you will have to duplicate with limited facilities what was accomplished in the factory with
extensive facilities. Printed circuit boards that were manufactured completely by machine will have to be repaired by hand.
To meet the needs for repairing the full range of electronic equipment, you must be properly trained. You must be capable of performing high-quality,
reliable repairs to the latest circuitry. Order this
information in
MINIATURE AND MICROMINIATURE ELECTRONIC REPAIR PROCEDURES Print (Hardcopy).
As mentioned at the beginning of topic 2, 2M repair personnel must undergo specialized training. They are trained for a particular level of repair and must be
certified at that level. Also, recertification is required to ensure the continued high-quality repair ability of these technicians.
THIS SECTION IS NOT, IN ANY WAY, TO BE USED BY YOU AS AUTHORIZATION TO ATTEMPT THESE TYPES OF REPAIRS WITHOUT OFFICIAL
2M CERTIFICATION.
In the following sections, you will study the general procedures used in the repair, removal, and replacement of specific types of electronic components.By
studying these procedures, you will become familiar with some of the more common types of repair work. Before repair work can be performed on a
miniature or microminiature assembly, the technician must consider the type of specialized coating that usually covers the assembly. These coatings are
referred to as CONFORMAL COATINGS.
CONFORMAL COATINGS
Conformal coatings are protective material applied to electronic assemblies to prevent damage from corrosion, moisture, and stress.These coatings include
epoxy, parylene, silicone, polyurethane, varnish, and lacquer. Coatings are applied in a liquid form; when dry, they exhibit characteristics that improve
reliability. These characteristics are:
Heat conductivity to carry heat away from components

Hardness and strength to support and protect components
Low moisture absorption
Electrical insulation
Conformal Coating Removal
Because of the characteristics that conformal coatings exhibit, they must be removed before any work can be done on printed circuit boards. The coating
must be removed from all lead and pad/eyelet areas of the component. It should also be removed to or below the widest point of the component body.
Complete removal of the coating from the board is not done.
Methods of coating removal are thermal, mechanical, and chemical. The method of removal depends on the type of coating used. Table 3-1 shows
suggested methods of removal of some types. Note that most of the methods are variations of mechanical removal.
Table 3-1. - Conformal Coating Removal Techniques

The coating material can best be identified through proper documentation; for example, technical manuals and engineering drawings. If this information is
not available, the experienced technician can usually determine the type of material by testing the, hardness, transparency, thickness, and solvent solubility
of the coating. The thermal (heat) properties may also be tested to determine the ease of removal of the coating by heat. The methods of removal discussed
here describe the basic concept, but not the step-by-step "how to" procedures.
THERMAL REMOVAL. - Thermal removal consists of using controlled heat through specially shaped tips attached to a handpiece. Soldering irons should
never be used for coating removal because the high temperatures will cause the coatings to char, possibly damaging the board materials. Modified tips or
cutting blades heated by soldering irons also are not used; they may not have proper heat capacity or allow the hand control necessary for effective
removal. Also, the thin plating of the circuit may be damaged by scraping.
The thermal parting tool, used with the variable power supply, has interchangeable tips, as shown in figure 3-1, that allow for efficient coating removal.
These thin, blade-like instruments act as heat generators and will maintain the heat levels necessary to accomplish the work. Tips can be changed easily to
suit the configuration of the workpiece. These tips cool quickly after removal of power because their small thermal mass and special alloy material easily
give up residual heat.
Figure 3-1. - Thermal parting tips.

The softening or breakdown point of different coatings vary, which is a concern when you are using this method. Ideally, the softening, point is below the
solder melting temperature. However, when the softening point is equal to or above the solder melting point, you must take care in applying heat at the
solder joint or in component areas. The work must be performed rapidly to limit the heating of the area involved and to prevent damage to the board and
other components.
HOT-AIR JET REMOVAL. - In principle, the hot-air jet method of coating removal uses controlled, temperature-regulated air to soften or break down the
coating, as shown in figure 3-2. By controlling the temperature, flow rate, and shape of the jet, you may remove coatings from almost any workpiece
configuration without causing any damage. When you use the hot-air jet, you do not allow it to physically contact the workpiece surface. Delicate work
handled in this manner permits you to observe the removal process.
Figure 3-2. - Hot air jet conformal coating removal.
POWER-TOOL REMOVAL DESCRIPTION. - Power-tool removal is the use of abrasive grinding or cutting to mechanically remove coatings. Abrasive
grinding/rubbing techniques are effective on thin coatings (less than 0.025 inch) while abrasive cutting methods are effective on coatings greater than 0.025
inch. This method permits consistent and precise removal of coatings without mechanical damage or dangerous heating to electronic components. A
variable-speed mechanical drive handpiece permits fingertip-control and proper speed and torque to ease the handling of gum-type coatings. A variety of
rotary abrasive materials and cutting tools is required for removal of the various coating types. These specially designed tools include BALL MILLS, BURRS,
and ROTARY BRUSHES.
The ball mill design places the most efficient cutting area on the side of the ball rather than at the end. Different mill sizes are used to enter small areas
where thick coatings need to be removed (ROUTED). Rubberized abrasives of the proper grade and grit are ideally suited for removing thin, hard coatings
from flat surfaces; soft coatings adhere to and coat the abrasive causing it to become ineffective. Rotary bristle brushes work better than rubberized
abrasives on contoured or irregular surfaces, such as soldered connections, because the bristles conform to surface irregularities. Ball mill routing and
abrasion removal are shown in figure 3-3.
Figure 3-3. - Rotary tool conformal coating removal.

CUT AND PEEL. - Silicone coatings (also referred to as RTV) can easily be removed by cutting and peeling. As with all mechanical removal methods, care
must be taken to prevent damage to either components or boards.
CHEMICAL REMOVAL. - Chemical removal uses solvents to break down the coatings. General application is not recommended as the solvent may cause
damage to the boards by dissolving the adhesive materials that bond the circuits to the boards. These solvents may also dissolve the POTTING
COMPOUNDS (insulating material that completely seals a component or assembly) used on other parts or assemblies. Only thin acrylic coatings (less than
0.025 inch) are readily removable by solvents. Mild solvents, such as ISOPROPYL ALCOHOL, XYLENE, or TRICHLOROETHANE, may be used to remove
soluble coatings on a spot basis.
Evaluations show that many tool and technique combinations have proven to be reliable and effective in coating removal; no single method is the best in all
situations. When the technician is determining the best method of coating removal to use, the first consideration is the effect that it will have on the
equipment.
Conformal Coating Replacement
Once the required repairs have been completed the conformal coating must be replaced. To ensure the same protective characteristics, you should use the
same type of replacement coating as that removed.
Conformal coating application techniques vary widely. These techniques depend on material type, required thickness of application, and the effect of
environmental conditions on curing. These procedures cannot be effectively discussed here.
Q.1 What material is applied to electronic assemblies to prevent damage from corrosion, moisture, and stress?
Q.2 What three methods are used to remove protective material?

Q.3 What chemicals are used to remove protective material?
Q.4 Abrasion, cutting, and peeling are examples of what type of protective material removal?
Q.5 Why should the coating material be replaced once the required repair has been completed?
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Book 15
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Synchros
Synchro classification
Schematic Symbols
Synchro Characteristics
Operation of three electromagnets spaced 120 apart.
Synchro Torque Transmitter
Torque synchro system
Torque differential synchro systems
TX-TDX-TR system operation (subtraction).
TX-TDR-TX System Operation (Subtraction)
Join Integrated
Control Synchro system operation
Publishing's
Synchro capacitors Discussion Group
Multispeed syschro systems
Zeroing systems
Electrical lock method
Troubleshooting synchro systems
Summary
Answers
Order this
information on CD-
Servos
Rom
Functional servo loops

Velocity Servo Loop
Friction Clutch Damping
Servo components and circuits
Rate Generator (Tachometer)
Demodulators in the servo system Order this
Magnetic Amplifiers information in
Summary Print (Hardcopy).
Answers
Gyros
Basic Gyro Elements

Precession
Degrees of freedom
Establishing and Maintaining a Fixed Position
Rate Gyros
Accelerometers
Summary
Answers
Related Devices
Step-transmission systems
Resolvers
Summary
Answers

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Synchros
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SYNCHROS
LEARNING OBJECTIVES

questions placed throughout the chapters are based on the
objectives. By successfully completing the Nonresident
Join Integrated
Training Course (NRTC), you indicate that you have met the Publishing's
objectives and have learned the information. The learning Discussion Group
objectives for this chapter are listed below.
Define the term "synchro."

State the primary purpose of
a synchro.
Explain the importance of Order this
synchros in naval equipment. information on CD-
Name the two general Rom
classifications of synchros.
Explain the differences
between torque and control
synchros.
Name the seven functional
classes of synchros and list
Order this
all inputs and outputs.
information in
Name the two types of
Print (Hardcopy).
synchro identification codes.
Interpret all synchro markings
and identify the particular
codes used.
Draw the five standard
schematic symbols for
synchros and identify all
connections.
Describe the general
construction and physical
appearance of synchro rotors
and stators.
Name the two common types
of synchro rotors, giving an
application of each.
List the different synchro
characteristics and give a
brief explanation of each.
State the advantage of using
400-Hz synchros over 60-Hz
synchros.
basic synchro transmitter and
receiver.
a synchro transmitter and a
synchro receiver.
List the basic components
that compose a torque
synchro system.
simple synchro transmission
system.
Define the term
"correspondence" and explain
how it is used in a simple
synchro system.
Explain the principle behind
reversing the S1 and S3 leads
on a synchro receiver and
how this action affects
receiver operation.
Explain what happens when
the rotor leads on a synchro
transmitter or receiver are
reversed.
State the purposes of
differential synchros.
Name the two types of
differential synchros and give
a brief explanation of each.
Explain the difference
between the torque
differential transmitter and the
torque differential receiver.
Name the components that
make up the TDX and the
TDR synchro systems.
Explain how the two
differential synchro systems
add and subtract.
State the wiring changes
required to convert the
differential synchro systems
from subtraction to addition.
State the purposes and
functions of control synchros.
Name the different types of
control synchros.
Explain how the CX and CDX
differ from the TX and TDX.
Explain the theory and
operation of a control
transformer.
List the basic components
that compose a control
synchro system.
control synchro system and
how it is used to control a
servo system.
State the purpose and
function of the synchro
capacitor.
Explain how synchro
capacitors improve the
accuracy of synchro systems.
Explain the method used to
connect synchro capacitors in
a circuit.
Define single and multispeed
synchro systems.
State the purposes and
functions of multispeed
synchro systems.
Stale the purposes for zeroing
synchros.
Name three common synchro
zeroing methods and give a
brief explanation of each.
Explain the different
troubleshooting techniques
used in isolating synchro
malfunctions and
breakdowns.
SYNCHRO FUNDAMENTALS
Synchros play a very important role in the operation of Navy

equipment. Synchros are found in just about every weapon system,
communication system, underwater detection system, and
navigation system used in the Navy. The importance of synchros is
sometimes taken lightly because of their low failure rate. However,
the technician who understands the theory of operation and the
alignment procedures for synchros is well ahead of the problem
when a malfunction does occur. The term "synchro" is an
abbreviation of the word "synchronous." It is the name given to a
variety of rotary, electromechanical, position-sensing devices.
Figure 1-1 shows a phantom view of typical synchro. A synchro
resembles a small electrical motor in size and appearance and
operates like a variable transformer. The synchro, like the
transformer, uses the principle of electromagnetic induction.
Figure 1-1. - Phantom view of a synchro.
Synchros are used primarily for the rapid and accurate

transmission of information between equipment and stations.
Examples of such information are changes in course, speed, and
range of targets or missiles; angular displacement (position) of the
ship's rudder; and changes in the speed and depth of torpedoes.
This information must be transmitted quickly and accurately.
Synchros can provide this speed and accuracy. They are reliable,
adaptable, and compact. Figure 1-2 shows a simple synchro
system that can be used to transmit different as of data or
information In this system, a single synchro transmitter furnishes
information to two synchro receivers located in distant spaces.
Operators put information into the system by turning the
handwheel. As the handwheel turns, its attached gear rotates the
transmitter shaft (which has a dial attached to indicate the value of
the transmitted information). As the synchro transmitter shaft turns,
it converts the mechanical input into an electrical signal, which is
sent through interconnecting wiring to the two synchro receivers.
The receiver shafts rotate in response to the electrical signal from
the transmitter. When these shafts turn, the dials attached to the
shafts indicate the transmitted information.
Figure 1-2. - Data transfer with synchros.
By studying the simple synchro system, you can see that

information can be transmitted over long distances, from space to
space, and from equipment to equipment.
In addition to supplying data by positioning dials and pointers,

synchros are also used as control devices in servo systems. When
the synchro and the servo are combined, they work as a team to
move and position heavy loads.
The methods used to accomplish this are covered in detail in the

next chapter.
Q.1 What is the name given to a variety of rotary
electromechanical, position sensing devices?
Q.2 What is the primary purpose of a synchro system?

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Servos
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SERVOS
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
Define the term "servo system"

and the terms associated with
servo systems, including open-
loop and closed-loop control Join Integrated
systems. Publishing's
Identify from schematics and block Discussion Group
diagrams the various servo
circuits; give short explanations of
the components and their
characteristics; and of each circuit
and its characteristics.
Trace the flow of data through the
components of typical servo
systems from input(s) to outputs(s) Order this
(cause to effect). information on CD-
Rom
SERVOS
Servo mechanisms, also called SERVO SYSTEMS or SERVOS for short,

have countless applications in the operation of electrical and electronic
equipment. In working with radar and antennas, directors, computing
devices, ship's communications, aircraft control, and many other
equipments, it is often necessary to operate a mechanical load that is
remote from its source of control. To obtain smooth, continuous, and Order this
accurate operation, these loads are normally best controlled by synchros. As information in
you already know, the big problem here is that synchros are not powerful Print (Hardcopy).
enough to do any great amount of work. This is where servos come into use.
A servo system uses a weak control signal to move large loads to a desired
position with great accuracy. The key words in this definition are move and
great accuracy. Servos may be found in such varied applications as moving
the rudder and elevators of a model airplane in radio-controlled flight, to
controlling the diving planes and rudders of nuclear submarines.
Servos are powerful. They can move heavy loads and be remotely controlled
with great precision by synchro devices.
They take many forms. Servo systems are either electromechanical,

electrohydraulic, hydraulic, or pneumatic.
Whatever the form, a relatively weak signal that represents a desired

movement of the load is generated, controlled, amplified, and fed to a servo
motor that does the work of moving the heavy load.
Q.1 What is a servo?
CATEGORIES OF CONTROL SYSTEMS
A control system is a group of components that are linked together to

perform a specific purpose. Generally, a control system has a large power
gain between input and output. The components used in the system and the
complexity of the system are directly related to the requirements of the
system's application.
Control systems are broadly classified as either CLOSED-LOOP or OPEN-

LOOP.
Closed-loop control systems are the type most commonly used in the Navy
because they respond and move the loads they are controlling quicker and
with greater accuracy than open-loop systems.
The reason for quicker response and greater accuracy is that an automatic
feedback system informs the input that the desired movement has taken
place. Upon receipt of this feedback information, the system stops the motor,
and motion of the load ceases until another movement is ordered by the
input. This is similar to the system that controls heat in many homes. The
thermostat (input) calls for heat. The furnace (output) produces heat and
distributes it. Some of the heat is "fed back" to the thermostat. When this
"feedback" raises the temperature of the room to that of the thermostat
setting, the thermostat responds by shutting the system down until heat is
again required. In such a system, the feedback path, input to output and
back to input, forms what is called a "closed loop." This is a term you will
hear and use often in discussions of control systems. Because closed-loop
control systems are automatic in nature, they are further classified by the
function they serve (e.g., controlling the position, the velocity, or the
acceleration of the load being driven).
An open-loop control system is controlled directly, and only, by an input

signal, without the benefit of feedback. The basic units of this system are an
amplifier and a motor. The amplifier receives a low-level input signal and
amplifies it enough to drive the motor to perform the desired job. Open-loop
control systems are not as commonly used as closed-loop control systems
because they are less accurate.
OPEN-LOOP CONTROL SYSTEM
As we stated previously, an open-loop control system is controlled directly,

and only, by an input signal. The basic units of this type consist only of an
amplifier and a motor. The amplifier receives a low-level input signal and
amplifies it enough to drive the motor to perform the desired job.
The open-loop control system is shown in basic block diagram form in figure
2-1. With this system, the input is a signal that is fed to the amplifier. The
output of the amplifier is proportional to the amplitude of the input signal. The
phase (ac system) and polarity (dc system) of the input signal determines
the direction that the motor shaft will turn. After amplification, the input signal
is fed to the motor, which moves the output shaft (load) in the direction that
corresponds with the input signal. The motor will not stop driving the output
shaft until the input signal is reduced to zero or removed. This system
usually requires an operator who controls speed and direction of movement
of the output by varying the input. The operator could be controlling the input
by either a mechanical or an electrical linkage.
Figure 2-1. - Open-loop control system basic block diagram.

THE CLOSED-LOOP CONTROL SYSTEM
A closed-loop control system is another name for a servo system. To be

classified as a servo, a control system must be capable of the following:
Accepting an order that defines

the desired result
Determining the present conditions
by some method of feedback
Comparing the desired result with
the present conditions and
obtaining a difference or an error
signal
Issuing a correcting order (the
error signal) that will properly
change the existing conditions to
the desired result
Obeying the correcting order
We have discussed the open- and closed-loop control systems and defined
a servo system as a closed-loop control system. Although not technically
accurate by definition, open-loop control systems are also often referred to in
the Navy and many publications as servo systems even though they lack
one of the five basic requirements, that of feedback.
Q.2 In an open-loop control system, what action reduces the input to zero so
the load is stopped at the desired position?

Q.3 What basic requirement of a closed-loop system (not present in open-
loops) enables present load position to be sensed?
OPERATION OF A BASIC SERVO SYSTEM
For the following discussion of a servo system, refer to figure 2-2, view (A),
view (B), view (C) and view (D).This closed-loop servo system is the most
common type in the Navy today. It is normally made up of electromechanical
parts and consists basically of a synchro-control system, servo amplifier,
servo motor, and some form of feedback (response).
Figure 2-2A. - A basic servo system (closed-loop).
Figure 2-2B. - A basic servo system (closed-loop).
Figure 2-2C. - A basic servo system (closed-loop).
Figure 2-2D. - A basic servo system (closed-loop).

The synchro-control system provides a means of controlling the movement
of the load, which may be located in a remote space. The servo amplifier
and servo motor are the parts of the system in which power is actually
developed (to move the load).
As you remember, the controlling signal from a CT is relatively weak, too

weak to drive an electric motor directly. In views A through D of figure 2-2,
assume that the control signal will be initiated by a handcrank input
connected to the synchro transmitter (CX). The dials located on the CX and
the CT indicate the positions of the synchro's rotors, while the dial on the
load indicates the position of the load.
In view A, the dials of both the CX and the load indicate that the load is in
the desired position. Because the load is where it should be, there will be no
error signal present at the servo amplifier and no power to the servo motor.
In view B, the rotor of the CX has been moved by the handcrank to 90.
(This indicates that it is ordered to move the load by 90.) Notice that the
rotor of the CT is still at 0. The CT now develops a signal, called the
ERROR SIGNAL, which is proportional in amplitude to the amount the CT
rotor is out of correspondence with the CX rotor. The phase of the error
signal indicates the direction the CT rotor must move to reduce the error
signal to zero or to "null out." The error signal is sent to the servo amplifier.
In view C, the error signal has been amplified by the servo amplifier and sent
on to the servo motor. The motor starts to drive in the direction that will
reduce the error signal and bring the CT rotor back to the point of
correspondence. In this case the motor is turning clockwise.
The mechanical linkage attached to the servo motor also moves the rotor of
the CT. This feedback causes the amplitude of the error signal to decrease,
slowing the speed at which the load is moving.
In view D, the servo motor has driven both the load and the rotor of the CT,
so that the CT is now in correspondence with the CX rotor. As a result, the
error signal is reduced to zero (nulled). The load stops at its new position.
Note that in this servo system, we moved a heavy load to a predetermined
position through the simple turning of a handcrank. In responding to the
handcrank, the servo system performed a basic positioning function .
Two key points for you to remember, thus far, about the operation of the
closed-loop servo system are:
The original error (movement of the CX rotor) was "detected" by the CT. For
this reason the CT is called an ERROR DETECTOR. The servo motor, in
addition to moving the load, also provides mechanical feedback to the CT to
reduce the error signal. For this reason the servo motor is also called an
ERROR REDUCER.
Q.4 An error signal is the difference between what two quantities fed to the
CT (error detector)?
Q.5 What are the two functions of the servo motor in the system shown in
figure 2-2?
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Gyros
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GYROS
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
Upon completion of this chapter you should be able to:
Describe the characteristics of a

gyroscopes.
List the two basic properties of
gyroscopes and explain them.
Describe the components of a Join Integrated
universally mounted gyro. Publishing's
Describe the factors that determine Discussion Group
rigidity in a gyro.
List the factors that determine the
direction of precession in a gyro.
Explain the right-hand rule for gyro
precession.
Describe the term "Degree of
Freedom" as it applies to gyros.
Explain the effect of apparent
precession (apparent rotation). Order this
Explain the purposes of erection
information on CD-
systems.
Describe the use of gyros with only Rom
one degree of freedom.
Explain the purpose of an
accelerometer.
Explain the principle on which
accelerometers operate.
Explain the need for a pulse-
counting accelerometer. Order this
information in
GYROS
Print (Hardcopy).
The word gyroscope was first coined by a French scientist,

Leon Foucault, in 1852. It is derived from the Greek words
"gyro," meaning revolution, and "skopien," meaning to
view.
The gyroscope, commonly called a GYRO, has existed since

the first electron was sent spinning on its axis.
Electrons spin and show all the characteristics of a gyro;
so does the Earth, which spins about its polar axis at
over 1000 miles per hour at the Equator. The Earth's
rotation about its axis provides the stabilizing effect
that keeps the North Pole pointed within one degree of
Polaris (the North Star).
Any rapidly spinning object - a top, a wheel, an airplane

propeller, or a spinning projectile - is fundamentally a
gyroscope. Strictly speaking, however, a gyroscope is a
mechanical device containing a spinning mass that is
universally mounted; that is, mounted so it can assume any
position in space. Figure 3-1 shows a model of a gyro. As
you can see, a heavy wheel (rotor) is mounted so that its
spin axis is free to turn in any direction. The wheel
spins about axis X; it can turn about axis Y, and it can
turn about axis Z. With this mechanical arrangement, the
spinning wheel can assume any position in space.
Figure 3-1. - Gyro model, universally mounted.

BASIC PROPERTIES OF GYROSCOPES
Gyroscopes have two basic properties: rigidity and

precession. Those properties are defined as follows:
RIGIDITY - The axis of rotation (spin axis) of the gyro

wheel tends to remain in a fixed direction in space if no
force is applied to it.
PRECESSION - The axis of rotation has a tendency to turn

at a right angle to the direction of an applied force.
The idea of maintaining a fixed direction in space is

simple to illustrate. When any object is spinning rapidly,
it tends to keep its axis pointed always in the same
direction. A toy top is a good example. As long as the top
is spinning fast, it stays balanced on its point. Because
of this gyro action, the spinning top resists the tendency
of gravity to change the direction of its axis. You can
think of many more examples. A bicycle is easier to
balance at high speed than when it is barely moving. At
high speed, the bicycle wheels act as gyros, and tend to
keep their axes (axles) parallel to the ground.
Note that it is easy to move the gyro as long as you keep

the axis POINTING in the SAME DIRECTION. The gyro resists
only those forces that tend to change the direction of its
axis. In a bicycle, since the axis of rotation (the
wheel's axles) is horizontal, the wheels win resist any
force that tends to tilt or turn them to the right or
left.
If you can obtain a gyroscope top, you can do some

instructive experiments with it. Hold the gyro top with
its axis vertical as shown in figure 3-2 and start it
spinning. As long as it is spinning fast, it will stay
balanced. You can balance it on a string or on the point
of your finger; the axis will stay vertical as long as the
top is spinning fast. As we mentioned before, this ability
of a gyro to keep its axis fixed in space is called
RIGIDITY.
Figure 3-2. - A gyroscope top.
PRECESSION
Now, if you stop the gyro top and turn its axis
horizontal, and then start it spinning again, balancing
one end on a pivot, (fig. 3-3), it won't fall. The top's
axis will stay horizontal, resisting the tendency of
gravity to change its direction Although the gyro will
RESIST the force that gravity applies to it, the gyro will
still RESPOND to that force. The gyro responds by moving
its axis at a RIGHT ANGLE to the APPLIED FORCE.
Figure 3-3. - Gyro top with axis horizontal.
The axis will tilt in a direction 90 away from the

applied force. This is called PRECESSION.
Figure 3-4 is another view of the same gyroscope. Its far

end is still balanced on the pivot. Gravity is pulling
down on the gyro. If the gyro rotor is turning in the
direction shown by the arrow, the near end of the frame
(axis) will move to the left. If the rotor were turning in
the opposite direction, the frame would move to the right.
Note that in each of these examples the direction of
movement was displaced from the applied force (gravity) by
90. The axis stays horizontal, but the gyroscope responds
to the force of gravity by rotating around the pivot.
Figure 3-4. - Gyro precession.

Gyro action may be summarized as follows: A spinning gyro
tends to keep its axis pointing in the same direction.
This is called RIGIDITY. If you apply a force that tends
to change the direction of the spin axis, the axis will
move at a right angle to the direction of the applied
force. The direction of precession will be 90 clockwise
from the applied force if the rotor is spinning clockwise
(when viewed from the "free" end of the rotor's axis); if
the rotor is spinning counterclockwise, the precession
will be 90 counterclockwise. If the axis is horizontal,
and you try to tilt it, the axis will turn. If the axis is
horizontal, and you try to turn it, the axis will tilt.
This second characteristic of a gyro is called PRECESSION.
Because of precession, we can control the direction that

the spin axis points. This enables us to aim the spin axis
where we want it to point. Without precession, the
rigidity of the gyro would be useless.
Q.1 Can any rapidly spinning object be considered a
gyroscope?
Q.2 In the drawing in figure 3-1, which axis is the gyro
spin axis?
Q.3 What gyro property causes the gyro to remain in a
fixed position?
Q.4 What type(s) of force does a gyro resist?
Q.5 In what direction will a gyro precess in response to
an outside force?
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Related Devices
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RELATED DEVICES
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
Upon completion of this chapter, you should be able to:
Compare standard synchro system

connections with IC synchro
connections.
Describe the operation of
a step transmitter and Join Integrated
receiver, and list the Publishing's
advantages and Discussion Group
disadvantages of a step-
transmission system.
Compare the construction
and operation of a
resolver to those of a
transformer, describe the
solution of resolution and
composition problems by a
resolver.
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information on CD-
RELATED DEVICES
Rom
Some other devices that logically should be included in

this module are the IC synchros, step motors, and
resolvers. These are all electromagnetic devices used in
various shipboard and aircraft applications. They can be
considered as second cousins of the synchro.
IC SYNCHROS Order this

information in
The engine order telegraph, steering telegraph, rudder- Print (Hardcopy).
angle indicator, and similar position-indicating systems
used on naval ships are usually simple synchro systems.
Some ships, however, use IC synchros to transfer such
information. These units operate on the same general
principle as the synchros we discussed in chapter 1.
The interior communication synchro (IC synchro) is

gradually being phased out and replaced by standard
synchros when replacement is required. However, you will
still find some IC synchros in use today. For that reason,
you will find some background information on their purpose
and theory to be beneficial. We will present these synchros
in very basic form in the following paragraphs.
Because of their construction, IC synchros are sometimes

called reversed synchros. The primary winding, consisting
of two series-connected coils, is mounted physically on the
stator. The secondary, consisting of three Y-connected
coils, is mounted physically on the rotor. This is shown
schematically in figure 4-1.
Figure 4-1. - IC synchro schematic diagrams.

IC synchros operate on the same principles of interacting
magnetic fields as other synchros, but differ in direction
of shaft rotation and amount of torque obtainable. When an
IC transmitter and IC receiver are connected in parallel as
shown in view A of figure 4-2, the shaft of the IC receiver
follows the rotation of the IC transmitter shaft. In view
B, the IC transmitter is replaced by a synchro transmitter;
the IC receiver shaft now turns in a direction opposite to
that of the synchro transmitter. Voltages that cause
counterclockwise rotation of a standard synchro shaft cause
clockwise rotation of an IC synchro shaft. When it is
desirable to have the IC synchro receiver turn in an
opposite direction from that of the transmitter, the
connections are as shown in view C. For a standard synchro
receiver to follow the rotation of an IC transmitter, their
connections must be made as shown in view D.
Figure 4-2A. - IC versus standard synchro connections.

Figure 4-2B. - IC versus standard synchro connections.
Figure 4-2C. - IC versus standard synchro connections.
Figure 4-2D. - IC versus standard synchro connections.

The torque obtainable from either an IC synchro or a
standard synchro is determined by the magnetizing power,
which is limited by the allowable temperature rise. When
the stator is energized, as in IC synchros, the magnetizing
power can be increased with a resulting larger torque. The
reason for this is that the losses are dissipated in the
form of heat around the outer shell of the IC transmitter
or receiver. In standard synchros, this heat loss is
dissipated through the rotor, the air gap, and then the
outer shell to the surrounding air.
The electrical zero position for an IC synchro is the

position where rotor coil R2 is aligned with the stator as
shown in figure 4-1. To zero an IC synchro, apply the same
general theory as we described for other synchros.
For further information on IC synchro replacement,

alignment, and theory, refer to Military Handbook,
Synchros, Description and Operation, (MIL-HDBK-225A).
Q.1 What two characteristics of IC synchros cause them to
differ from standard synchros?

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Book 16
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Test equipment administration and use
Special Calibration Labels

Measure TMDF Inventory report form.
General test equipment information
Working on de-energized circuits
Resistance measurements
Inductance bridge.
Summary
Answers
Join Integrated
Publishing's
Discussion Group
Bolometer
Frequency measurements
Strobotac
Absorption Wavemeter
Use of the oscilloscope
Testing Diodes with an Ohmmeter
Voltage Checks Order this
information on CD-
Summary
Rom
Answers
Basic meters
DC Ammeter
Ammeter Connections Order this
Proper ammeter connection. information in
Extending Voltmeter Ranges Print (Hardcopy).
Voltmeter Sensitivity
The megohmmeter
Meter Accuracy
Continuity tests
Summary
Answers
Common test equipment
Measuring dc Voltages
Measuring ac Voltages
Overload Protection
Meter design characteristics
ICO Measurements
Summary
Answers
Special-application test equipment
Signal Generators
Controls and Indicators
Period Measurement
Huntron tracker 2000
Range Selection
Control Logic
CRT Display
Min/Max Capacitance Values
Summary
Answers
THE OSCILLOSCOPE AND SPECTRUM ANALYZER
Differences of potential.
Vertical deflection plates
CRT Designation
Trace Rotation control
Attenuator Control
Components used to provide a stable display
Turning on the scope
Components Used to Select Vertical-Deflection
Operating Mode
Accessories
IF Section
Normal indications upon power on
Summary
Answers
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Test equipment administration and use
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TEST EQUIPMENT ADMINISTRATION AND USE
LEARNING OBJECTIVES

questions included are based on the objectives. By successfully
completing the NRTC, you indicate that you have met the
objectives and have learned the information. Join Integrated
Publishing's
Upon completing this chapter, you should be able to: Discussion Group
Describe the Ship

Configuration and Logistic
Support Information System
(SCLSIS).
State the differences
between calibration and
repair.
Explain the various Order this
calibration status labels information on CD-
used by the Navy.
Rom
List the procedures for
obtaining repairs to test
equipment.
Describe the Metrology
Automated System for
Uniform Recall and
Reporting
(MEASURE) System and the
purpose of the Metrology
Order this
Equipment Recall and
Reporting information in
(METER) card and recall Print (Hardcopy).
schedule.
Describe major test
equipment References
available to you.
Explain the purposes and
benefits of testing.
State the safety
precautions involved in
working with test
equipment.
List three precautions you
should observe to avoid
damaging electric
measuring instruments.
State the correct procedures for
using a safety shorting probe.
Describe resistance,
voltage, and current
measurements in terms of
purposes, methods, and
instruments used.
Describe how capacitance and
inductance are measured.
bridges in the measurement
of unknown resistances,
capacitances, and
inductances.
One purpose of this chapter is to acquaint you with the

practical use of test equipment. The presence of adequate
test equipment in your shop is not in itself a "cure-all"
for making repairs to complex electronic equipment. You
must know how to best use the equipment available. First,
however, you must understand the basis of electronic
theory and be able to apply it to the system under repair.
Another purpose of this chapter is to introduce you to

calibration and repair procedures, and basic voltage and
current measurements. You will also learn how ac bridges
are used for precise measurements of resistance,
capacitance, and inductance.
Much of the theory of operation and practical applications

of the basic types of test instruments used in electrical
and electronic circuits are found in the instruction books
and technical manuals that accompany various equipments.
You should read and understand these books before you
attempt to use any test instrument. You should also know
the established safety precautions to ensure your safety
and safe equipment operating procedures to protect
equipment from damage.
TEST EQUIPMENT IDENTIFICATION
One of the first things you must learn as a maintenance

technician is how to identify the various electronic
equipment and components by their appropriate
nomenclatures. You will find that several methods are used
to identify test equipment used; this may be somewhat
confusing to you at first. For example, a Tektronix Model
541A oscilloscope can also be identified as a CBTV-541A.
The Joint Electronics Type Designation System (JETDS) is
used by all branches of the military to identify equipment
by a system of standardized nomenclatures.
Q.1 What system is currently used by all branches of the
military to identify test equipment?
ELECTRONIC TEST EQUIPMENT CLASSIFICATION
The Electronic Test Equipment Classification Board was

established in 1973 to control the increased use of
undesirable electronic test equipment (ETE) in fleet and
shore activities. The board classifies electronic test
equipments as GENERAL PURPOSE (GPETE) or SPECIAL PURPOSE
(SPETE) and assigns responsibility for their management.
Items classified as general purpose are managed by the
Space and Warfare Systems Command (SPAWARSYSCOM). Items
classified as special purpose are managed by the
individual systems command that generates the requirement.
GPETE is test equipment that has the capability, without

modification, to generate, modify, or measure a range of
parameters of electronic functions required to test two or
more equipments or systems of basically different design.
Special-purpose electronic test equipment (SPETE) is

specifically designed to generate, modify, or measure a
range of parameters of electronic functions of a specific
or peculiar nature required to test a single system or
equipment. These special test equipments are procured by
the systems command that has the responsibility for the
system/equipment requiring the SPETE for maintenance.
Q.2 Name the two classes of test equipment.

Q.3 What test equipment is designed to generate, modify,
or measure a range of parameters of electronic functions
of a specific nature required to test a single system or
equipment?
Until the ETE classification board was established, the

uncontrolled increase in use of nonstandard GPETE had
resulted in loss of inventory control and increased
support costs. NESEA has the responsibility for evaluating
requests to purchase nonstandard GPETE and for
recommending its approval or disapproval to NAVSEA. NAVSEA
will then forward its final decision to the originating
command for such requests.
SHIP CONFIGURATION AND LOGISTIC INFORMATION SYSTEM

(SCLSIS) PROGRAM
The Navy must maintain, update, and calibrate thousands of

pieces of equipment. To do this, the SHIP CONFIGURATION
AND LOGISTIC SUPPORT INFORMATION SYSTEM (SCLSIS) program
was designed to keep track of all installed and portable
equipment in the fleet. SCLSIS is used to keep up with the
existence, location, and changes made to equipment. The
SCLSIS program seeks to improve the quality of equipment
reporting, provide information needed by other Navy
management systems, and reduce record keeping. It is also
designed to assist Navy supply systems that furnish
spares, documentation, and training necessary to support
installed and portable equipment.
Therefore, the inventory of assigned test equipment on

board ship is directly related to SCLSIS records. Properly
maintained SCLSIS records also show the complete inventory
of test equipment on board by quantity, serial number, and
location. The SCLSIS program has two basic elements: (1)
VALIDATION, to establish a baseline data inventory, and
(2) INVENTORY UPDATING, to correct errors or omissions and
to document configuration changes.
Q.4 Name the two basic elements of the SCLSIS program.
CALIBRATION AND REPAIR PROCEDURES
The difference between the terms calibration and repair

needs to be addressed before we proceed further.
Calibration is little more than checking, adjusting, or
systematically aligning a test instrument to a known
standard. To do this, you must ensure that the equipment
you send to the calibration lab is in working order.
The calibration lab is where actual repair work becomes

important. Obvious problems, such as open power cords,
burned components, broken meters, and missing hardware,
should be repaired or replaced before sending equipment to
the calibration lab. Most calibration labs with which you
will deal will be part of an intermediate maintenance
activity (IMA) on board a tender.
CALIBRATION STATUS
You can determine the calibration status of any test

equipment by checking the calibration label or tag located
on the equipment. These calibration labels or tags advise
you as to whether the item is usable and within its
calibration interval. Tags and labels to be used in the
METROLOGY CALIBRATION (METCAL) coordination program are
listed in the following paragraphs. No other calibration
labels or tags are authorized to be placed on test
equipment.
Calibrated Label
The CALIBRATED label , shown in view A of figure 1-1, has

black lettering and a white background and comes in two
sizes. It is the most commonly used label in the METCAL
program. This label indicates that the instrument to which
it is attached is within its applicable tolerance on all
parameters. If there are any qualifying conditions for use
of the instrument, one of the other labels described in
the next paragraphs should be used.
Figure 1-1. - Calibration labels and tags.

Calibrated - Refer to Report Label
The CALIBRATED - REFER TO REPORT label, shown in view B of
figure 1-1, has red lettering and a white background. It
comes in two sizes and is used when you must know the
actual measurement values to use the instrument.
Q.5 What calibration label is used when actual measurement
values must be known to use the test equipment?
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MISCELLANEOUS MEASUREMENTS
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
Define and explain the use of

the terms "dB" and "dBm" as
they apply to power
measurements. Join Integrated
Describe the use of resistive Publishing's
loads, bolometers, and Discussion Group
thermocouples in power
measurements.
Explain the measurement of
mechanical rotation using the
tachometer, stroboscope, and
the strobotac.
Order this
information on CD-
Rom
Explain the measurement of
frequency in various ranges
using vibrating reeds, tuned
circuits, heterodyne frequency
meters, absorption
Order this
wavemeters, cavity
information in
wavemeters, and frequency
Print (Hardcopy).
counters.
Describe the use of frequency-
measurement devices,
oscilloscopes, and spectrum
analyzers in waveform
analysis and maintenance.
Describe semiconductor testing
and applicable terms in
maintenance.
In chapter 1, you studied test equipment administration and the

basic measurements that all technicians are responsible for
performing. Topic 2 presents miscellaneous measurements that
are fairly common; keep in mind, however, that you may not
routinely perform these measurements in your particular job. This
chapter introduces you to several test instruments and components
found in those test instruments. It will also serve as a review of
some of the basics of electronic theory related to test equipment.
POWER MEASUREMENTS
You may be required to check the power consumption and the

input-signal power levels of electronic equipment. The
determination of dc power is fairly simple; recall that the unit of
power, the watt, is the product of the potential in volts and the
current in amperes (P = E X I).
As discussed in NEETS, Module 2, Introduction to Alternating

Current and Transformers, the phase angle of the voltage and
current must be considered for accurate ac power measurements.
The measurement of ac power is further complicated by the
frequency limitations of various power meters. If there is no phase
angle difference, you can compute ac power in the same manner
as dc power; that is, by determining the effective value of the
product of the voltage and current.
For equipments that operate in the audio-frequency (af) range,
power levels have to be determined in the performance of routine
checks and during corrective maintenance procedures.
Power measurements for af circuits are usually indicated in terms

of decibels (dB) or decibels referenced to 1 milliwatt (dBm).
Because the actual calculation of decibel measurements is seldom
required, the following explanation is somewhat simplified. Most
test equipment is designed to measure and indicate decibels
directly. This eliminates the need for you to perform complicated
calculations. Nevertheless, a basic explanation of the decibel
measurement system is necessary for you to understand the
significance of dB readings and amplifier-gain ratings that are
expressed in decibels.
THE DECIBEL SYSTEM
The basic unit of measurement in the system is not the decibel; it is

the bel. The bel is a unit that expresses the logarithmic ratio
between the input and the output of any given component, circuit,
or system. It may be expressed in terms of voltage, current, or
power. Most often, it is used to show the ratio between input and
output power to figure gain. You can express the power gain of the
amplifier (N) in bels by dividing the output (P1) by the input (P2) and
taking the base 10 logarithm of the resulting quotient. The formula
for determining this gain is:
If an amplifier doubles the input power, the quotient of P1to P2 will

be 2. If you consult a logarithm table, you will find that the base 10
logarithm of 2 is 0.3, making the power gain of the amplifier 0.3 bel.
Q.1 What is the logarithmic ratio between the input and output of a
given circuit called?

Experience has shown that because the bel is a rather large unit, it
is difficult to apply. A more practical unit, and one that can be used
more easily, is the decibel (1/10 bel). You can convert any figure
expressed in bels to decibels by multiplying that figure by 10 or
simply by moving the decimal point one place to the right. Applying
this rule, we find that the above ratio of 0.3 bel is equal to 3
decibels.
The decibel (dB) cannot be used to represent actual power; only

the ratio of one power compared to another. To say that an
amplifier has a 3 dB gain means that the output power is twice the
input power. This gives no indication of the actual power
represented. You must be able to state the input power for it to be
meaningful. In many applications, a mathematical expression
represents the actual power, not a power ratio. One standard
reference is the dBm.
The dBm is an abbreviation used to represent power levels above

or below 1 milliwatt. Negative dBm (-dBm) represents power levels
below 1 milliwatt, and positive dBm (+dBm) represents power
levels above 1 milliwatt. In other words, a dBm value is a specific
amount of power; 0 dBm is equal to 1 milliwatt. Briefly stated, the
amount of power in a given value of dBm is the power which results
if 1 milliwatt is amplified or attenuated by that dB value. For
example, 40 dBm represents an actual power level (watts or
milliwatts) that is 40 dB above 1 milliwatt, whereas -10 dBm
represents a power level that is 10 dB below 1 milliwatt. The
formula for finding dBm is a variation of the dB power formula:
Q.2 What term is used to represent power levels above or below a
1-milliwatt reference?
You do not need to use the formula in most applications. The

following shows conversions of dBm to mW:
+20dBm=100mW
+10dBm=10mW
+7dBm=5mW
+6dBm = 4mW
+4dBm=2.5mW
+3dBm=2mW
0dBm=1mW
-3dBm=.5mW
-10dBm=.1mW
For a +10 dBm level, start with the 1 milliwatt reference and move
the decimal point one place to the right (+10 dBm = 10 mW).
Another 10 dB increment brings the power level to +20 dBm,
thereby moving the decimal point another place to the right (+20
dBm = 100 mW). For a -10 dBm level, again start with 1 milliwatt,
but this time move the decimal point one place to the left (-10 dBm
= .1 mW). An additional 10 dB decrease results in another decimal
point shift to the left (-20 dBm = .01 mW).
For a 3 dB increase, you double the power. For a 3 dB decrease,

you reduce the power by one-half (+3 dBm = 2 mW and -3 dBm =
.5 mW). A +6 dBm level is an additional 3 dB change from +3 dBm.
In this case, you just double the power level of the +3 dBm (+6
dBm = 4 mW).
Q.3 What milliwatt value is equal to +6 dBm?
The dB change can be made in either direction. For example, +7

dBm is a decrease from +10 dBm. Reducing the +10 dBm power
by one-half, we have +7 dBm, or 5 mW. A +4 dBm power level is a
3 dB decrease from +7 dBm (+4 dBm - 2.5 mW). By using this
simple method, you can quickly find any power level that
corresponds to a given dBm.
Some test instruments you will be using are calibrated in decibels

and have a 1 milliwatt zero reference level. Figure 2-1 illustrates
such an instrument. Notice that this is an ac voltmeter in which the
upper scale of the meter indicates ac voltage and the lower scale
indicates decibels. The zero power-level indicator on the decibel
scale is located at, or near, center scale. If the power in the line
being measured is more than the reference value, the meter will
indicate a value to the right of the zero mark (+dB). If the power is
less than the reference value, the meter will indicate a value to the
left of the zero mark (-dB). Such meters are useful when recording
measurements where a direct indication in decibels is desired.
However, you must remember that this meter is still a voltmeter
and that power measurements are not meaningful unless the circuit
impedance is known. If you feel the need to review how to calculate
power in ac circuits, refer to NEETS, Module 2.
Figure 2-1. - Ac voltmeter.
MEASUREMENT METHODS
At radio frequencies below the UHF range, power is usually

determined by voltage, current, and impedance measurements.
One common method used to determine the output power of radio-
frequency (rf) oscillators and radio transmitters consists of
connecting a known resistance to the equipment output terminals.
Current flowing through this resistance is then measured and the
power is calculated as the product of I2R.
Because power is proportional to the current squared, the meter

scale can be calibrated to indicate power units directly. A
THERMOCOUPLE AMMETER can be used in this manner for
measuring rf power. The resistor used to replace the normal load is
specially designed to have low reactance and the ability to
dissipate the required amount of power. Such resistors are
commonly called
DUMMY LOADS or DUMMY ANTENNAS.
Q.4 What name is given to a resistor used to replace the normal
load in a circuit?
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BASIC METERS
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
Describe the basic theory of the

galvanometer.
Describe the basic theory of the
D'Arsonval meter movement.
State the proper procedure for connecting Join Integrated
an ammeter to a circuit. Publishing's
Define ammeter sensitivity. Discussion Group
State the proper procedure for connecting
a voltmeter to a circuit.
Describe possible effects on a
circuit caused by the
connection of a voltmeter.
Define voltmeter sensitivity.
Describe the internal operation
of an ohmmeter with the use of
a block diagram.
Order this
Describe the operating procedure for
information on CD-
using a megohmmeter.
Describe the use of the Rom
electrodynamometer-type meter
as a voltmeter, ammeter, and
wattmeter.
Describe the factors that limit wattmeter
capability.
Describe an open circuit, a
ground, a short, and the tests
used to check for these
conditions.
When troubleshooting, testing, or repairing electronic equipment, Order this

you will use various meters and other types of test equipment to information in
check for proper circuit voltages, currents, resistances, and to
Print (Hardcopy).
determine if the wiring is defective. You may be able to connect
these test instruments to a circuit and take readings without
knowing just how the instruments operate. However, to be a competent
technician, you need to be able to do more than merely read a test
instrument. You need a basic knowledge of how test instruments
operate. This chapter discusses the operating principles of some of
the test instruments you will use in equipment troubleshooting.
METERS
The best and most expensive measuring instrument is of no use to you

unless you know what you are measuring and what each reading
indicates. Remember that the purpose of a meter is to measure
quantities existing within a circuit. For this reason, when the
meter is connected to the circuit, it must not change the condition
of the circuit.
METER POWER SOURCE
Meters are either SELF-EXCITED or EXTERNALLY EXCITED. Self-excited

meters operate from their own power sources. Externally excited
meters get their power from the circuit to which they are connected.
Most common meters (voltmeters, ammeters, and ohmmeters) that you
use in your work operate on the electromagnetic principle. All
measuring instruments must have some form of indicating device,
usually a meter, to be of any use to you. The most basic indicating
device used in instruments that measure current and voltage operates
by using the interaction between the magnetic fields associated with
current flow in the circuit. Before continuing, you might want to
review the properties of magnetism and electromagnetism in NEETS,
Module 1, Introduction to Matter, Energy, and Direct Current.
Q.1 What meters operate from their own power sources?
BASIC METER MOVEMENT
A stationary, permanent-magnet, moving-coil meter is the basic meter

movement used in most measuring instruments used for servicing
electrical equipment. When current flows through the coil, a
resulting magnetic field reacts with the magnetic field of the
permanent magnet and causes the movable coil to rotate. The greater
the intensity of current flow through the coil, the stronger the
magnetic field produced; the stronger the magnetic field produced,
the greater the rotation of the coil. The GALVANOMETER is an example
of one type of stationary, permanent-magnet, moving-coil measuring
instrument.
Galvanometer
The galvanometer is used to measure very low currents, such as those

in bridge circuits. In modified form, the galvanometer has the
highest sensitivity of any of the various types of meters in use
today. A simplified diagram of a galvanometer is shown in figure 3-
1. It is different from other instruments used for the same purpose
because its movable coil is suspended by means of metal ribbons
instead of a shaft and jewel-bearing arrangement often used in other
instruments.
Figure 3-1. - Simplified galvanometer.
The movable coil is wrapped around the aluminum frame of the

galvanometer. The coil is suspended between the poles of the magnet
by means of thin, flat ribbons of phosphor bronze. These ribbons
provide a conduction path for the current between the circuit being
tested and the movable coil. The ribbons allow the coil to twist in
response to the interaction of the applied current through the coil
and the magnetic field of the permanent magnet. They also provide
the restoring force for the coil. Basically, the restoring force is
that force necessary to return the movable frame to its resting
position after a reading. The ribbons restrain or provide a
counterforce to the magnetic force acting on the coil. When the
driving force of the coil current is removed, the restoring force
provided by the ribbons returns the coil to its zero position.
Q.2 What physical component of a galvanometer provides the restoring
force for the coil?
To determine the amount of current flow, we must have a means to

indicate the amount of coil rotation. Either of two methods may be
used: (1) the POINTER arrangement or (2) the LIGHT AND MIRROR
arrangement.
Q.3 In a galvanometer, what two methods are used to indicate the
amount of coil rotation?
In the pointer arrangement, one end of the pointer is mechanically

connected to the rotating coil; as the coil moves, the pointer also
moves. The other end of the pointer moves across a graduated scale
and indicates the amount of current flow. The overall simplicity of
this arrangement is its main advantage. However, a disadvantage of
this arrangement is that it introduces a mechanical coil balancing
problem, especially if the pointer is long.
Q.4 What is the primary disadvantage of the pointer arrangement for
indicating coil rotation?
In the light and mirror arrangement, the use of a mirror and a beam
of light simplifies the problem of coil balance. When this
arrangement is used to measure the turning of the coil, a small
mirror is mounted on the supporting ribbon, as shown in figure 3-1.
An internal light source is directed to the mirror and then
reflected to the scale of the meter. As the movable coil turns, so
does the mirror. This causes the light reflection to move across the
graduated scale of the meter. The movement of the reflection is
proportional to the movement of the coil; therefore, the intensity
of the current being measured by the meter is accurately indicated.
If the beam of light and mirror arrangement is used, the beam of

light is swept to the right or left across a translucent screen
(scale). The translucent screen is divided uniformly with the zero
reading located at center scale. If the pointer arrangement is used,
the pointer is moved in a horizontal plane to the right or left
across a scale that is divided uniformly with the zero reading at
the center. The direction in which the beam of light or the pointer
moves depends on the direction (polarity) of current through the
coil.
D'Arsonval Meter Movement
Most dc instruments use meters based on some form of the D'Arsonval

meter movement. In D'Arsonval-type meters, the length of the
conductor and the strength of the field between the poles of the
magnet are fixed. Therefore, any change in current causes a
proportional change in the force acting on the coil. Figure 3-2 is a
simplified diagram showing the principle of the D'Arsonval movement.
Figure 3-2. - D'Arsonval meter movement.
In the figure, only one turn of wire is shown; however, in an actual

meter movement, many turns of fine wire would be used, each turn
adding more effective length to the coil. The coil is wound on an
aluminum frame (bobbin) to which the pointer is attached. Oppositely
wound hairsprings (only one is shown in the figure) are also
attached to the bobbin, one at either end. The circuit to the coil
is completed through the hairsprings. In addition to serving as
conductors, the hairsprings serve as the restoring force that
returns the pointer to the zero position when no current flows.
Q.5 What component of the D'Arsonval meter movement completes the
circuit for current flow to the coil?
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COMMON TEST EQUIPMENT
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
Describe the proper operating procedures for

using the multimeter.
Describe the proper operating procedures for
using the digital multimeter.
Describe the proper operating Join Integrated
procedures for using the Publishing's
differential voltmeter. Discussion Group
Describe the proper operation of
the transistor tester.
Describe the proper procedure for
using the RCL bridge to measure
resistance, capacitance, and
inductance.
In the previous chapters, you have learned how to use some basic and
miscellaneous measuring instruments to perform required maintenance and Order this
upkeep of electronic systems and components. You were also introduced to the information on CD-
construction and operation of basic meter movements in test equipment. This
Rom
chapter will introduce you to some of the testing instruments commonly used
in the Navy today.
MULTIMETERS
During troubleshooting, you will often be required to measure voltage,

current, and resistance. Rather than using three or more separate meters for
these measurements, you can use the MULTIMETER. The multimeter contains Order this
circuitry that allows it to be used as a voltmeter, an ammeter, or an information in
ohmmeter. A multimeter is often called a VOLT-OHM-MILLIAMMETER (VOM). Print (Hardcopy).
One of the greatest advantages of a VOM is that no external power source is
required for its operation; therefore, no warm-up is necessary. Other
advantages are its portability, versatility, and freedom from calibration
errors caused by aging tubes, line voltage variations, and so forth.
Q.1 What is one of the greatest advantages of a VOM?
Two disadvantages are that (1) the VOM tends to "load" the circuit under
test, and (2) the meter movement is easily damaged as a result of improper
testing procedures.
Never press down on or place any object on the glass face of any multimeter.
This can disable the meter movement from operating properly or cause damage.
MEASURING RESISTANCE, VOLTAGE, AND CURRENT WITH A NONELECTRONIC VOM
In the discussion that follows, you will become familiar with the operation
and use of the multimeter in measuring resistance, voltage, and current.
The meter selected for this discussion is the Simpson 260 multimeter, as
shown in figure 4-1. The Simpson 260 is a typical VOM used in the Navy today.
Figure 4-1. - Simpson 260 Series 6XLP Volt-Ohm-Milliammeter (VOM)

The multimeter has two selector switches. The switch on the lower left is the
function switch, and the one in the lower center is the range switch. The
function switch selects the type of current you will be measuring (+dc, -dc,
or ac). The range switch is a 12-position switch that selects the range of
ohmmeter, voltmeter, or milliammeter measurements you will make.
The multimeter is equipped with a pair of test leads; red is the positive
lead and black is the negative, or common, lead. Eight jacks are located on
the lower part of the front panel. To prepare the meter for use, simply
insert the test leads into the proper jacks to obtain the circuit and range
desired for each application. In most applications, the black lead will be
inserted into the jack marked at the lower left with a negative sign (-) or
with the word COMMON.
Measuring Resistance
Before proceeding, you should be aware of the following important safety

precaution that must be observed when using the ohmmeter function of a VOM:
Never connect an ohmmeter to a "hot" (energized) circuit. Be sure that no

power is applied and that all capacitors are discharged.
Q.2 Before you connect a VOM in a circuit for an ohmmeter reading, in what
condition must the circuit be?
The internal components of the multimeter use very little current and are
protected from damage by an overload protection circuit (fuse or circuit
breaker). However, damage may still occur if you neglect the safety
precaution in the CAUTION instructions above.
Because no external power is applied to the component being tested in a

resistance check, a logical question you may ask is, Where does the power for
deflection of the ohmmeter come from? The multimeter contains its own two-
battery power supply inside the case. The resistive components inside the
multimeter are of such values that when the leads are connected together (no
resistance), the meter indicates a full-scale deflection. Because there is no
resistance between the shorted leads, full-scale deflection represents zero
resistance.
Before making a measurement, you must zero the ohmmeter to ensure accurate
readings. This is accomplished by shorting the leads together and adjusting
the OHMS ADJ control so that the pointer is pointing directly at the zero
mark on the OHMS scale. The ZERO OHMS control is continuously variable and is
used to adjust the meter circuit sensitivity to compensate for battery aging
in the ohmmeter circuits.
An important point to remember when you are making an accurate resistance

measurement is to "zero" the meter each time you select a new range. If this
is not done, the readings you obtain will probably be incorrect.
When making a resistance measurement on a resistor, you must give the

following considerations to the resistor being tested:
The resistor must be electrically isolated. In some instances, a soldered

connection will have to be disconnected to isolate the resistor. Generally,
isolating one side of the resistor is satisfactory for you to make an
accurate reading. The meter leads must make good electrical contact with the
resistor leads. Points of contact should be checked for dirt, grease,
varnish, paint or any other material that may affect current flow. Touch only
the insulated portions of the test leads. Your body has a certain amount of
resistance, which the ohmmeter will measure if you touch the uninsulated
portions of the leads.
Figure 4-2 is a functional block diagram of the ohmmeter circuit in a VOM.

The proper method of checking a resistor is to connect the red lead to one
end of the resistor and the black lead to the other end of the resistor.
Figure 4-2. - Functional block diagram of an ohmmeter circuit.
Because zero resistance causes full-scale deflection, you should realize that
the deflection of the meter is inversely proportional to the resistance being
tested; that is, for a small resistance value, the deflection will be nearly
full scale; and for a large resistance value, the deflection will be
considerably less. This means that the left portion of the OHMS scale
represents high resistance; the right side of the scale represents low
resistance. Zero resistance (a short circuit) is indicated on the extreme
right side of the scale; infinite resistance (an open circuit) is located on
the extreme left side of the scale.
Notice that you read the OHMS scale on the multimeter from RIGHT to LEFT. For
example, the pointer of the multimeter in figure 4-3 indicates 8.0 ohms. To
determine the actual value of a resistor, multiply the reading on the meter
scale by the range switch setting (R X 1, R X 100, or R X 10,000).
Figure 4-3. - Ohmmeter scale.

Notice that the scale marks are crowded on the left side of the OHMS scale,
which makes them difficult to read. Therefore, the best range to select is
one in which the pointer will fall in the space from midscale to slightly to
the right side of midscale. The divisions in this area of the scale are
evenly spaced and provide for easier reading and greater accuracy.
Q.3 When taking resistance readings with a VOM, you will obtain the most
accurate readings at or near what part of the scale?
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Special-application test equipment
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SPECIAL-APPLICATION TEST EQUIPMENT
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
Explain the theory of operation of two types of power

meters.
Describe the purpose of the controls and indicators
found on power meters.
Describe the proper procedure for taking Join Integrated
power measurements for incident and Publishing's
reflected energy. Discussion Group
Describe the uses and purposes of the
controls and indicators found on the
signal generator.
Explain the theory of operation of a typical frequency
counter.
Describe the uses and purposes of the
frequency counter.
Explain the uses and purposes of the
Order this
Tracker 2000. information on CD-
Describe the proper procedures for troubleshooting Rom
with a logic probe.
Describe the proper procedures for troubleshooting
using the Tracker 2000.
In chapters 3 and 4, you studied the more common pieces of test equipment. As a
technician, you will routinely use this test equipment to troubleshoot and perform
maintenance on electronic equipment. However, the equipments you will study in this Order this
chapter may or may not be found in your shop. This is because these equipments have information in
specific or specialized uses. Unless your rating is involved with the equipment with
Print (Hardcopy).
which they are used, you may not have reason to use them. They are presented here so
that you will be familiar with their overall function should the need arise. The
equipments you will study in this chapter are power meters, signal generators,
frequency counters, and integrated circuit-testing devices.
POWER METERS
As a technician, you will use a POWER METER to measure power. There are various types
of power meters, some of which are called WATTMETERS. Figure 5-1 shows the AN/URM-120
wattmeter, which is one type of power meter commonly used in the Navy. This particular
power meter measures power directly; that is, you connect it directly between the
transmitter output (rf source) and the load, most likely an antenna.
Figure 5-1. - Wattmeter (AN/URM-120).
Other types of power meters measure power indirectly; that is, they sample power in
other ways - but not by being placed directly between the output of the transmitter and
the load. Let's discuss the direct-measuring power meter first; then we'll talk about
an indirect-measuring power meter.
DIRECT-MEASURING POWER METERS
The direct-measuring power meter is designed to measure incident (forward) and

reflected (reverse) rf power from 50 to 1,000 watts at 2 MHz to 30 MHz and 10 to 500
watts at 30 MHz to 1,000 MHz. Three separate COUPLER-DETECTORS (sometimes called
ATTENUATORS), each rated to cover a portion of the frequency and power ranges, are
provided with the wattmeter. These devices couple the rf signal into the wattmeter and
detect the signal. The coupler-detector knob projects through the top of the wattmeter
case, as shown on the AN/URM-120 wattmeter in figure 5-1.
A nameplate on the top of the POWER RANGE knob indicates the power range. The POWER
RANGE knob can be rotated 360 to the desired power range. The coupler-detector rotates
180 inside the metal case for either forward or reverse power measurements. Also
located inside the metal case are the indicating meter and cable for interconnecting
the meter to the coupler-detector. The LOCKING knob locks the coupler-detector and
POWER RANGE knobs in place.
Two N-TYPE connectors (one male and one female) are located on either side of the
wattmeter case to connect the instrument between the power source and the load. The
upper and lower parts of the wattmeter are held together with quick-action fasteners,
which permit easy access to the inside of the wattmeter.
Power measurements are made by inserting the proper coupler-detector and connecting the
wattmeter in the transmission line between the load and the rf power source. To measure
incident power with the wattmeter, rotate the arrow on the COUPLER-DETECTOR knob toward
the load, and position the POWER RANGE knob for peak meter reading. To measure
reflected power, position the arrow toward the rf power source.
In effect, rotating the coupler-detector causes the coupler to respond only to a wave
traveling in a particular direction, either to (incident) or from (reflected) the load.
It will be unaffected by a wave traveling in the opposite direction. A diode rectifier
in the coupler rectifies the energy detected by the coupler. This detected rf energy is
measured across a known impedance to obtain either incident or reflected power.
Operating the Wattmeter
Always de-energize and tag the rf power source before measuring incident power. Insert
the proper coupler-detector for the rf power being measured into the wattmeter case.
Remove the wire shunt (not shown in figure 5-1) from the meter terminals, then connect
the wattmeter into the transmission line, either at the load or the rf source. Ensure
that all connections are tight.
Position the POWER RANGE knob to a value higher than the rated power of the rf source.
If the rated power to be measured is not known, place the POWER RANGE knob in the
highest power position before turning on the power source.
Rotate the coupler-detector so that the arrow indicating power flow points toward the
load. Turn on the rf power source. Rotate the POWER RANGE knob to the proper range for
measuring and observe the point at which the indicating meter peaks.
Q.1 To measure incident power, you must rotate the coupler-detector of the wattmeter so
that the arrow indicating power flow points toward which end of the transmission line?
Reflected power is measured in the same manner as described for incident power, except
that the coupler-detector is rotated so that the arrow points toward the rf source.
After completing power measurements, de-energize the rf source, disconnect the

wattmeter from the transmission line, and place the wire shunt on the meter terminals.
Interpreting Power Measurements Made by the Wattmeter
The rf power measurements made by the wattmeter are used to determine the voltage
standing wave ratio (VSWR) of the load and the power absorbed by the load. (VSWR is
covered in NEETS, Module 10, Introduction to Wave Propagation, Transmission Lines, and
Antennas.) The VSWR can be determined from a chart provided in the wattmeter technical
manual, or it can be calculated (as shown in the following example for a UHF
transmitter) by the formula below (Pi is the incident power, and Pr is the reflected
power as measured by the wattmeter):
Where:
Pi = 30 watts
Pr = 0.5 watts
The example above results in a standing wave ratio expressed as 1.3 to 1. In a
perfectly matched transmission line where there is no reflected power (Pr = 0), the
standing wave ratio would be 1 to 1. A standing wave ratio of 1.5 to 1 indicates a 5-
percent reflection of energy (loss) and is considered to be the maximum allowable loss.
So, our example is within allowable limits.
If the standing wave ratio is greater than 1.5 to 1, then the transmission line
efficiency has decreased and troubleshooting is necessary. An excellent discussion of
the reasons for standing wave ratio increases is presented in EIMB, Test Methods and
Practices, NAVSEA 0967-LP-000-0130.
You can determine the rf power absorbed by the load simply by subtracting the reflected
power reading from the incident power reading made by the wattmeter (30 watts - 0.5
watts = 29.5 watts).
The power meter just discussed is often described as an IN-LINE POWER METER because
readings are taken while the power meter is connected in series with the transmission
line. Another type of power meter used by the Navy measures power indirectly. An
example of an indirect-measuring power meter is described in the next section.
INDIRECT-MEASURING POWER METERS
An example of an indirect-measuring power meter is the HP-431C, shown in figure 5-2.

The controls, connectors, and indicators for the power meter are illustrated in figure
5-3. This power meter can be operated from either an ac or dc primary power source. The
ac source can be either 115 or 230 volts at 50 to 400 hertz. The dc source is a 24-volt
rechargeable battery. Overall circuit operation of the power meter is shown in the
block diagram in figure 5-4.
Figure 5-2. - Power meter (HP-431C).

Figure 5-3. - Power meter controls, indicators, and connectors.
Figure 5-4. - Power meter block diagram.
The HP-431C power meter indirectly measures microwave frequency power by using two
bridge circuits - the detection bridge and the compensation and metering bridge. The
detection bridge incorporates a 10-kilohertz (kHz) oscillator in which the amplitude is
determined by the amount of heating of the thermistors in that bridge caused by
microwave power. (Thermistors were covered in chapter 2 of this module.) The
compensation and metering bridge contains thermistors that are affected by the same
microwave power heating as those of the detection bridge.
An unbalance in the metering bridge produces a 10-kHz error signal. This error signal,
plus the 10-kHz bias that is taken directly from the 10-kHz OSCILLATOR-AMPLIFIER, is
mixed in the SYNCHRONOUS DETECTOR. The synchronous detector produces a dc current (Idc)
that is proportional to the 10-kHz error signal. The Idc error signal is fed back to
the compensation and metering bridge, where it substitutes for the 10-kHz power in
heating the thermistor and drives the bridge toward a state of balance. The dc output
of the synchronous detector also operates the meter circuit for a visual indication of
power.
Q.2 What condition produces the 10-kHz error signal generated by the metering bridge in
the HP-431C power meter?

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LEARNING OBJECTIVES
Describe the purpose of the CRT used in the

oscilloscope.
Explain the operation of an oscilloscope.
Describe the purpose of the controls and
indicators found on an oscilloscope. Join Integrated
Describe the proper procedure for using a dual- Publishing's
trace oscilloscope. Discussion Group
Describe the accessory probes available for
use with a dual-trace oscilloscope.
Explain the operation of the spectrum analyzer.
controls and indicators found on
the spectrum analyzer.
One of the most widely used pieces of electronic test equipment is the
OSCILLOSCOPE. An oscilloscope is used to show the shape of a video pulse Order this
appearing at a selected equipment test point. Although some oscilloscopes information on CD-
are better than others in accurately showing video pulses, all function in Rom
fundamentally the same way. If you learn how one oscilloscope operates, you
will be able to learn others.
As you will learn in this chapter, there are many different types of
oscilloscopes - varying in complexity from the simple to the complex.
Before we get into our discussion of the dual-trace oscilloscope, we will
first present a general overview of basic single-trace oscilloscope
operation. Shortly, we will see how oscilloscopes use a CATHODE-RAY TUBE Order this
(CRT) in which controlled electron beams are used to present a visible information in
pattern of graphical data on a fluorescent screen. Print (Hardcopy).
Another piece of test equipment used is the SPECTRUM ANALYZER. This test
equipment is used to sweep over a band of frequencies to determine what
frequencies are being produced by a specific circuit under test, and then
the amplitude of each frequency component. An accurate interpretation of
the display will allow you to determine the efficiency of the equipment
being tested.
CATHODE-RAY TUBES
A detailed discussion of CATHODE-RAY TUBES (CRTs) is presented in NEETS,

Module 6, Electronic Emission, Tubes, and Power Supplies. Before continuing
with your study of CRTs in this section, you may want to review chapter 2
of that module.
Cathode-ray tubes used in oscilloscopes consist of an ELECTRON GUN, a

DEFLECTION SYSTEM, and a FLUORESCENT SCREEN. All of these elements are
enclosed in the evacuated space inside the glass CRT. The electron gun
generates electrons and focuses them into a narrow beam. The deflection
system moves the beam horizontally and vertically across the screen. The
screen is coated with a phosphorous material that glows when struck by the
electrons. Figure 6-1 shows the construction of a CRT.
Figure 6-1. - Construction of a CRT.
ELECTRON GUN
The ELECTRON GUN consists of a HEATER and a CATHODE to generate electrons,

a CONTROL GRID to control brightness by controlling electron flow, and two
ANODES (FIRST and SECOND). The main purpose of the first (FOCUSING) anode
is to focus the electrons into a narrow beam on the screen. The second
(ACCELERATING) anode accelerates the electrons as they pass. The control
grid is cylindrical and has a small opening in a baffle at one end. The
anodes consist of two cylinders that contain baffles (or plates) with small
holes in their centers.
Q.1 What element controls the number of electrons striking the screen?
Q.2 What element is controlled to focus the beam?
Cathode and Control Grid
As in most conventional electron tubes, the cathode is indirectly heated

and emits a cloud of electrons. The control grid is a hollow metal tube
placed over the cathode. A small opening is located in the center of a
baffle at the end opposite the cathode. The control grid is maintained at a
negative potential with respect to the cathode to keep the electrons
bunched together.
A high positive potential on the anodes pulls electrons through the hole in
the grid. Because the grid is near the cathode, it can control the number
of electrons that are emitted. As in an ordinary electron tube, the
negative voltage of the grid can be varied either to control electron flow
or stop it completely. The brightness (intensity) of the image on the
fluorescent screen is determined by the number of electrons striking the
screen. This is controlled by the voltage on the control grid.
Electrostatic Lenses and Focusing
The electron beam is focused by two ELECTROSTATIC FIELDS that exist between
the control grid and first anode and between the first and second anodes.
Figure 6-2 shows you how electrons move through the electron gun. The
electrostatic field areas are often referred to as LENSES because the
fields bend electron streams in the same manner that optical lenses bend
light rays. The first electrostatic lens cause the electrons to cross at
the first focal point within the field. The second lens bend the spreading
streams and return them to a new, second focal point at the CRT.
Q.3 Why are the electrostatic fields between the electron gun elements
called lenses?
Figure 6-2. - Formation of an electron beam.

Figure 6-2 also shows the relative voltage relationships on the electron-
gun elements. The cathode (K) is at a fixed positive voltage with respect
to ground. The grid is at a variable negative voltage with respect to the
cathode. A fixed positive voltage of several thousand volts is connected to
the second (accelerating) anode. The potential of the first (focusing)
anode is less positive than the potential of the second anode. The first
anode can be varied to place the focal point of the electron beam on the
screen of the tube. Control-grid potential is established at the proper
level to allow the correct number of electrons through the gun for the
desired image intensity.
Q.4 What is the function of the second anode?
ELECTRON BEAM-DEFLECTION SYSTEM
The electron beam is developed, focused, and accelerated by the electron

gun. The beam appears on the screen of the CRT as a small, bright dot. If
the beam is left in one position, the electrons will soon burn away the
illuminating coating in that one area. To be of any use, the beam must be
able to move. As you have studied, an electrostatic field can bend the path
of a moving electron.
As you have seen in the previous illustrations, the beam of electrons

passes through an electrostatic field between two plates. You should
remember that electrons are negatively charged and that they will be
deflected in the direction of the electric force (from negative to
positive). This deflection causes the electrons to follow a curved path
while in the electrostatic field.
When the electrons leave the electrostatic field, they will take a straight
path to the screen at the angle at which they left the field. Because they
were all deflected equally, the electrons will be traveling toward the same
spot. Of course, the proper voltages must exist on the anodes to produce
the electrostatic field. Changing these voltages changes the focal point of
the beam and causes the electron beam to strike the CRT at a different
point.
Factors Influencing Deflection
The ANGLE OF DEFLECTION (the angle the outgoing electron beam makes with
the CRT center line axis between the plates) depends on the following
factors:
Length of the deflection field;

Spacing between the deflection plates;
The difference of potential between the plates;
and
The accelerating voltage on the second anode.
LENGTH OF DEFLECTION FIELD. - As shown in figure 6-3, a long field (long

deflection plates) has more time to exert its deflecting forces on an
electron beam than does a shorter field (short deflection plates).
Therefore, the longer deflection plates can bend the beam to a greater
deflection angle.
Figure 6-3. - Factors influencing length of field.
Q.5 What effect do longer deflection plates have on the electron beam?

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Book 17
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Introduction to radio
System introduction
Navy frequency band use
Communications fundamentals
Summary
Answers
Introduction to communications theory
Frequency Multiplication Join Integrated

Publishing's
Ship-to-ship ssb
Discussion Group
Single-Sideband
Automatic Gain/Volume Control (agc/avc)
Delayed Automatic Gain Control
Audio Tone
Audio reproduction devices
Summary
Answers
Order this
information on CD-
Fundamental systems equipment Rom
Transmitters
Radio Transmitters
Antenna distribution systems
Manual Telegraphy
Basic Systems Order this
Rfcs Send System information in
Rfcs Receive System Print (Hardcopy).
Afts System
Facsimile
Shipboard communications systems quality monitoring
Electromagnetic radiation
Summary
Answers
Introduction to satellite communications
Satellite Characteristics
Earth terminal characteristics
Standard receive-only equipment systems
Role of satellite communications
Future satellite communications
Summary
Answers
Introduction to miscellaneous communications systems and

equipment
Receive Equipment
Naval tactical data system
Portale equipment
Lasers - Theory of operation
Summary
Answers

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Introduction to radio
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INTRODUCTION TO RADIO-FREQUENCY COMMUNICATIONS
LEARNING OBJECTIVES

below. Publishing's
Discussion Group
Define electrical
telecommunications.
Describe the use of
radiotelegraph,
radiotelephone, teletypewriter,
and facsimile. Order this
information on CD-
Rom
Define and describe the
interrelationships of the
system, set, group, unit,
assembly, subassembly, part,
and reference designations.
Order this
State the frequency ranges of
information in
the various frequency bands
Print (Hardcopy).
and describe the most
common uses of those bands
by the Navy.
Describe a strategic
communications link.
Describe a tactical
communications link.
Describe the five basic
communications modes of
operation.
Describe a switched
communications network.
two Navy-only networks.
INTRODUCTION TO NAVAL TELECOMMUNICATIONS
When the wireless (radiotelegraph) was invented, the Navy saw a

possible use for it. It could be used for communications from shore
stations to ships along the coast. In 1899, the first official naval
radio message was sent from ship to shore. It only traveled a
distance of 20 miles but that was a start. The next advance was in
1916 when the Navy first used radiotelephone between ships.
Three years later the first airborne radio was used to communicate
with a ground station. In the early years, communications was not
the best because of poor tuning techniques. Receivers often did
not pick up the signal. This problem was almost eliminated in 1931
when the first superheterodyne receivers were installed in the fleet.
In 1944, another important event took place. The first successful
radio teletypewriter transmissions between ships were completed.
The first successful use of radiophoto (facsimile) occurred in 1945
with the transmission of the surrender document signing that ended
World War II. Naval communications has grown tremendously in
size and complexity since then.
The fleets of our modern Navy travel faster and are spread over
greater areas of ocean than any seagoing force of the past.
Commanders and their subordinates throughout the Department of
the Navy use the facilities of naval communications as a primary
method of communicating.
Naval communications relies on top performance from all of its

assigned personnel. Reliable, secure, and timely transmission and
receipt of information, based on wartime requirements, is the
ultimate goal.
Previous modules have discussed electronic components or

circuitry in individual units. In this chapter we will tie up some loose
ends for you and discuss radio-frequency communications.
We will cover the considerations involved in receiving or

transmitting a radio-frequency signal between two or more
geographic locations. Let's start by defining telecommunications.
TELECOMMUNICATIONS refers to communications over a

distance and includes any transmission, emission, or reception of
signs, signals, writings, images, or sounds. Intelligence produced
by visual means, oral means, wire, radio, or other electromagnetic
systems are also included. Electrical, visual, and sound
telecommunications are all used in the Navy. In this chapter we will
talk only about electrical types of telecommunications.
ELECTRICAL
The types of electrical communications are radio and wire. Radio

uses electromagnetic waves to transmit and receive intelligence.
The waves are not guided by a physical path between sender and
receiver. Wire uses conductors to carry these waves. Radio is the
most important method the Navy has of communicating between
widely separated forces. The transmission methods we will be
discussing are radiotelegraph, radiotelephone, teletypewriter, and
facsimile.
Radiotelegraph
Radiotelegraph transmissions are referred to as continuous wave

(cw) telegraphy. Cw is a manual or automatic system of
transmitting signals using a wave of radio-frequency (rf) energy.
The radio operator separates a continuously transmitted wave into
dots and dashes based on the Morse code. This is accomplished
by opening and closing a telegraphic hand key.
Radiotelegraphy was the first means of radio communications that

had military and commercial importance. Radiotelegraph still is
used as a means of communication to, from, and among widely
separated units of the Navy.
Relative slow speed of transmission and the requirement for

experienced operators are the major disadvantages of
radiotelegraph. The main advantage is reliability. A thinking person
at both sending and receiving stations provides a capability of
being understood not present in automated systems.
Radiotelephone
Radiotelephone is one of the most useful military communications

methods. Because of its directness, convenience, and ease of
operation, radiotelephone is used by ships, aircraft, and shore
stations. It has many applications and is used for ship-to-shore,
shore-to-ship, ship-to-ship, air-to-ship, ship-to-air, air-to-ground,
and ground-to-air communications. Modern means of operation
make it possible to communicate around the world by
radiotelephone. One of the most important uses of radiotelephone
is short-range tactical communications. This method permits
tactical commanders to communicate directly with other ships. Little
delay results while a message is prepared for transmission, and
acknowledgments can be returned instantly. Radiotelephone
equipment for tactical use usually is operated on frequencies that
are high enough to have line-of-sight characteristics; that is, the
waves do not follow the curvature of the earth. As you know, these
characteristics limit the usual range of radiotelephone from 20 to 25
miles. This is important because it reduces the chances of the
enemy intercepting the message. Radiotelephone procedures can
be learned easily by persons with no other training in
communications.
Radiotelephone has some disadvantages. You may find

transmissions unreadable because of static, enemy interference, or
high local noise level caused by shouts, gunfire, and bomb or shell
bursts. Wave propagation characteristics of radiotelephone
frequencies sometimes are unpredictable, and tactical
transmissions may be heard from great distances. Most
radiotelephone messages are in plain language, and if information
is to be kept from the enemy, users must keep their messages
short, stick to the proper procedures, and be careful of what they
say.
Q.1 What are the two types of electrical communications?
Q.2 What is the main advantage of radiotelegraph
communications?
Q.3 Why is radiotelephone one of the most useful methods of
military communications?
Q.4 What are the disadvantages of radiotelephone
communications?
Teletypewriter
Teletypewriter (tty) signals may be transmitted by either landline

(wire), cable, or radio. The landline tty is used both by the military
services and by commercial communication companies. The Navy
uses radio teletypewriter (rtty) mainly for high-speed automatic
communications across ocean areas. The tty unit is equipped with
a keyboard similar to a typewriter. When the operator presses a
key, a sequence of signals is transmitted. At receiving stations, the
signals are fed into terminal equipment that translates the
sequences of signals into letters, figures, and symbols and types
the messages automatically.
The rtty mode of transmission and reception is rapidly becoming

more efficient and reliable for communications between ships and
from ship-to-shore. Ships copy what is known as "fleet broadcast"
messages on rtty. The speed at which message traffic is
transmitted on rtty circuits depends on the equipment in use.
Normal speed of operation is 100 words per minute, but it may be
faster or slower. You may find high-speed equipment, capable of
printing a line or even a page at a time, in some communications
centers. The use of rtty has brought about a considerable savings
in manpower.
Facsimile
Facsimile (fax) is the process used to transmit photographs, charts,

and other graphic information electronically. The image to be
transmitted is scanned by a photoelectric cell. Electrical changes in
the cell output, corresponding to the light and dark areas being
scanned, are transmitted to the receiver. At the receiver, the signal
operates a recorder that reproduces the picture. The fax signals
may be transmitted either by landline or radio.
Facsimile transmissions suffer distortion from all of the common

sources of interference experienced with ordinary radiotelegraph
and radio teletypewriter. Certain characteristics of TIF transmission
make it less susceptible to complete loss of intelligence. For
example, picture quality will be downgraded by any noise bursts,
since facsimile recording is a continuous recording of signals
coming from a receiver. However, because the machine scans
material at the rate of about 100 lines per inch, each line is only
1/100th of an inch high. So you can see, if a noise burst interfers
with the signal, it will distort a line only 1/100th of an inch high,
leaving the image still readable. Under similar circumstances on a
conventional rtty circuit, such distortion could cause a portion of the
page copy to be unreadable.
Facsimile transmission is not intended to be a replacement for

teletypewriter and other general methods of transmission. It is an
important communications supplement and provides a means of
handling certain types of graphic and pictorial intelligence by swift
communications methods. It is widely used by the Navy weather
information services and ship and station weather centers to obtain
the latest weather maps. Chances are the photo you saw in the
newspaper was transmitted by facsimile.
Q.5 What is the main use of a radio teletypewriter?
Q.6 What is facsimile?

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Introduction to communications theory
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INTRODUCTION TO COMMUNICATIONS THEORY
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
Describe the four basic types of transmitters.

Describe the two basic types of single-
sideband circuits.
Describe the three basic types of Join Integrated
teletypewriter circuits. Publishing's
List the four primary functions of a basic Discussion Group
receiver.
Describe the four primary functions of a
basic receiver.
State the four characteristics of a basic
receiver.
Evaluate the four characteristics of a basic
receiver.
Describe the fundamental heterodyning Order this
process. information on CD-
Describe the basic difference between an Rom
AM and an fm receiver.
Describe single-sideband suppressed carrier
communications.
State the purpose of carrier reinsertion and
how it is used in single-sideband
communications.
Describe the basic theory and functions of Order this
receiver control circuits. information in
Describe the basic frequency synthesis Print (Hardcopy).
process.
Describe the basic audio reproduction
process.
INTRODUCTION
In the previous chapter you learned the fundamentals of U.S. naval telecommunications and
communications. Now, let's look at the equipment and systems that are used to communicate in
the Navy. The fundamental equipment used to communicate are the transmitter and receiver.
Transmitters and receivers must each perform two basic functions. The transmitter must
generate a radio frequency signal of sufficient power at the desired frequency. It must have
some means of varying (or modulating) the basic frequency so that it can carry an intelligible
signal. The receiver must select the desired frequency you want to receive and reject all
unwanted frequencies. In addition, receivers must be able to amplify the weak incoming signal
to overcome the losses the signal suffers in its journey through space.
Representative transmitters and their fundamental features are described for you in this module.
TRANSMITTER FUNDAMENTALS
Basic communication transmitters include continuous wave (cw), amplitude modulated (AM),
frequency modulated (fm), and single sideband (ssb) types. A basic description of each of these
transmitters is given in this chapter.
CONTINUOUS WAVE TRANSMITTER
The continuous wave is used principally for radiotelegraphy; that is, for the transmission of short
or long pulses of rf energy to form the dots and dashes of the Morse code characters. This type
of transmission is sometimes referred to as interrupted continuous wave. Cw transmission was
the first type of radio communication used, and it is still used extensively for long-range
communications. Two of the advantages of cw transmission are a narrow bandwidth, which
requires less output power, and a degree of intelligibility that is high even under severe noise
conditions. (For example, when the receiver is in the vicinity of rotating machinery or
thunderstorms.)
A cw transmitter requires four essential components. These are a generator, amplifier, keyer,
and antenna. We have to generate rf oscillations and have a means of amplifying these
oscillations. We also need a method of turning the rf output on and off (keying) in accordance
with the intelligence to be transmitted and an antenna to radiate the keyed output of the
transmitter.
Let's take a look at the block diagram of a cw transmitter and its power supply in figure 2-1. The
oscillator generates the rf carrier at a preset frequency and maintains it within close tolerances.
The oscillator may be a self-excited type, such as an electron-coupled oscillator, or a quartz
crystal type, which uses a crystal cut to vibrate at a certain frequency when electrically excited.
In both types, voltage and current delivered by the oscillator are weak. The oscillator outputs
must be amplified many times to be radiated any distance.
Figure 2-1. - Cw transmitter block diagram.

The buffer stage or first intermediate power amplifier stage (referred to as the ipa) is a voltage
amplifier that increases the amplitude of the oscillator signal to a level that drives the power
amplifier (pa). You will find the signal delivered by the buffer varies with the type of transmitter
and may be hundreds or thousands of volts.
The buffer serves two other purposes. One is to isolate the oscillator from the amplifier stages.
Without a buffer, changes in the amplifier caused by keying or variations in source voltage
would vary the load of the oscillator and cause it to change frequency. It may also be used as a
frequency multiplier, which is explained later in this text.
As you can see in the figure, a key is used to turn the buffer on and off. When the key is closed,
the rf carrier passes through the buffer stage; when the key is open (buffer is turned off), the rf
carrier is prevented from getting through.
The final stage of a transmitter is the power amplifier (referred to as the pa). In chapter 3 of
NEETS, Module 1, Introduction to Matter, Energy, and Direct Current, you learned that power is
the product of current and voltage (P = IE). In the power amplifier a large amount of rf current
and voltage is made available for radiation by the antenna.
The power amplifier of a high-power transmitter may require far more driving power than can be
supplied by an oscillator and its buffer stage. One or more low-power intermediate amplifiers are
used between the buffer and the final amplifier that feeds the antenna. The main difference
between many low- and high-power transmitters is in the number of intermediate power-
amplifier stages used.
Figure 2-2 is a block diagram of the input and output powers for each stage of a typical medium-
power transmitter. You should be able to see that the power output of a transmitter can be
increased by adding amplifier stages capable of delivering the power required. In our example,
the .5 watt output of the buffer is amplified in the first intermediate amplifier by a factor of 10,
(this is a times 10 [ X 10] amplifier) giving us an input of 5 watts to the second intermediate
amplifier. You can see in this example the second intermediate amplifier multiplies the 5 watt
input to it by a factor of 5 ( X 5) and gives us a 25 watt input to our power (final) amplifier. The
final amplifier multiplies its input by a factor of 20 (X 20) and gives us 500 watts of power out to
the antenna.
Figure 2-2. - Intermediate amplifiers increase transmitter power.

Q.1 What are the four basic transmitter types?
Q.2 What is the function of the oscillator in a cw transmitter?
Q.3 What is the final stage of a transmitter?
AMPLITUDE MODULATED TRANSMITTER
In AM transmitters, the instantaneous amplitude of the rf output signal is varied in proportion to

the modulating signal. The modulating signal may consist of many frequencies of various
amplitudes and phases, such as the signals making up your own speech pattern.
Figure 2-3 gives you an idea of what the block diagram of a simple AM transmitter looks like.
The oscillator, buffer amplifier, and power amplifier serve the same purpose as those in the cw
transmitter. The microphone converts the audio frequency (af) input (a person's voice) into
corresponding electrical energy. The driver amplifies the audio, and the modulator further
amplifies the audio signal to the amplitude necessary to fully modulate the carrier. The output of
the modulator is applied to the power amplifier. The pa combines the rf carrier and the
modulating signal in the power amplifier to produce the amplitude-modulated signal output for
transmission. In the absence of a modulating signal, a continuous rf carrier is radiated by the
antenna.
Figure 2-3. - AM radiotelephone transmitter block diagram.

FREQUENCY MODULATED TRANSMITTER
In frequency modulation (fm) the modulating signal combines with the carrier to cause the
frequency of the resultant wave to vary with the instantaneous amplitude of the modulating
signal.
Figure 2-4 shows you the block diagram of a frequency-modulated transmitter. The modulating
signal applied to a varicap causes the reactance to vary. The varicap is connected across the
tank circuit of the oscillator. With no modulation, the oscillator generates a steady center
frequency. With modulation applied, the varicap causes the frequency of the oscillator to vary
around the center frequency in accordance with the modulating signal. The oscillator output is
then fed to a frequency multiplier to increase the frequency and then to a power amplifier to
increase the amplitude to the desired level for transmission.
Figure 2-4. - Fm transmitter block diagram.
Harmonics
True harmonics are always exact multiples of the basic or fundamental frequency generated by
an oscillator and are created in amplifiers and their associated circuits. Even harmonics are 2, 4,
6, and so on, times the fundamental; odd harmonics are 3, 5, 7, and so on, times the
fundamental. If an oscillator has a fundamental frequency of 2,500 kilohertz, the harmonically
related frequencies are
5,000 second harmonic

7,500 third harmonic
10,000 fourth harmonic
12,500 fifth harmonic
You should note that the basic frequency and the first harmonic are one and the same.
The series ascends indefinitely until the intensity is too weak to be detected. In general, the
energy in frequencies above the third harmonic is too weak to be significant.
In some electronics books, and later in this chapter, you will find the term SUBHARMONIC
used. It refers to a sine wave quantity (for example, an oscillator output) that has a frequency
that is a submultiple of the frequency of some other sine wave quantity it helped make. For
example, a wave that is half the fundamental frequency of another wave is called the second
subharmonic of that wave; one with a third of the fundamental frequency is called a third
subharmonic; and so forth.
Q.4 What purpose does a microphone perform in an AM transmitter?
Q.5 In an fm transmitter, when does an oscillator generate only a steady frequency?
Q.6 What is a harmonic?
Q.7 If the fundamental frequency is 200 megahertz, what is the third harmonic?
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Fundamental systems equipment
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FUNDAMENTAL SYSTEMS EQUIPMENT
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
State the function of a radio

communications handset, a
radio set control, and a transfer
switchboard. Join Integrated
Describe the functions and Publishing's
interrelationships of a radio Discussion Group
transmitter.
Describe the functions of
receive and transmit
multicouplers.
between the codes used for
manual telegraphy and
teletypewriter transmissions. Order this
Describe the two basic modes information on CD-
of teletypewriter operation. Rom
Describe the two types of
teletypewriter dc circuits.
State the two types of radio
teletypewriter shift systems and
describe their basic differences.
Describe the functions and
interrelationships of radio-
Order this
frequency-carrier shift send and
information in
receive systems.
Print (Hardcopy).
Describe the signal flow in an
audio-frequency-tone shift
system.
State the function of the tone
terminal set in an audio-
frequency-tone shift system.
Describe the basic multiplexing
process.
Describe the three operations
performed by a facsimile
system.
Describe the functions and
interrelationships of facsimile
equipment.
Describe the countermeasures
that can be used to eliminate
compromising emanations.
EQUIPMENT PURPOSES
A communications system is a collection of equipment used together

to do a specific job. You may see this equipment used to send or
receive voice communications, or both, or to send, receive, or send
and receive teletypewriter information.
Figure 3-1 is a basic block diagram of a voice system. You can see
how this equipment is interconnected to form a basic communications
system.We are going to look at several of the equipment blocks in
detail.
Figure 3-1. - Voice system.

HANDSET
The handset converts acoustical energy (your voice) to electrical

energy for use in modulating a radio transmitter. It also converts
electrical energy to acoustical energy for reproduction of a received
signal. When the push-to-talk button is depressed on the handset, the
dc keying circuit to the transmitter is closed, placing the transmitter on
the air.
Handsets are normally connected to a radio set control unit.
RADIO SET CONTROL UNIT
The radio set control unit shown in figure 3-2 provides a capability to
remotely control some radiophone transmitter functions and the
receiver output. Some of the controls are used for turning the
transmitter on and off. Others are used for voice modulating the
transmission (or keying when cw operation is desired). You can even
control the audio output level of the receiver and silence the receiver
when transmitting.
Figure 3-2. - Radio set control unit.
Under standard operating conditions up to four of these units can be

used in parallel with a single transmitter and receiver group to provide
additional operating positions. This setup is often found aboard ship
where a transmitter and/or receiver is controlled and operated from
several locations such as the bridge or the combat information center.
TRANSFER SWITCHBOARDS
A transmitter transfer switchboard provides the capability to transfer

remote control station functions and signals to transmitters. Figure 3-3
is a representative transfer switchboard that provides the capability for
selectively transferring any one, or all, of ten remote control station
functions and signals to any one of six transmitters. The cabinet has
ten rotary switches arranged in two vertical rows of five each. Each
switch has eight positions. The circuitry is arranged so that you cannot
parallel transmitter control circuits; that is, you cannot connect more
than one transmitter to any remote control location.
Figure 3-3. - Transmitter transfer switchboard.

Each switch operating knob corresponds to a remote control station.
Each switch position (1 through 6) corresponds to a transmitter. One
switch position, X, provides for transfer of all circuits to additional
transmitter transfer switchboards when more than six transmitters are
installed in the system. When the rotary switch is placed in the OFF
position the remote control station is removed from the system.
Let's look at an example of one transfer switchboard application. When

remote control station number two is to have control of transmitter
number three, the switch knob designated number two is rotated until
its pointer indicates position three on its dial plate.
The receiver transfer switchboard permits the operator to transfer the

audio output from a receiver to a remote control station audio circuit. A
representative receiver transfer switchboard is shown in figure 3-4.
This switchboard contains ten seven-position switches. Each switch is
connected to a remote control station, and each switch position (one
through five) is connected to a receiver.
Figure 3-4. - Receiver transfer switchboard.
The X position on each switch allows transfer of circuits to additional

switchboards just like with the transmitter transfer switchboard.
Q.1 What are the basic functions of a handset?

Q.2 What capability does a transmitter transfer switchboard provide?
Q.3 What function does a receiver transfer switchboard perform?

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Introduction to satellite communications
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INTRODUCTION TO SATELLITE COMMUNICATIONS
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
Describe the basic operation of the two

types of satellites.
Describe the basic components of an
operational satellite system. Join Integrated
Describe the function of earth terminal Publishing's
equipment. Discussion Group
Describe the basic signal flow of a typical
shipboard receive-only system.
Describe the basic signal flow of a typical
shipboard transceiver system.
Describe the advantages of satellite
communications in terms of capacity,
reliability, vulnerability, and flexibility.
Describe the limitations of satellites in Order this
terms of power, receiver sensitivity, and information on CD-
availability. Rom
HISTORY OF SATELLITE COMMUNICATIONS
The first artificial satellite was placed in orbit by the Russians in 1957. That satellite, called
Sputnik, signaled the beginning of an era.
Order this
The United States, who was behind the Russians, made an all-out effort to catch up, and information in
launched Score in 1958. That was the first satellite with the primary purpose of Print (Hardcopy).
communications.
The first regular satellite communications service was used by the Navy in 1960. The moon
was used to bounce teletypewriter signals between Hawaii and Washington, D.C. During the
early 1960s, the Navy used the moon as a medium for passing messages between ships at
sea and shore stations. This method of communications proved reliable when other methods
failed.
Military satellite communications technology was at a low level until 1965. At that time high
quality voice transmissions were conducted between a satellite and two earth stations. That
was the stepping stone to the Initial Defense Communications Satellite Program (IDCSP),
which will be covered later in this chapter.
Experience with satellite communications has demonstrated that satellite systems can satisfy
many military requirements. They are reliable, survivable, secure, and a cost effective method
of telecommunications. You can easily see that satellites are the ideal, if not often the only,
solution to problems of communicating with highly mobile forces. Satellites, if properly used,
provide much needed options to large, fixed-ground installations.
For the past fifty years, the Navy has used high-frequency (hf) transmissions as the principal
method of sending messages. In the 1970s, the hf spectrum was overcrowded and "free"
frequencies were at a premium. Hf jamming and electronic countermeasures (ECM)
techniques became highly sophisticated during that period. As a result the need for new and
advanced long-range transmission methods became apparent.
Communications via satellite is a natural outgrowth of modern technology and of the

continuing demand for greater capacity and higher quality in communications.
In the past, the various military branches have had the resources to support their
communications needs. Predicted usage indicates that large-scale improvements will have to
be made to satisfy future needs of the Department of Defense. These needs will require
greater capacity for long-haul communications to previously inaccessible areas. Satellite
communications has the most promise for satisfying these future requirements.
DEFENSE COMMUNICATIONS SATELLITE PROGRAM (DCSP)
The Defense Communications Satellite Program (DCSP) was initiated by the Secretary of
Defense in 1962. Phase I of the program was given the title Initial Defense Communications
Satellite Program (IDCSP). The first satellite launch occurred in June 1966 when seven
experimental satellites were placed into orbit. The final launch of this program consisted of
eight satellites and occurred in June 1968.
DEFENSE SATELLITE COMMUNICATIONS SYSTEM (DSCS) PHASE II
The Phase II Defense Satellite Communications System (DSCP Phase II) has changed from
an all-analog communications system to an all-digital communications system. The
performance capability provided by the Phase II DSCS is limited by equipment availability.
Extensive digital traffic capability has become common. You can credit this to the availability
of digital modems (modulator/demodulator) and broadband equipment. Overall performance
of the Phase II DSCS is a great improvement over the capabilities provided by Phase I DSCS.
The Phase II satellites provide a great increase in effective radiated power and rf bandwidths.
You will find these satellite configurations use wide coverage and narrow beam antennas.
They provide an extensive range of communications services and capabilities. (This will be
further discussed later, in this chapter.)
FUNDAMENTAL SATELLITE COMMUNICATIONS SYSTEM
A satellite communications system uses satellites to relay radio transmissions between earth
terminals. The two types of communications satellites you will study are ACTIVE and
PASSIVE. A passive satellite only reflects received radio signals back to earth. An active
satellite acts as a REPEATER; it amplifies signals received and then retransmits them back to
earth. This increases signal strength at the receiving terminal to a higher level than would be
available from a passive satellite.
A typical operational link involves an active satellite and two or more earth terminals. One
station transmits to the satellite on a frequency called the UP-LINK frequency. The satellite
then amplifies the signal, converts it to the DOWN-LINK frequency, and transmits it back to
earth. The signal is next picked up by the receiving terminal. Figure 4-1 shows a satellite
handling several combinations of links simultaneously.
Figure 4-1. - Satellite communications system.
DESCRIPTION OF COMMUNICATIONS SATELLITE SYSTEM
The basic design of a satellite communications system depends to a great degree upon the
characteristics of the orbit of the satellite. In general terms, an orbit is either elliptical or
circular in shape. A special type of orbit is a SYNCHRONOUS ORBIT. In this type you will find
the period (time required for one revolution) of the orbit the same as that of the earth. An orbit
that is not synchronous is called ASYNCHRONOUS. A period of orbit that approaches that of
the earth is called NEAR SYNCHRONOUS (subsynchronous). Orbits are discussed in more
detail later in this chapter.
In addition to the fundamental components shown in figure 4-1, the design of the overall
system determines the complexity of the various components and the manner in which the
system operates. Current satellites are capable of handling many teletypewriter (tty) and
voice circuits at the same time.
Orbit Descriptions
Orbits generally are described according to the physical shape of the orbit and the angle of
inclination of the plane of the orbit. These terms aye discussed in the following paragraphs:
PHYSICAL SHAPE. - All satellites orbit the earth in elliptical orbits. (A circle is a special case
of an ellipse.) The shape of the orbit is determined by the initial launch parameters and the
later deployment techniques used.
PERIGEE and APOGEE are two, of the three parameters used to describe orbital data of a
satellite. These are shown on figure 4-2. Perigee is the point in the orbit nearest to the center
of the earth. Apogee is the point in the orbit the greatest distance from the center of the earth.
Both distances are expressed in nautical miles.
Figure 4-2. - Elliptical satellite orbit.
ANGLE OF INCLINATION. - The ANGLE OF INCLINATION (angle between the equatorial

plane of the earth and the orbital plane of the satellite) is the third parameter used to describe
the orbit data of a satellite. Figure 4-3 depicts the angle of inclination between the equatorial
plane and the orbital plane. Most satellites orbit the earth in orbital planes that do not coincide
with the equatorial plane of the earth. A satellite orbiting in any plane not identical with the
equatorial plane is in an INCLINED ORBIT.
Figure 4-3. - Inclined satellite orbit.

The inclination of the orbit determines the area covered by the path of the satellite. As shown
in figure 4-4, the greater the inclination, the greater the amount of surface area covered by the
satellite.
Figure 4-4. - Effect of orbit plane inclination on satellite coverage.
SPECIAL TYPES OF INCLINED ORBITS. - A satellite orbiting in a plane that coincides with
the equatorial plane of the earth is in an EQUATORIAL ORBIT. A satellite orbiting in an
inclined orbit with an angle of inclination of 90 degrees or near 90 degrees is in a POLAR
ORBIT.
SPECIAL TYPES OF CIRCULAR ORBITS. - We stated previously that a circular orbit is a

special type of elliptical orbit. You should realize a circular orbit is one in which the major and
minor axis distances are equal or approximately equal. Mean height above earth, instead of
perigee and apogee, is used in describing a circular orbit. While we are discussing circular
orbits, you should look at some of the terms mentioned earlier in this chapter. A satellite in a
circular orbit at a height of approximately 19,300 nautical miles above the earth is in a
synchronous orbit. At this altitude the period of rotation of the satellite is 24 hours, the same
as the rotation period of the earth. In other words, the orbit of the satellite is in sync with the
rotational motion of the earth. Although inclined and polar synchronous orbits are possible,
the term synchronous usually refers to a synchronous equatorial orbit. In this type of orbit,
satellites appear to hover motionlessly in the sky. Figure 4-5 shows how one of these
satellites can provide coverage to almost half the surface of the earth.
Figure 4-5. - Illumination from a synchronous satellite.
Three of these satellites can provide coverage over most of the earth (except for the extreme
north and south polar regions). A polar projection of the global coverage of a three-satellite
system is shown in figure 4-6.
Figure 4-6. - Worldwide synchronous satellite system viewed from above the North Pole.
A satellite in a circular orbit at other than 19,300 nautical miles above the earth is in a near-
synchronous orbit. If the orbit is lower than 19,300 nautical miles, the period of orbit of the
satellite is less than the period of orbit of the earth. The satellite then appears to be moving
slowly around the earth from west to east. (This type of orbit is also called subsynchronous.) If
the orbit is higher than 19,300 nautical miles, the period of orbit of the satellite is greater than
the period of orbit of the earth. The satellite then appears to be moving slowly around the
earth from east to west. Although inclined and polar near-synchronous orbits are possible,
near synchronous implies an equatorial orbit.
A satellite in a circular orbit from approximately 2,000 miles to 12,000 miles above the earth is
considered to be in a MEDIUM ALTITUDE ORBIT. The period of a medium altitude satellite is
considerably less than that of the earth. When you look at this altitude satellite, it appears to
move rather quickly across the sky from west to east.
Q.1 What are the two types of communications satellites?

Q.2 A typical satellite communications operational link consists of a satellite and what two
other components?
Q.3 A satellite in a synchronous orbit can cover how much of the surface of the earth?
Q.4 What areas of the earth are not normally covered by satellites?

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Introduction to miscellaneous communications systems and equipment
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INTRODUCTION TO MISCELLANEOUS COMMUNICATIONS SYSTEMS AND EQUIPMENT
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
Describe the basic operation of

communications systems that operate at
medium frequencies and below.
Describe the basic microwave line-of-sight Join Integrated
communications system. Publishing's
Describe the basic tropospheric scatter Discussion Group
communications system.
Describe the objective/purpose of the naval
tactical data system (NTDS).
Describe the naval tactical data system
(NTDS) data transmission subsystems in terms
of links.
Explain the various applications of portable
communications equipment. Order this
Define the term laser. information on CD-
Describe the basic theory of operation of lasers Rom
Describe the possible applications of lasers in
communications.
INTRODUCTION
In the previous four chapters we've looked at communications equipment and systems that were used
Order this
in several frequency ranges. Some have had many applications. In this chapter you will look at
information in
systems used in some portions of the rf spectrum that have not been covered in detail. We will also
Print (Hardcopy).
discuss the naval tactical data system (NTDS), which operates in the high-frequency and ultrahigh-
frequency regions. Various portable communications equipments used in the military and an
introduction to the laser and its uses in communications are included. Some of the applications
presented are fairly new to the military community.
SYSTEMS
As discussed in chapter 1, the frequency range from elf to shf is from below 300 hertz up to 30
gigahertz. The first area we will cover is the lower frequency bands (medium frequency [mf] and
below). You will then get a look at the microwave region and the high-frequency and ultrahigh-
frequency range as it pertains to the naval tactical data system (NTDS).
MEDIUM FREQUENCY AND BELOW
Most of the receivers and transmitters that you will see used in the mf portions of the rf spectrum and
below are very similar in design. In chapter 1 we discussed the operational uses of the equipment;
now let's look at the equipment itself.
Equipment items covered in this and other chapters are meant to be merely representative of
equipment that may be encountered in naval communications. No attempt will be made to include all
of the possible equipment or equipment configurations.
Transmit Equipment
You should realize the transmitters used in bands of medium frequency and below are similar to
those you studied in chapter 2. In other words, a transmitter used in one frequency range is basically
the same as one used in another range. However, there are some differences. Two of the differences
are component size and the use of a technique called DOUBLING UP.
The components used in bands of medium frequency and below are much larger physically than the
ones previously discussed. This is because of the higher operating voltage and current levels
required to produce the very high-powered rf outputs needed for the uses covered in chapter 1. A
given resistor used in an hf application may be rated at 1/2 watt, whereas the same resistor used in a
lower frequency application would probably be rated in tens or even hundreds of watts.
A block diagram of a doubled-up transmitter is shown in figure 5-1. Remember, bands of medium
frequencies and below are used almost exclusively for broadcast and are on the air continuously.
Doubling up increases reliability. As you can see, two transmitters are located in the same equipment
cabinet. This allows you to quickly transfer circuits if one should fail. This dual installation also allows
both amplifiers to be used together to double the output power. When you use this application, you
sacrifice the doubling-up capability of only the power amplifier. All the other components are still
available as backups. Let's go through figure 5-1 and describe the block functions.
Figure 5-1. - Doubled-up transmitter block diagram.

The frequency generator part of the frequency generator and fsk block is an oscillator. It provides the
carrier frequencies for the cw mode. The fsk part is a FREQUENCY SYNTHESIZER (a frequency
source of high accuracy). It makes both the mark and space frequencies from a very stable clock
oscillator. The keying pulses determine which fsk frequency the keyer chooses to transmit. This
signal is then sent to the transmitter control console where it is distributed to the first rf amplifier. This
amplifier is referred to as the preliminary intermediate-power amplifier (pre-ipa). The pre-ipa uses
linear, untuned, push-pull, rf amplifiers to provide amplified rf to drive other rf amplifiers. The pre-ipa
output goes to the intermediate power amplifier (ipa).
The ipa receives the pre-ipa output, amplifies the signal, and drives other selected power amplifiers.
The ipa is a single-stage, untuned, linear, push-pull, rf circuit that uses water and forced-air cooled
tubes.
Signals are then sent through the amplifier control, where they are used for signal monitoring
purposes before being applied to the final rf amplifier (pa). The pa amplifies the signal to the final
desired power level. The pa also contains variometers (variable inductors) for coupling. This coupled
output is fed to the rf tuning unit.
The rf tuning unit consists of variable oil-filled capacitors and a fixed inductor for frequency tuning.
The signal is then sent to a knife switch. This switch simply routes the signal to the DUMMY LOAD or
the antenna by way of the HELIX HOUSE. (A dummy load is a nonradiating device the absorbs the rf
and has the impedance characteristics of the antenna.) The dummy load is impedance matched to
the pa. It allows testing of the pa without putting a signal on the air. When the equipment is in an
operating mode, the dummy load is not used. The helix house is a small building physically separated
from the transmitter location. It contains antenna loading, coupling, and tuning circuits. The main
components consist of a HELIX (large coil) and variable inductors. The signal is fed from the helix
directly to the antenna. Sometimes two antennas are used.
Antenna designs vary with the amount and type of land available, desired signal coverage, and
bandwidth requirements. Figure 5-2 shows a simplified transmit antenna. The Navy uses TOP-HAT
(flat-top) capacitive loading with one or more radiating elements. Typical top hat antennas consist of
two or more lengths of wire parallel to each other and to the ground, each fed at or near its mid point.
The lengths of wire are usually supported by vertical towers. These antennas may take many shapes.
The matching network shown is in the helix house. Figure 5-3 shows the installation at the naval
communications unit in Cutler, Maine. The Navy has several of these types of installations. They are
used primarily for fleet broadcasts and have power outputs in the .25- to 2-megahertz range. You
should notice the transmitter, the location of the helix houses, and the dual antennas. You should also
notice the transmission line tunnel. It is underground and over a half-mile long. Figure 5-4, view (A)
and view (B), shows another antenna configuration. This array of monopoles (quarter-wave, vertically
polarized stubs) is referred to as a TRIATIC antenna. A triatic antenna is a special form of a rhombic-
arranged monopole array. This type of array is designed to transmit from a particular location. Triatics
are all basically the same but have some design differences at each site. The physical differences
compensate for differences in terrain. Now that we have looked at the transmit side, let's look at the
receive side.
Figure 5-2. - Simplified vlf transmitting antenna.
Figure 5-3. - Cutler, Maine antenna installation.

Figure 5-4A. - Triatic type antenna.
Figure 5-4B. - Triatic type antenna.

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Radar fundamentals
Radar measurement range

Pulse energy content
Bearing
Radar principles of operation
Scanning
Electronic scanning
Frequency-modulation method
Radar classification and use
Air-Search Radar
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Tracking radar
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Radar subsystems
Transmitters
Modulator Switching Devices
Power amplifier transmitter Order this
information on CD-
Duplexers
Rom
ATR Tube
Waveguide Duplexer
Receivers
Mixer
Receiver special circuits
Logarithmic Receiver
Summary Order this
Print (Hardcopy).
Radar indicators and antennas
Plan position indicator

Ranging circuits
Radar antennas
Corner reflectors
Summary
Answers
Radar system maintenance
The Echo Box

Receiver performance checks
Standing wave measurements
Dry-Air systems
Cooling systems
Summary
Answers

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RADAR FUNDAMENTALS
LEARNING OBJECTIVES

below. Publishing's
Discussion Group
Define range, bearing, and
altitude as they relate to a
radar system.
Discuss how pulse width,
peak power, and beam width
affect radar performance.
Describe the factors that
contribute to or detract from Order this
radar accuracy. information on CD-
Rom
Using a block diagram,
describe the basic function,
principles of operation, and
interrelationships of the basic
units of a radar system.
Order this
Explain the various ways in
information in
which radar systems are
Print (Hardcopy).
classified, including the
standard Army/Navy
classification system.
Explain the basic operation of
cw, pulse, and Doppler radar
systems.
INTRODUCTION TO RADAR FUNDAMENTALS
The term RADAR is common in today's everyday language. You

probably use it yourself when referring to a method of recording the
speed of a moving object. The term Radar is an acronym made up
of the words radio detection and ranging. The term is used to refer
to electronic equipment that detect the presence, direction, height,
and distance of objects by using reflected electromagnetic energy.
Electromagnetic energy of the frequency used for radar is
unaffected by darkness and also penetrates weather to some
degree, depending on frequency. It permits radar systems to
determine the positions of ships, planes, and land masses that are
invisible to the naked eye because of distance, darkness, or
weather.
The development of radar into the highly complex systems in use

today represents the accumulated developments of many people
and nations. The general principles of radar have been known for a
long time, but many electronics discoveries were necessary before
a useful radar system could be developed. World War II provided a
strong incentive to develop practical radar, and early versions were
in use soon after the war began. Radar technology has improved in
the years since the war. We now have radar systems that are
smaller, more efficient, and better than those early versions.
Modern radar systems are used for early detection of surface or air
objects and provide extremely accurate information on distance,
direction, height, and speed of the objects. Radar is also used to
guide missiles to targets and direct the firing of gun systems. Other
types of radar provide long-distance surveillance and navigation
information.
BASIC RADAR CONCEPTS
The electronics principle on which radar operates is very similar to

the principle of sound-wave reflection. If you shout in the direction
of a sound-reflecting object (like a rocky canyon or cave), you will
hear an echo. If you know the speed of sound in air, you can then
estimate the distance and general direction of the object. The time
required for a return echo can be roughly converted to distance if
the speed of sound is known. Radar uses electromagnetic energy
pulses in much the same way, as shown in figure 1-1. The radio-
frequency (rf) energy is transmitted to and reflects from the
reflecting object. A small portion of the energy is reflected and
returns to the radar set. This returned energy is called an ECHO,
just as it is in sound terminology. Radar sets use the echo to
determine the direction and distance of the reflecting object.
Figure 1-1. - Radar echo.

NOTE: The terms TARGET, RETURN, ECHO, CONTACT,
OBJECT, and REFLECTING OBJECT are used interchangeably
throughout this module to indicate a surface or airborne object that
has been detected by a radar system.
Radar systems also have some characteristics in common with

telescopes. Both provide only a limited field of view and require
reference coordinate systems to define the positions of detected
objects. If you describe the location of an object as you see it
through a telescope, you will most likely refer to prominent features
of the landscape. Radar requires a more precise reference system.
Radar surface angular measurements are normally made in a
clockwise direction from TRUE NORTH, as shown in figure 1-2, or
from the heading line of a ship or aircraft. The surface of the earth
is represented by an imaginary flat plane, tangent (or parallel) to
the earth's surface at that location. This plane is referred to as the
HORIZONTAL PLANE. All angles in the up direction are measured
in a second imaginary plane that is perpendicular to the horizontal
plane.
Figure 1-2. - Radar reference coordinates.

This second plane is called the VERTICAL PLANE. The radar
location is the center of this coordinate system. The line from the
radar set directly to the object is referred to as the LINE OF SIGHT
(los). The length of this line is called RANGE. The angle between
the horizontal plane and the los is the ELEVATION ANGLE. The
angle measured clockwise from true north in the horizontal plane is
called the TRUE BEARING or AZIMUTH angle. These three
coordinates of range, bearing, and elevation describe the location
of an object with respect to the antenna.
Q.1 Radar surface-angular measurements are referenced to true
north and measured in what plane?

Q.2 The distance from a radar set to a target measured along the
line of sight is identified by what term?

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RADAR SUBSYSTEMS
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
Upon completion of this chapter, the student will be able to:
Describe, in general terms,

the function of a radar
synchronizer.
State the basic requirements Join Integrated
and types of master Publishing's
synchronizers. Discussion Group
Describe the purpose,
requirements, and operation
of a radar modulator.
Describe the basic operating
sequence of a keyed-
oscillator transmitter.
sequence of a power-amplifier Order this
transmitter. information on CD-
State the purpose of a Rom
duplexer.
State the operational
principles of tr and atr tubes.
sequence of series and
parallel connected duplexers.
Order this
List the basic design
information in
requirements of an effective
Print (Hardcopy).
radar receiver.
List the major sections of a
typical radar receiver.
Using a block diagram,
describe the operational
characteristics of a typical
radar receiver.
INTRODUCTION TO RADAR SUBSYSTEMS
Any radar system has several major subsystems that perform

standard functions. A typical radar system consists of a
SYNCHRONIZER (also called the TIMER or TRIGGER
GENERATOR), a TRANSMITTER, a DUPLEXER, a RECEIVER,
and an INDICATOR. These major subsystems were briefly
described in chapter 1. This chapter will describe the operation of
the synchronizer, transmitter, duplexer, and receiver of a typical
pulse radar system and briefly analyze the circuits used. Chapter 3
will describe typical indicator and antenna subsystems. Because
radar systems vary widely in specific design, only a general
description of representative circuits is presented in this chapter.
SYNCHRONIZERS
The synchronizer is often referred to as the "heart" of the radar

system because it controls and provides timing for the operation of
the entire system. Other names for the synchronizer are the TIMER
and the KEYER. We will use the term synchronizer in our
discussion. In some complex systems the synchronizer is part of a
system computer that performs many functions other than system
timing.
SYNCHRONIZER FUNCTION
The specific function of the synchronizer is to produce TRIGGER

PULSES that start the transmitter, indicator sweep circuits, and
ranging circuits.
Timing or control is the function of the majority of circuits in radar.

Circuits in a radar set accomplish control and timing functions by
producing a variety of voltage waveforms, such as square waves,
sawtooth waves, trapezoidal waves, rectangular waves, brief
rectangular pulses, and sharp peaks. Although all of these circuits
can be broadly classified as timing circuits, the specific function of
any individual circuit could also be wave shaping or wave
generation. The operation of many of these circuits and associated
terms were described in detail in NEETS, Module 9, Introduction to
Wave-Generation and Wave-Shaping Circuits.
Q.1 What is the purpose of the synchronizer in a radar system?
Q.2 What is the purpose of the majority of circuits in a radar
system?
SYNCHRONIZER OPERATION
Radar systems may be classified as either SELF-SYNCHRONIZED

or EXTERNALLY SYNCHRONIZED systems. In a self-
synchronized system, the timing trigger pulses are generated in the
transmitter. In an externally synchronized system, the timing trigger
pulses are generated by a MASTER OSCILLATOR, which is
usually external to the transmitter.
The master oscillator in an externally synchronized system may be

a BLOCKING OSCILLATOR, a SINE-WAVE OSCILLATOR, or an
ASTABLE (FREE-RUNNING) MULTI-VIBRATOR. When a blocking
oscillator is used as a master oscillator, the timing trigger pulses
are usually obtained directly from the oscillator. When a sine-wave
oscillator or an astable multivibrator is used as a master oscillator,
pulse-shaping circuits are required to form the necessary timing
trigger pulses. In an externally synchronized radar system, the
pulse repetition rate (prr) of the timing trigger pulses from the
master oscillator determines the prr of the transmitter.
In a self-synchronized radar system, the prr of the timing trigger

pulses is determined by the prr of the modulator or transmitter.
Associated with every radar system is an indicator, such as a
cathode-ray tube, and associated circuitry. The indicator can
present range, bearing, and elevation data in visual form so that a
detected object may be located. Trigger pulses from the
synchronizer are frequently used to produce gate (or enabling)
pulses. When applied to the indicator, gate pulses perform the
following functions:
Initiate and time the duration

of the indicator sweep voltage
Intensify the cathode-ray tube
electron beam during the
sweep period so that the echo
pulses may be displayed
Gate a range marker
generator so that range
marker signals may be
superimposed on the indicator
presentation
Figure 2-1 shows the time relationships of the various waveforms in

a typical radar set. The timing trigger pulses are applied to both the
transmitter and the indicator. When a trigger pulse is applied to the
transmitter, a short burst of transmitter pulses (rf energy) is
generated.
Figure 2-1. - Time relationship of waveforms.

This energy is conducted along a transmission line to the radar
antenna. It is radiated by the antenna into space. When this
transmitter energy strikes one or more reflecting objects in its path,
some of the transmitted energy is reflected back to the antenna as
echo pulses. Echo pulses from three reflecting targets at different
ranges are illustrated in figure 2-1. These echoes are converted to
the corresponding receiver output signals as shown in the figure.
The larger initial and final pulses in the receiver output signal are
caused by the energy that leaks through the duplexer when a pulse
is being transmitted.
The indicator sweep voltage shown in figure 2-1 is initiated at the

same time the transmitter is triggered. In other applications, it may
be more desirable to delay the timing trigger pulse that is to be fed
to the indicator sweep circuit. Delaying the trigger pulse will initiate
the indicator sweep after a pulse is transmitted.
Note in figure 2-1 that the positive portion of the indicator intensity
gate pulse (applied to the cathode-ray tube control grid) occurs
only during the indicator sweep time. As a result, the visible
cathode-ray tube trace occurs only during sweep time and is
eliminated during the flyback (retrace) time. The negative portion of
the range-marker gate pulse also occurs during the indicator sweep
time. This negative gate pulse is applied to a range-marker
generator, which produces a series of range marks.
The range marks are equally spaced and are produced only for the
duration of the range-marker gate pulse. When the range marks
are combined (mixed) with the receiver output signal, the resulting
video signal applied to the indicator may appear as shown at the
bottom of figure 2-1.
Q.3 A self-synchronized radar system obtains timing trigger pulses
from what source?

Q.4 What type of multivibrator can be used as a radar master
oscillator?
Q.5 In an externally synchronized radar, what determines the prr of
the transmitter?
Q.6 In figure 2-1, what causes the initial and final pulses on the
receiver output signal?
BASIC SYNCHRONIZER CIRCUITS
The basic synchronizer circuit should meet the following three

basic requirements:
It must be free running

(astable). Because the
synchronizer is the heart of
the radar, it must establish the
zero time reference and the
prf (prr).
It should be stable in
frequency.
For accurate ranging, the prr
and its reciprocal, pulse-
repetition time (prt), must not
change between pulses.
The frequency must be
variable to enable the radar to
operate at different ranges.
Three basic synchronizer circuits can meet the above mentioned

requirements. They are the SINE-WAVE OSCILLATOR, the
SINGLE-SWING BLOCKING OSCILLATOR, and the MASTER-
TRIGGER (ASTABLE) MULTIVIBRATOR.
Figure 2-2 shows the block diagrams and waveforms of these three
synchronizers as they are used in externally synchronized radar
systems. In each case, equally spaced timing trigger pulses are
produced. The prr of each series of timing trigger pulses is
determined by the operating frequency of the associated master
oscillator.
Figure 2-2. - Timers used in externally synchronized radar systems.
Sine-Wave Oscillator Synchronizer

In the sine-wave oscillator synchronizer (figure 2-2, view A), a sine-
wave oscillator is used for the basic timing device (master
oscillator). The oscillator output is applied to both an overdriven
amplifier and the radar indicator. The sine waves applied to the
overdriven amplifier are shaped into square waves. These square
waves are then converted into positive and negative timing trigger
pulses by means of a short-time-constant RC differentiator.
By means of a limiter, either the positive or negative trigger pulses

from the RC differentiator are removed. This leaves trigger pulses
of only one polarity. For example, the limiter in view A of figure 2-2
is a negative-lobe limiter; that is, the limiter removes the negative
trigger pulses and passes only positive trigger pulses to the radar
transmitter.
A disadvantage of a sine-wave oscillator synchronizer is the large

number of pulse-shaping circuits required to produce the necessary
timing trigger pulses.
Master Trigger (Astable) Multivibrator Synchronizer
In a master trigger (astable) multivibrator synchronizer (view B,

figure 2-2), the master oscillator generally is an astable
multivibrator. The multivibrator is either ASYMMETRICAL or
SYMMETRICAL. If the multivibrator is asymmetrical, it generates
rectangular waves. If the multivibrator is symmetrical, it generates
square waves. In either case, the timing trigger pulses are equally
spaced after a limiter removes undesired positive or negative
lobes.
There are two transistors in an astable multivibrator. The two

output voltages are equal in amplitude, but are 180 degrees out of
phase. The output of the astable multivibrator consists of positive
and negative rectangular waves. Positive rectangular waves are
applied to an RC differentiator and converted into positive and
negative trigger pulses. As in the sine-wave synchronizer, the
negative trigger pulses are removed by means of a negative-lobe
limiter, and the positive pulses are applied to the transmitter.
Both positive and negative rectangular waves from the astable

multivibrator are applied to the indicator. One set of waves is used
to intensify the cathode-ray tube electron beam for the duration of
the sweep. The other set of waves is used to gate (turn on) the
range marker generator.
Single-Swing Blocking Oscillator Synchronizer
In the single-swing, blocking-oscillator synchronizer, shown in view

C of figure 2-2, a free-running, single-swing blocking oscillator is
generally used as the master oscillator. The advantage of the
single-swing blocking oscillator is that it generates sharp trigger
pulses without additional shaping circuitry. Timing trigger pulses of
only one polarity are obtained by means of a limiter.
Gating pulses for the indicator circuits are produced by applying the
output of the blocking oscillator to a one-shot multivibrator or
another variable time delay circuit (not shown). Crystal-controlled
oscillators may be used when very stable frequency operation is
required.
Q.7 What basic circuits meet the requirements of an externally
synchronized master oscillator?

Q.8 Name a disadvantage of sine-wave oscillator synchronizers.
Q.9 Which of the basic timing circuits produces sharp trigger pulses
directly?
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RADAR INDICATORS AND ANTENNAS
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
Describe the purpose of the A

scope, the range-height
indicator (rhi), and the plan
position indicator (ppi). Join Integrated
State the relationship Publishing's
between range and sweep Discussion Group
speed and length on a radar
indicator.
Explain the purpose of timing
triggers, video, and antenna
position inputs to a radar
indicator.
List the major units of a ppi
and describe their functions. Order this
Describe the basic operation information on CD-
of sweep deflection and Rom
sweep rotation in a ppi.
List and describe the
operation of the three range
measurement circuits.
Describe antenna directivity
and power gain
Order this
characteristics.
information in
Describe the focusing action
Print (Hardcopy).
of a basic parabolic antenna.
Describe the basic radiation
patterns of the most common
parabolic reflectors.
Describe the basic
characteristics of horn
radiators.
INTRODUCTION
Radar systems require an antenna to both transmit and receive

radar energy and an indicator system to display the video
information generated. This chapter will briefly describe some
commonly used indicators and antenna systems. Antenna systems
are described in more detail in NEETS, Module 10, Introduction to
Wave Generation, Transmission Lines, and Antennas, and Module
11, Microwave Principles.
RADAR INDICATORS
The information available from a radar receiver may contain as

many as several million separate data bits per second. From these
and other data, such as the orientation of the antenna, the indicator
should present to the observer a continuous, easily
understandable, graphic picture of the relative position of radar
targets. It should provide size, shape, and insofar as possible,
indications of the type of targets. A cathode-ray tube (crt) fulfills
these requirements to an astonishing degree. The cathode-ray
tube's principal shortcoming is that it cannot present a true three-
dimensional picture.
The fundamental geometrical quantities involved in radar displays

are the RANGE, AZIMUTH ANGLE (or BEARING), and
ELEVATION ANGLE. These displays relate the position of a radar
target to the origin at the antenna. Most radar displays include one
or two of these quantities as coordinates of the crt face.
The actual range of a target from the radar, whether on the ground,
in the water, or in the air is known as SLANT RANGE. The majority
of displays use as one coordinate the value of slant range, its
horizontal projection (GROUND RANGE), or its vertical projection
(ALTITUDE). Since slant range is involved in every radar situation,
it inevitably appears in at least one display on every set. Slant
range is the coordinate that is duplicated most often when more
than one type of display is used. This is partly because displays
presenting range have the highest signal-to-noise discrimination
and partly for geometrical reasons.
Range is displayed by means of a linear time-base sweep, starting

from a given point or line at a definite time in each pulse cycle.
Thus, distances along this range sweep actually measure slant
range. The sweep speed determines the scale factor, which relates
the distance on the tube to actual range. The sweep length is the
total distance represented. Distances are expressed in miles
(statute or nautical) or yards. The origin of the range sweep may be
on or off the tube face.
The angle at which the antenna is pointing, either in azimuth or

elevation, may provide two-dimensional information in the display;
that is, range and azimuth, or range and elevation.
A radar indicator, sometimes called a radar repeater, acts as the

master timing device in analyzing the return of the video in a radar
system. It also provides that capability to various other locations
physically remote from the radar system. Each indicator should
have the ability to select the outputs from any desired radar system
aboard the ship. This is usually accomplished by the use of a
RADAR DISTRIBUTION SWITCHBOARD. The switchboard
contains a switching arrangement that has inputs from each radar
system aboard ship and provides outputs to each repeater. The
radar desired is selected by means of a selector switch on the
repeater. For the repeater to present correct target position data,
the indicator must have the following three inputs from the selected
radar:
Trigger timing pulses.

These pulses ensure that the sweep on the repeater starts from its
point of origin each time the radar transmits. As discussed earlier,
the repeater displays all targets at their actual range from the ship
based on the time lapse between the instant of transmission and
the instant the target's echo is received. The returning echo. The
echo, in rf form, is detected (converted to a video signal) by the
radar receiver and applied to the repeater. Antenna information.
The angular sweep position of a plan position indicator (ppi)
repeater must be synchronized to the angular position of the radar
antenna to display target bearing (azimuth) information.
The three most common types of displays, called scopes, are the A-
scope, the RANGE-HEIGHT INDICATOR (RHI) SCOPE, and the
PLAN POSITION INDICATOR (PPI) SCOPE. The primary function
of these displays will be discussed in this section. However,
detailed descriptions will be limited to the ppi scope, which is the
most common display.
THE A SCOPE
The A-scope display, shown in figure 3-1, presents only the range
to the target and the relative strength of the echo. Such a display is
normally used in weapons control radar systems. The bearing and
elevation angles are presented as dial or digital readouts that
correspond to the actual physical position of the antenna.
Figure 3-1. - A scope.
The A-scope normally uses an electrostatic-deflection crt. The

sweep is produced by applying a sawtooth voltage to the horizontal
deflection plates. The electrical length (time duration) of the
sawtooth voltage determines the total amount of range displayed
on the crt face.
The ranges of individual targets on an A-scope are usually

determined by using a movable range gate or step that is
superimposed on the sweep. Ranging circuits will be discussed in
more detail later in this section.
RANGE-HEIGHT INDICATOR (RHI)
The range-height indicator (rhi) scope, shown in figure 3-2, is used

with height-finding search radars to obtain altitude information. The
rhi is a two-dimensional presentation indicating target range and
altitude. The sweep originates in the lower left side of the scope. It
moves across the scope, to the right, at an angle that is the same
as the angle of transmission of the height-finding radar. The line of
sight to the horizon is indicated by the bottom horizontal line. The
area directly overhead is straight up the left side of the scope.
Target echoes are displayed on the scope as vertical PIPS or
BLIPS (spots of increased intensity that indicate a target location).
The operator determines altitude by adjusting a movable height line
to the point where it bisects the center of the blip. Target height is
then read directly from an altitude dial or digital readout. Vertical
range markers are also provided to estimate target range.
Figure 3-2. - RHI scope.

Q.1 What are the three fundamental quantities involved in radar
displays?
Q.2 What are the required radar inputs for proper indicator
operation?
Q.3 What coordinates are displayed on an rhi scope?
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RADAR SYSTEM MAINTENANCE
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
Interpret the transmitter

frequency spectrum in terms of
frequency distribution, power
output, receiver response, and Join Integrated
an acceptable spectrum curve. Publishing's
Describe the methods for Discussion Group
measuring the average and
peak power outputs of a radar
transmitter.
Describe the methods of
measuring receiver sensitivity.
Define receiver bandwidth in
terms of the receiver response
curve and state the most Order this
common methods of information on CD-
measuring tr tube recovery Rom
time.
List the support systems
associated with a typical
shipboard radar system and
describe the basic function of
each.
Order this
State the general rules for the
information in
prevention of personnel
Print (Hardcopy).
exposure to rf radiation and X-
ray emissions.
INTRODUCTION TO RADAR MAINTENANCE
The effectiveness of your radar system depends largely upon the

care and attention you give it. An improperly adjusted transmitter, for
example, can reduce the accuracy of a perfectly aligned receiver; the
entire system then becomes essentially useless. Maintenance,
therefore, must encompass the entire system for best operation.
Because of the complexity of most radar systems, trying to detail step-

by-step procedures for specific maintenance actions in this chapter is
impractical. However, the basic procedures for some maintenance
actions that are common to most radar systems will be discussed.
Also, an overview of support systems for radars will be presented.
This will include electrical power, dry-air systems, and liquid cooling
systems. Finally, safety precautions inherent to radars are listed.
TRANSMITTER PERFORMANCE CHECKS
The transmitter of a radar is designed to operate within a limited band

of frequencies at an optimum power level. Operation at frequencies
or power levels outside the assigned band greatly decreases the
efficiency of the transmitter and may cause interference with other
radars. Therefore, transmitter performance must be monitored closely
for both frequency and output power.
TRANSMITTER FREQUENCY
Whether of the fixed-frequency or tunable type, the radar transmitter

frequency should be checked periodically. If the transmitter is of the
fixed-frequency type and found to be operating outside its normal
operating band, the problem is probably a defective part. The
defective component must be replaced. If the transmitter is tunable,
the transmitter must again be tuned to the assigned frequency.
Each time a radar transmitter generates an rf pulse, it produces

electromagnetic energy. You should recall from your study of NEETS,
Module 12, Modulation Principles, that the square wave used to
modulate the transmitter carrier wave has (1) the fundamental square-
wave frequency and (2) an infinite number of odd harmonics of the
fundamental square wave frequency. When this square wave is used
to modulate the transmitter carrier frequency, both the fundamental
and odd harmonic frequencies of the square wave heterodyne with
the transmitter carrier frequency. The heterodyning process produces
in each transmitted rf pulse the following frequencies:
The fundamental carrier

frequency
The sum and difference
frequencies between the
carrier and fundamental square-
wave frequencies
The sum and difference
frequencies between the odd
harmonics of the square wave
and the carrier frequencies
For a complete discussion of this process, you should review module

12.
Actually, the radar energy is distributed more or less symmetrically

over a band of frequencies. This frequency distribution of energy is
known as the FREQUENCY SPECTRUM. An analysis of frequency
spectrum characteristics may be made with a SPECTRUM
ANALYZER. The spectrum analyzer presents a graphic display of
energy versus frequency. An extensive explanation of spectrum
analyzer use can be found in the Electronics Installation and
Maintenance Book (EIMB), Test Methods and Practices, NAVSEA
0967-LP-000-0130.
Spectrum Analysis
When properly performed and interpreted, a spectrum analysis will

reveal misadjustments and troubles that would otherwise be difficult
to locate. Therefore, you should be able to perform a spectrum
analysis and understand the results.
You may be wondering why we are so interested in the frequency

spectrum of an rf pulse. To better understand why, look at the
spectrum of a transmitter as compared to the response curve of a
receiver in figure 4-1. The receiver's response curve has a broader
bandwidth than the transmitted spectrum, which ensures complete
coverage. But the receiver responds best to frequencies in the middle
of the bandwidth. This causes the receiver response to taper off from
both sides of the center frequency until the response passes through
the half-power points, as shown on the curve. Usually the receiver
response beyond these points is too low to be useful and is not
considered. Notice that the spectrum of the transmitter is centered
inside the response curve of the receiver, thus yielding maximum
efficiency.
Figure 4-1. - Transmitter spectrum compared with receiver response.
Any frequency, when modulated by another frequency, will produce a

base frequency with sideband frequencies (sum and difference). In
other words, the output of a pulsed radar will contain more than one
frequency. The output frequency spectrum of the pulsed radar
transmitter does not consist of just a single frequency that is turned
on and off at the pulse-repetition frequency (prf). Consider the
spectrum as a base frequency (carrier) that is modulated by short
rectangular pulses occurring at the prf of the radar. Two distinct
modulating components are present: One component consists of the
prf and its associated harmonics; the other component consists of the
fundamental and odd-harmonic frequencies that make up the
rectangular modulating pulse.
The distribution of power over the radar frequency spectrum depends

on the amount of modulation. A pulsed radar spectrum is illustrated in
figure 4-2. The vertical lines represent the modulation frequencies
produced by the prf and its associated harmonics; the lobes
represent the modulation frequencies produced by the fundamental
pulse frequency and its associated harmonics. The amplitude of the
main lobe falls to zero on each side of the carrier. The side lobes are
produced by the odd harmonics of the fundamental pulse frequency.
The zero points are produced by the even harmonics of the
fundamental pulse frequency. In an ideal spectrum each frequency
above the carrier has its counterpart in another frequency below the
carrier. These frequencies are equally spaced and have equal power.
Therefore, the pattern is symmetrical about the carrier. The main
lobe, of course, contains the major portion of the transmitted rf
energy.
Figure 4-2. - Spectrum of a pulse-modulated carrier.
A radar transmitter in good condition should produce a spectrum

curve similar to the curves shown in view A or B in figure 4-3. Good
curves are those in which the two halves are symmetrical and contain
deep, well-defined minimum points (minima) on both sides of the
main peak.
Figure 4-3. - Comparison of radar spectra.

A curve without well-defined minima, as in the curve shown in view C,
indicates that the transmitter output is being frequency modulated
during the pulse. This condition may occur when a pulse without
sufficiently steep sides or a flat peak is applied to the transmitter. It
may also occur when a transmitter tube is unstable or is operated
without proper voltage, current, or magnetic field.
An extremely irregular spectrum, as in the curve in view D, is an

indication of severe frequency modulation. This condition usually
causes trouble with the receiver automatic frequency control (afc) as
well as a general loss of signal strength. You can often improve a
faulty spectrum by adjusting the transmission line stubs or by
replacing the transmitter tube. When the spectrum has two large
peaks that are quite far apart, it indicates that the transmitter tube is
DOUBLE MODING (shifting from one frequency to another). This
could be caused by standing waves in the transmission line or a
faulty transmitter tube. Standing waves may be caused by a faulty
line connection, a bad antenna rotating joint, or obstructions in the
line. (Standing waves are described in NEETS, Module 10,
Introduction to Wave Propagation, Transmission Lines, and
Antennas.)
In the case of a good or fair spectrum curve with sharply defined

minimum points on both sides of the main lobe, the distance between
these two points is proportional to the duration of the transmitted
pulse.
The device most commonly used to check the frequency spectrum of

a radar transmitter is the spectrum analyzer.
Frequency-Measuring Devices
Devices used to determine the basic carrier frequency of a radar

transmitter are the ELECTRONIC FREQUENCY COUNTER, the
WAVEMETER, and the ECHO BOX. One or more of these devices
may be included in a special RADAR TEST SET designed for a
specific system or type of radar. Radar test sets quite often consist of
several types of test equipment. This combination of test equipments
enables both transmitter and receiver performance checks to be
carried out with one test instrument. Electronic frequency counters,
frequency meters, and wavemeters are discussed in NEETS, Module
16, Introduction to Test Equipment. The echo box is discussed in the
next section. The specific equipments and procedures required to
measure the frequency of any radar system are found in the
associated system technical manuals and related PMS documents.
Q.1 The spectrum of a radar transmitter describes what characteristic
of the output pulse?

Q.2 Where should the transmitter spectrum be located with respect to
the receiver response curve?

Q.3 The ideal radar spectrum has what relationship to the carrier
frequency?
Q.4 The display screen of a spectrum analyzer presents a graphic
plot of what two signal characteristics?

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Basic measurements
Oscilloscope Method
Multimeter Method
Oscilloscope method
RCL Bridges
Reactance-type measurements
Summary
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Component testing Join Integrated

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Klystron Tube Tests
Transistor Testers
Metal oxide semiconductor
Diode testers
Silicon-controlled rectifiers (SCR)
Unijunction transistors (UJTs)
MOSFET (Depletion/Enhancement Type) Test
Logic Probes Order this
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Typical voltage Tolerances for Dry Cell Batteries
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Fiber-optic testing
Testing Components by Comparison
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Quantitative measurements Order this

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Wheatstone Bridge Print (Hardcopy).
Impedance testing of antennas and transmission lines
Iron-core, composite-coil, and torsion-head
wattmeters
Bolometer Power Meter
Frequency measurements
Frequency Counter Methods
Summary
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Qualitative measurements
SWR Meters
Intermodulation distortion measurements
Summary
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Introduction to waveform interpretation
Oscilloscope Measurement Methods

Spectrum waveform analysis and measurements
Spectrum analyzer applications
Frequency Modulation
Time-domain reflectometry
Swept-frequency testing equipment
Sweeping antennas
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BASIC MEASUREMENTS
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
Learning objectives are stated at the beginning of each chapter. These

learning objectives serve as a preview of the information you are expected to
learn in the chapter. The comprehensive check questions and answers are
based on the objectives and enable you to check your progress through the
reading assignments. By successfully completing the OCC/ECC, you
demonstrate that you have met the objectives and have learned the Join Integrated
information. The learning objectives for this chapter are listed below. Publishing's
Discussion Group
Upon completion of this chapter, you will be able to do the following:
Explain the importance of

performing basic electronic
measurements.
Explain the importance of voltage
measurements in troubleshooting.
Identify the various methods of Order this
performing voltage measurements. information on CD-
Identify the various methods of Rom
performing current measurements.
Identify the various methods of
performing resistance
measurements.
performing capacitance
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measurements.
information in
Print (Hardcopy).
measuring inductance.
INTRODUCTION TO MEASUREMENTS
In today's modern Navy, a large part of a ship's, submarine's, or aircraft's

ability to complete its mission depends on the efficiency of sophisticated
electronic systems. As the technician responsible for these systems, you are
the focal point in ensuring their reliability. In the event of a system failure, it is
your responsibility to repair the system and to do so in a timely manner.
Whether you are troubleshooting a faulty system or performing preventive
maintenance, you are required to perform basic electronic measurements on a
regular basis. This chapter will acquaint you with various alternative methods
of performing measurements and discuss the relative merits and demerits of
each method.
No discussion of electronic test equipment or electronic measurements would

be complete without mentioning the Navy's Metrology Calibration (METCAL)
program. Figure 1-1 shows the METCAL structure. Basically, the METCAL
program is an elaborate quality control system designed to compare your
electronic test equipment with test equipment of much greater accuracy.
When you submit your piece of test equipment for calibration, it is compared
with the calibration laboratory's equipment (referred to as STANDARDS),
which are generally at least four times more accurate than yours. If your
equipment does not meet specifications, it is either repaired, adjusted, or
rejected with an explanation of why the calibration laboratory was unable to
calibrate it. The accuracy of equipment at your local calibration laboratory is
ensured by calibration of the test equipment to the standards of the next
higher echelon calibration laboratory. The accuracies of test equipment at
each higher echelon is increased by a ratio of approximately 4 to 1.
Figure 1-1. - Calibration laboratory structure.

METCAL provides assurance that your test equipment is in top-notch shape.
Remember, your measurements are only as accurate as your test equipment;
be fully aware of the limitations of your test equipment and never use
equipment that isn't properly calibrated when performing measurements or
adjustments.
Q.1 What assures the accuracy of your electronic test equipment?
Now that we have discussed the advantages of calibrated test equipment, let's
review the reason for all this concern. The fundamental electrical quantities of
a circuit are voltage and current and are dependent on the circuit
characteristics of resistance, capacitance, and inductance. In addition to these
three individual characteristics, don't forget that many electronic components
exhibit more than one circuit characteristic at the same time. An example
would be a piece of coaxial cable that is engineered by its manufacturer to
meet characteristic specifications for impedance, capacitance, and
inductance. But let's keep it simple and begin by covering voltage
measurements.
Operation and use of common test equipment was covered in NEETS Module
16, Introduction to Test Equipment, NAVEDTRA B72 - 16 - 00 - 95. It is
recommended that you review this module before continuing.
VOLTAGE MEASUREMENTS
Most Navy technical manuals provide voltage charts that list correct voltages
at all primary test points in a piece of equipment. Voltage measurements,
when compared with these charts, provide a valuable aid in locating troubles
quickly and easily. However, if the sensitivity of the test equipment differs from
that of the test equipment used in preparing the chart, the voltage
measurements may not reflect true circuit conditions. You must keep in mind
that a voltmeter with low sensitivity used on a low range may disturb circuits
under test or provide a false indication. Most technical manuals will tell you
what type and model of test equipment was used to prepare the voltage
charts. As a rule of thumb, the input impedance of the voltmeter should
exceed the impedance of the circuit by a ratio of at least 10 to 1. Technicians
have spent uncounted hours of wasted time because they have selected
improper test equipment.
Q.2 The input impedance of your test equipment should exceed the
impedance of the circuit under test by what ratio?
DC VOLTAGE MEASUREMENTS
Direct current voltage may be steady, pulsating, or have ac superimposed on

it. The average value of a dc waveform depends on the symmetry of the wave
and other aspects of the wave shape. It can vary from 63.6% of peak value for
a rectified full sine wave to 50% of peak value for a triangular wave. For a
superimposed sine wave, the average value can be zero. Regardless of
whether the dc is steady, pulsating, or the ac is superimposed on the dc, a
rectifier form of measuring device will indicate its average value.
Voltages are usually measured by placing the measuring device in parallel

with the component or circuit (load) to be measured. The measuring device
should have an infinite internal resistance (input impedance) so that it will
absorb no energy from the circuit under test and, therefore, measure the true
voltage. The accuracy of the voltage measurement depends on the total
resistance of the measuring device compared to the load being measured.
When the input impedance of the measuring device is 10 times greater than
the load being measured, the error usually can be tolerated. If this error
cannot be tolerated, a high input impedance measuring device, such as a
vacuum tube voltmeter (vtvm), should be used. Alternatively, using two
voltmeters in series increases the voltage range and, because of the increase
in total voltmeter resistance, provides a more accurate measurement of
voltage across the load. If the voltage to be measured is sufficiently high,
more than two similar voltmeters can be connected in series across the load
to provide greater accuracy; the total voltage measurement is the sum of the
individual meter indications.
Q.3 What are the advantages of using two voltmeters in series?
Multimeter Method
A common piece of test equipment used in the Navy is the Simpson 260
analog multimeter, as shown in figure 1-2. It is capable of measuring both ac
and dc voltages of up to 5,000 volts.
Figure 1-2. - Simpson 260 multimeter.

Two obvious advantages of the Simpson 260 are its portability and ease of
operation. Among its disadvantages are its low input impedance and the
inherent low accuracy associated with D'Arsonval meter movements, which
are used in the meter. When performing measurements with any analog
multimeter, remember that the most accurate readings are taken with the
pointer midscale.
You should also be aware of inaccuracies introduced as a result of parallax.
PARALLAX is defined as the apparent displacement of the position of an

object because of the difference between two points of view. In the case of
meters, this means the position of a meter's pointer will appear to be at
different positions on the scale depending on the angle from which the meter
is viewed. Some of the Simpson 260 and 270 series multimeters have
effectively eliminated the problem of parallax by incorporating a mirror on the
scale that accurately reflects the position of the pointer of the meter
movement.
Q.4 At what point on a meter movement are the most accurate readings
taken?
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COMPONENT TESTING
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
Explain the importance of testing individual

electronic components.
Identify the various methods of testing
electron tubes. Join Integrated
Identify the various methods of testing Publishing's
semiconductors. Discussion Group
Identify the various methods of testing
integrated circuits.
Identify the various types of testing
batteries and their characteristics.
Identify the various methods of testing rf
attenuators and resistive loads.
Identify the various methods of testing fiber-
optic devices. Order this
information on CD-
INTRODUCTION TO COMPONENT TESTING Rom
It is imperative that you be able to troubleshoot an equipment failure to the component level.
In the majority of cases, Navy technicians are expected to troubleshoot and identify faulty
components. This chapter, "Component Testing," will acquaint you with alternative methods
of testing various components and their parameters. A quick glance at the Navy's mission
and concept of operation explains why we, in most cases, must be able to troubleshoot to
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the faulty component level. A ship must be a self-sustaining unit when deployed. Storage
information in
space is a primary consideration on most ships and a limiting factor for storage of bulky
Print (Hardcopy).
items or electronic modules as ready spares. Therefore, it is practical to store only individual
components common to a great number of equipment types. This of course, limits the larger
replacement modules available to you during troubleshooting.
Q.1 Why are most ships limited in their ability to stock replacement modules for repair of
electronic equipment?
TESTING ELECTRON TUBES
In equipment that uses vacuum tubes, faulty tubes are responsible for more than 50% of all
electronic equipment failures. As a result, testing of electronic tubes is important to you. You
can determine the condition of a tube by substituting an identical tube known to be good for
the questionable one. However, indiscriminate substitution of tubes is to be avoided for at
least the following two reasons: (1) detuning of circuits may result and (2) a tube may not
operate properly in a high-frequency circuit even though it performs well in a low-frequency
circuit. Therefore, your knowledge of tube-testing devices and their limitations, as well as
correct interpretation of the test results obtained, is indispensable for accurate and rapid
maintenance.
Because the operating capabilities and design features of a tube are demonstrated by its
electrical characteristics, a tube is tested by measuring those characteristics and comparing
them with representative values established for that type of tube. Tubes that read abnormally
high or low with respect to the standard are suspect. Practical considerations, which take into
account the limitations of the tube test in predicting actual tube performance in a particular
circuit, make it unnecessary to use complex and costly test equipment with laboratory
accuracy. For most applications, testing of a single tube characteristic is good enough to
determine tube performance. Some of the more important factors affecting the life
expectancy of an electron tube are listed below:
The circuit function of the tube

Deterioration of the cathode coating
A decrease in emission of impregnated
emitters in aging filament-type tubes
Defective seals that permit air to leak into
the envelope and oxidize the emitting
surface
Internal short circuits and open circuits
caused by vibration or excessive voltage
If the average receiving tube is not overdriven or operated continuously at maximum rating, it
can have a life of at least 2,000 hours before the filament opens. Because of the expansion
and contraction of tube elements during the process of heating and cooling, electrodes may
lean or sag, which causes excessive noise or microphonics to develop. Other electron-tube
defects are cathode-to-heater leakage and nonuniform electron emission of the cathode.
These common tube defects contribute to about 50% of all electronic equipment failures. For
this reason you should immediately eliminate any tube known to be faulty. However, avoid
blind or random replacement of good tubes with fresh spares. The most common cause of
tube failure is open filaments. Evidence of a tube defect is often obvious when the filament is
open in glass-envelope tubes. You will also notice the brighter-than-normal cherry-red glow
of the plate when the plate current is excessive. Also, when the tube becomes gassy or
when arcing occurs between electrodes, you will probably have visual indication. Metal-
encased tubes can be felt for warmth to determine if the heater is operating. You can tap a
tube while it is operating in a circuit to reveal an aural indication of loose elements within the
tube or microphonics, which are produced by loose elements.
Most tubes are extremely fragile and subject to damage during shipment. When you replace
a tube, never make the assumption that the new tube is good because it's new. You should
always test tubes before installing them.
Q.2 What is the most common cause of electron tube failure?
SUBSTITUTION METHODS
Substituting with a tube known to be in good condition is a simple method of testing a

questionable tube. However, in high-frequency circuits tube substitution should be carried
out in a logical sequence. Replace tubes one at a time so that you can observe the effect of
differences in interelectrode capacitance in the substituted tubes on tuned circuits. The tube
substitution test method cannot be used to advantage in locating more than one faulty tube
in a single circuit for two reasons: (1) If both an rf amplifier tube and IF amplifier tube are
defective in a receiver, replacing either one will not correct the trouble; and (2) if all the tubes
are replaced, there is no way for you to know what tubes were defective. Under these
conditions, using test equipment designed for testing the quality of a tube saves you valuable
time.
Q.3 What is the most accurate method of determining the condition of an electron tube?
NOTE ON SYMBOLS USED IN THE FOLLOWING SECTIONS: IEEE and ANSI standards
(see inside front cover) are used to define various terms, such as anode (plate) current,
anode voltage, and anode resistance. This book uses Ea for anode voltage, Ia for anode
current, and ra for anode resistance. These are the same as Ep, Ip, and rp that you will see
elsewhere. This module uses the terms anode and plate interchangeably.
ELECTRON TUBE TESTERS
A representative field type of electron tube tester designed to test all common low-power
tubes is shown in figure 2-1.The tube test conditions are as close as possible to actual tube
operating conditions and are programmed on a prepunched card. The card switch (S101, fig.
2-1) automatically programs the tube test conditions when it is actuated by a card. A card
compartment on the front panel of the tester provides storage for the most frequently used
cards. The cover of the tester (not shown) contains the operating instructions, the brackets
for storing the technical manual, the power cord, the calibration cell for checking the meter
and short tests, the calibration cards, the blank cards, and a steel hand punch.
Figure 2-1. - Electron tube tester.

Front Panel
When a prepunched card is fully inserted into the card switch (S101), a microswitch is
actuated that energizes a solenoid, causing the card switch contacts to complete the circuit.
The card switch has 187 single-pole, single-throw switches arranged in 17 rows with 11
switches in each row. The card is used to push the switches closed; thus, the absence of a
hole in the card is required to actuate a switch.
The meter (M301) contains four scales. The upper scale is graduated from 0 to 100 for direct
numerical readings. The three lower scales, numbered 1, 2, and 3, are read for LEAKAGE,
QUALITY, and GAS, respectively. Each numbered scale includes green and red areas
marked GOOD and REPLACE. Inside a shield directly in front of the meter are five neon
lamps (DS301 through DS305), which indicate shorts between tube elements.
The number 2 pushbutton (MP6) is used for transconductance, emission, and other quality
tests (described later). The number 3 pushbutton (MP7) is used to test for the presence of
gas in the tube envelope. The number 4 pushbutton (MP8) is used for tests on dual tubes. A
neon lamp (DS203) lights when pushbutton number 4 is to be used. Eleven tube test sockets
are located on the panel, plus tube pin straighteners for the 7- and 9-pin miniature tubes.
The power ON-OFF spring-return toggle switch (S105) turns the tester on by energizing a
line relay. The pilot light (DS107) lights when this relay closes. Above the power ON-OFF
switch are five fuses. Fuses F101, F201, and F202 protect circuits in the tester not protected
by other means and have neon lamps to indicate when they have blown. Fuses F102 and
F103 protect both sides of the power line.
Auxiliary Compartment
A group of auxiliary controls covered by a hinged panel is used for special tests and for
calibration of the tester. Two of these controls, labeled SIGNAL CAL (R152 and R155, fig. 2-
2), are used with special test cards for adjusting the regulation and amplitude of the signal
voltage. A pushbutton labeled CATH ACT (S302D) is used for making cathode activity tests.
When this button is pressed, DS106 on the front panel (fig. 2-1) lights, and the filament
voltage of the tube under test is reduced by 10%. Results of the test are read as a change in
reading on the numerical meter scale.
Figure 2-2. - Auxiliary compartment.
Pushbutton S302E and potentiometers R401 and R405 (fig. 2-2) are used for balancing the
transconductance (Gm) bridge circuit under actual tube operating current. Pressing S302E
removes the grid signal and allows a zero balance to be made with one potentiometer or the
other, depending upon whether the tube under test is passing high or low plate current.
Lamp DS108 on the front panel lights when S302E is pressed. Pushbutton S302C is used for
checking grid-to-cathode shorts at a sensitivity much higher than the normal tests. Results of
this test are indicated by the short test lamps on the front panel.
Certain special tests require the use of a continuously adjustable auxiliary power supply. By
pressing pushbutton S302B, you may use meter M301 to read the voltage of the auxiliary
power supply on meter M301. This voltage may be adjusted by the use of the potentiometer
R142. The rest of the potentiometer controls are calibration controls and are adjusted by the
use of special calibration cards and a calibration test cell.
All circuits in the tester, except the filament supply, are electronically regulated to
compensate for line voltage fluctuations. The filament supply voltage is adjusted by pressing
pushbutton S302A and rotating the filament standardization adjustment switch S106 until
meter M301 reads midscale.
Program Cards
The circuits to be used in testing are selected by a prepunched card. These cards are made
of tough vinyl plastic material. The tube numbers are printed in color on the tabs of the cards
and also at the edge of the card for convenience in filing. A special card is provided to use as
a marker when a card is removed for use. Blank cards are provided so that additional test
cards may be punched for new tubes that are developed or to replace cards that have
become unserviceable.
Operation
Before operating the tester for the first time, and periodically thereafter, you should calibrate
it using the calibration test cards as described in the equipment technical manual.
NORMAL TESTS. - The tester is equipped with a three-conductor power cord, one wire of
which is chassis ground. It should be plugged into a grounded 105- to 125-volt, 50- to 400-
hertz outlet.
Before operating the tester, open the auxiliary compartment (fig. 2-2) and ensure that the
FILAMENT STD ADJ and the Gm BAL knobs are in the NOM position. The GRID SIG and
CATH ACT buttons (S302E and S302D) should be up and lamps DS108 and DS106 on the
front panel should be out.
Turn on the tester and allow it to warm up for 5 to 10 minutes, then press the CARD REJECT
KNOB (fig. 2-1) down until it locks. If a nontest card is installed in the card switch, remove it.
This card is used to keep the switch pins in place during shipment and should be inserted
before transporting the tester.
Plug the tube to be tested into its proper socket. (Use the pin straighteners before plugging in
7- and 9-pin miniature tubes.) Select the proper card or cards for the tube to be tested. Insert
the card selected into the slot in the card switch until the CARD REJECT KNOB pops up.
The card will operate the tester only if it is fully inserted and the printing is up and toward the
operator. Do not put paper or objects other than program cards into the card switch, because
they will jam the switch contacts. If the overload shuts off the tester when the card is inserted
in the switch, check to see that the proper card is being used for the tube under test and that
the tube under test has a direct interelement short.
As soon as the card switch is actuated, the tube under test is automatically subjected to an
interelement short test and a heater-to-cathode leakage test. A blinking or steady glow of any
of the short test lamps is an indication of an interelement short. If the short test lamps remain
dark, no interelement shorts exist within the tube. If a short exists between two or more
elements, the short test lamp or lamps connected between these elements remain dark, and
the remaining lamps light. The abbreviations for the tube elements are located on the front
panel just below the short test shield so that the neon lamps are between them. This enables
the operator to tell which elements are shorted. Heater-to-cathode shorts are indicated as
leakage currents on the #1 meter scale. If the meter reads above the green area, the tube
should be replaced. A direct heater-to-cathode short causes the meter to read full scale.
To make the QUALITY test, push the number 2 button (fig. 2-1) and read the number 2 scale
on meter M301 to determine if the tube is good. (This test may be one of various types, such
as transconductance, emission, plate current, or voltage drop, depending upon the type of
tube under test.)
To test the tube for GAS, press the number 3 button and read the number 3 meter scale. The
number 2 button also goes down when number 3 is pressed. If a dual tube having two
identical sections is being tested, the neon lamp (DS203) will light, indicating that both
sections of the tube may be tested with one card. To do this, check the tube for shorts,
leakage, quality, and gas as described previously; then hold down button number 4 and
repeat these tests to test the second section of the tube. Dual tubes with sections that are
not identical require two cards for testing. A second card is also provided to make special
tests on certain tubes.
AUXILIARY TEST. - As mentioned previously, two special tests (cathode activity and
sensitive grid shorts) may be made by use of controls located in the auxiliary compartment
(fig. 2-2). The cathode activity test (CATH ACT) is used to indicate the amount of useful life
remaining in the tube. By reducing the filament voltage by 10 percent and allowing the
cathode to cool off slightly, the ability of the cathode as an emitter of electrons can be
estimated. This test is made in conjunction with the normal quality test.
To make the CATH ACT test, allow the tube under test to warm up, press button number 2
(fig. 2-1), and note the reading of scale number 2 on meter M301. Note also the numerical
scale reading on M301. Next, lock down the CATH ACT button (fig. 2-2), wait for about 1.5
minutes, then press button number 2 (fig. 2-1) again and note the numerical and number 2
scale readings on meter M301. The tube should be replaced if the numerical reading on
M301 differs from the first reading by more than 10 percent or if the reading is in the red area
on the number 2 scale.
It is sometimes desirable to check certain tubes for shorts at a sensitivity greater than
normal. To make the SENSITIVE GRID SHORTS test, push S302C (fig. 2-2) and note if any
short test lamps (fig. 2-1) light.
HIGH-POWER HF AMPLIFIER TUBE TESTS
You normally test high-power amplifier tubes, which operate in the low-to-high frequency
range, in the transmitter in which they are to be used. When you operate the tube in a
transmitter, its condition can be determined by using built-in meters to measure the grid
current, plate current, and power output and comparing those values with those obtained
when using tubes known to be good.
Q.4 Normally, how are high-power rf tubes tested?

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QUANTITATIVE MEASUREMENTS
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
Explain the purposes and

benefits of performing
quantitative measurements.
Identify the various methods of Join Integrated
performing impedance Publishing's
measurements. Discussion Group
performing power
measurements.
performing frequency
measurements.
INTRODUCTION TO QUANTITATIVE MEASUREMENTS Order this

information on CD-
You have already studied the basics of performing electronics Rom
measurements and how to determine if a component is or is not
functioning properly. This chapter will cover techniques used in
measurements of specific impedance, frequency, and power. These
measurements are extremely important to you in evaluating the
performance of a piece of electronic equipment.
IMPEDANCE MEASUREMENTS Order this

information in
Impedance measurements are often used during routine test Print (Hardcopy).
procedures. Impedance-measuring equipment, such as impedance
bridges, are mainly used in determining the capacitance and
inductance of component parts. However, the values of combined
circuit constants also may be obtained and used in direct
calculations of impedance. An impedance measurement effectively
totals the inductive and capacitive reactance together with the
resistance in a circuit. In addition, impedance measurements are
useful in testing and analyzing antenna and transmission line
performance and for determining the figure of merit (Q) of electrical
parts and resonant circuits.
Q meters are impedance-measuring instruments that determine the

ratio of reactance to resistance of capacitors or inductors and
resistors. Details of Q meters and impedance bridges as well as a
number of other methods of measuring circuit impedance are
described in the following paragraphs. Also discussed are methods
of measuring the impedance of antennas and transmission lines.
BRIDGE METHODS
Bridges are among the most accurate types of measuring devices

used in the measurement of impedance. In addition, bridges are also
used to measure dc resistance, capacitance, and inductance.
Certain types of bridges are more suitable for measuring a specific
characteristic, such as capacitance or inductance. Basic schematics
for the various bridge circuits are shown in figure 3-1. The bridge
circuits shown are similar in that they usually contain two branches
in the measuring circuit, two branches in the comparing circuit, a
detector circuit, and a power circuit, as shown in figure 3-2. The
bridge shown in figure 3-2 is actually the dc Wheatstone bridge;
however, the general principles of circuit operation for ac remain the
same.
Figure 3-1. - Basic bridge circuits.

Figure 3-2. - Typical bridge circuit configuration.
The comparing circuit contains branches A and B and has
provisions for changing the ratios of the branches with respect to
each other, which enables various measuring ranges to be obtained.
Comparison of figures 3-1 and 3-2 shows that either or both
branches of the comparing circuit do not necessarily contain
resistors alone. Branch B of the Hay bridge, containing CB and RB in
series connection, provides a striking contrast with the parallel
connection of CB and RB of the Maxwell bridge.
The measuring circuit in figure 3-2 also contains two branches. The
resistance, capacitance, or inductance to be measured is connected
to branch X of the bridge-measuring circuit. The subscript X is also
used in figure 3-1 to designate the circuit parameters involved in
computing the values of various electronic parts. Branch S contains
the variable control used to bring the bridge into a balanced
condition. A potentiometer is used for this purpose in most bridge
equipment, because it offers a wide range of smoothly variable
current changes within the measuring circuit.
The third arm of the bridge is the detector circuit. The detector circuit
may use a galvanometer for sensitive measurements that require
high accuracy. In the case of bridges using ac as the power source,
the galvanometer must be adapted for use in an ac circuit. In many
practical bridge circuits using ac to operate the bridge, an electron-
ray indicating tube is used to indicate the balanced condition by
opening and closing the shadow area of the tube. Headsets are also
used for audible balance detection, but this method reduces the
accuracy obtainable with the bridge.
Switches are used in bridge circuits to control the application of

operating power to the bridge and to complete the detector circuit.
Frequently, the two switching functions are combined into a single
key, called a bridge key, so that the operating power is applied to the
bridge prior to the detector circuit. This sequence reduces the effects
of inductance and capacitance during the process of measurement.
The most unfavorable condition for making a measurement occurs

when the resistance, capacitance, or inductance to be measured is
completely unknown. In these cases, the galvanometer cannot be
protected by setting the bridge arms for approximate balance. To
reduce the possibility of damage to the galvanometer, you should
use an adjustable shunt circuit across the meter terminals. As the
bridge is brought closer to the balanced condition, the resistance of
the shunt can be increased; when the bridge is in balance, the meter
shunt can be removed to obtain maximum detector sensitivity.
Bridges designed specifically for capacitance measurements provide

a dc source of potential for electrolytic capacitors. The electrolytic
capacitors often require the application of dc polarizing voltages in
order for them to exhibit the same capacitance values and
dissipation factors that would be obtained in actual circuit operation.
The dc power supply and meter circuits used for this purpose are
connected so that there is no interference with the normal operation
of the capacitance-measuring bridge circuit. The dissipation factor of
the capacitor may be obtained while the capacitor is polarized. In
figure 3-2, the signal voltage in the A and B branches of the bridge
will be divided in proportion to the resistance ratios of its component
members, RA and RB, for the range of values selected. The same
signal voltage is impressed across the branches S and X of the
bridge. The variable control, RS, is rotated to change the current
flowing through the S and X branches of the bridge. When the
voltage drop across branch S is equal to the voltage drop across
branch A, the voltage drop across branch X is equal to the voltage
drop across branch B. At this time the potentials across the detector
circuit are the same, resulting in no current flow through the detector
circuit and an indication of zero-current flow. The bridge is balanced
at these settings of its operating controls, and they cannot be placed
at any other setting and still maintain this balanced condition.
The ability of the bridge circuit to detect a balanced condition is not

impaired by the length or the leads connecting the bridge to the
electronic part to be measured. However, the accuracy of the
measurement is not always acceptable, because the connecting
leads exhibit capacitive and inductive characteristics, which must be
subtracted from the total measurement. Hence, the most serious
errors affecting accuracy of a measurement are because of the
connecting leads.
Stray wiring capacitance and inductance, called residuals, that exist

between the branches of the bridge also cause errors. The
resistance-ratio bridge, for example, is redrawn in figure 3-3 to show
the interfering residuals that must be eliminated or taken into
consideration. Fortunately, these residuals can be reduced to
negligible proportions by shielding and grounding. A method of
shielding and grounding a bridge circuit to reduce the effects of
interfering residuals is through the use of a Wagner ground, as
shown in figure 3-4. Observe that with switch S in position Y, the
balanced condition can be obtained by adjusting Z1 and Z2. With
switch S in position X, the normal method of balancing the bridge
applies. You should be able to reach a point where there is no
deflection of the meter movement for either switch position (X or Y)
by alternately adjusting Z1 and Z2 when the switch is at position Y
and by adjusting RS when the switch is at position X. Under these
conditions, point 1 is at ground potential; and the residuals at points
2, 3, and 4 are effectively eliminated from the bridge. The main
disadvantage of the Wagner ground is that two balances must be
made for each measurement. One is to balance the bridge, and the
other is to balance the Wagner ground. Both adjustments are
interacting because RA and RB are common to both switch positions
X and Y.
Figure 3-3. - Resistance-ratio bridge residual elements.

Figure 3-4. - Wagner ground.
Many bridge instruments provide terminals for external excitation

potentials; however, do not use a voltage in excess of that needed to
obtain reliable indicator deflection because the resistivity of
electronic parts varies with heat, which is a function of the power
applied.
Q.1 What conditions must be met in order to balance a bridge
circuit?
Q.2 When you are measuring a component using a bridge, what is
the most common cause of inaccurate measurements?
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Qualitative measurements
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QUALITATIVE MEASUREMENTS
LEARNING OBJECTIVES

measuring standing-wave ratios.
determining electrical losses Join Integrated
caused by deterioration of Publishing's
transmission lines. Discussion Group
Identify the methods of measuring
intermodulation distortion.
INTRODUCTION TO QUALITATIVE MEASUREMENTS
As a technician, you are responsible for repairing and maintaining complex

electronic systems. The basic ability to repair a specific piece of equipment is
only the first step in becoming a qualified technician. Your ultimate goal Order this
should be to become proficient at systems fault isolation - in other words, to information on CD-
know the entire system like the back of your hand. To reach this goal you will Rom
need to be familiar with all parts of the system and know how they are
interconnected and interact with each other. There are numerous shortcuts or
tricks of the trade that can only be learned through experience on any
system, but the most practical thing for you to remember is to approach all
problems in a logical manner.
Various combinations of electronic equipment are interconnected to form a

system capable of performing specific functions. You must be able to apply Order this
general test methods and practices to installation, tuning, maintenance, and information in
repair of the system. This requires you to have a thorough knowledge of Print (Hardcopy).
many types of electronic equipment. When radar, communication, and digital
computers are interconnected, they require different maintenance procedures
than when they are operated separately. Revised test procedures may be
necessary. Detrimental interactions between equipment or facilities must be
corrected and effective preventive maintenance procedures must be planned
for all equipment within the system. System quality figures, such as
sensitivity and coverage, must be determined and measured during
equipment preventive maintenance checks to assure efficient operation.
System monitoring at specific test points is often used to help localize a
problem.
System testing and monitoring are frequently accomplished by using an

external piece of electronic equipment, which is designed specifically for
testing a particular system. Some computers and computer systems build in
their own monitoring and testing devices and will inform the operator when
and where failure has occurred. You must realize that any equipment
designed to test, monitor, or repair another system is itself subject to
malfunction and will require periodic checks and preventive maintenance.
This chapter will cover some of the basic test methods and practices
associated with system-level troubleshooting.
STANDING-WAVE RATIO (SWR) MEASUREMENTS
Standing-wave ratio (swr) is the ratio of the maximum voltage or current to

the minimum voltage or current at any point along a transmission line. Swr
measurements are used to determine the matching quality of the termination
of the line.
A variety of methods and test equipments may be used to measure the

voltage or current distribution along a transmission line. An open
transmission line is accessible for coupling to many types of voltage-
measuring devices, such as a wavemeter or a grid-dip meter. However, at
higher frequencies where coaxial cables or waveguides are used to minimize
skin effect losses, (discussed in
NEETS, module 10) access is more complicated. Access to the interior of the
waveguide or center conductor of the coaxial cable must be gained by using
a unidirectional or bidirectional coupler, which is inserted into the
transmission line. The coupler contains a slot into which an rf probe is
inserted and positioned with respect to directivity.
The conditions that produce standing waves and their adverse effects are
discussed in detail in NEETS, module 10. The different methods of detecting
and measuring standing waves are discussed in the following paragraphs.
PROBES
A magnetic or electric probe can be used to observe the standing wave on a

short-circuited, terminated line. The wavelength is obtained by measuring the
distance between alternate maximum or minimum current points along the
line. A typical setup operating at 300 megahertz might use two 10-foot
lengths of number 14 phosphor-bronze wires, which are spaced 1 inch apart
and supported parallel to a set of probe guide rails. The line should be
partially matched to the source generator by means of a parallel-wire shorting
stub connected in parallel with the transmission line and the oscillator output
line. Figure 4-1, view A and view B, illustrates the types of probes required
for this method of measurement.
Figure 4-1A. - Typical electromagnetic probe.
Figure 4-1B. - Typical electromagnetic probe.

NEON-LAMP AND MILLIAMMETER METHODS
In this method of measurement, a neon bulb or milliammeter is moved along

the two-wire parallel transmission line. Points of maximum voltage (standing-
wave voltage peaks) with the lamp or points of maximum current (standing-
wave current peaks) with the indicator will have maximum brilliance or
indication, respectively.
Q.1 At what points along a transmission line will a neon lamp glow the
brightest?
BRIDGE METHODS
The bridge method permits measurement of the standing-wave ratio without

actually measuring the standing waves. The bridge method is applicable
because the input impedance of a line terminated in its characteristic
impedance is a pure resistance equal to the characteristic impedance. A line
terminated in this way can be used as the unknown resistance in a bridge
circuit and a null can be obtained in the indicating device when the other
resistance arms of the bridge are properly adjusted.
Many types of bridges can be used. For example, an ac bridge that is

independent of the applied frequency can be used. The bridge will become
unbalanced when the line is no longer properly terminated. Improper
termination will produce a reactive component as well as a resistive
component in the input impedance of the line and result in a standing wave.
The reading of the indicating device depends on the degree of imbalance,
which becomes more severe as the mismatch caused by the termination
becomes worse. The indicating device can be calibrated directly to indicate
the standing-wave ratio. The most common indicator consists of a crystal
rectifier, a filtering circuit, and a sensitive dc meter movement in series with a
high resistance.
RESISTANCE-CAPACITANCE BRIDGE
A resistance-capacitance bridge circuit is shown in view A of figure 4-2. The

bridge is theoretically independent of the applied frequency.
Figure 4-2A. - Resistance-capacitance bridge circuit for measuring standing-

wave ratio.
However, the applied frequency must be low enough to avoid skin effect,
stray inductance, capacitance, and coupling between circuit elements and
wiring. The leads must be kept short to eliminate stray reactance, which
causes bridge imbalance. The rectifier circuit wiring must be isolated from
other bridge component fields so that induced voltages do not cause an
erroneous indication. You should only use resistors having negligible
capacitance and inductance effects.
Before you calibrate a newly constructed bridge, the following procedure

must be followed if residual readings caused by stray effects are to be held to
a minimum:
Connect a noninductive resistor (RL in view B) that is equal to the

characteristic impedance of the line to the output terminals of the bridge.
Figure 4-2B. - Resistance-capacitance bridge circuit for measuring standing-

wave ratio.
Apply an rf voltage to the input terminals and adjust the variable capacitor for
a minimum reading on the meter. Reconnect the resistor (RL) to the input
terminals and connect the rf power source to the output terminals. Adjust the
rf voltage amplitude applied to the bridge until a full-scale meter reading is
obtained. Reconnect the bridge in the normal manner (resistor RL to the
output terminals, etc.). If the meter reading is now more than 1% or 2% of the
full-scale reading, different arrangements (lead dress) of the internal wiring
must be tried until the null is reduced to 0 or as close as possible to the 0
point.
The bridge can be calibrated after completion of the preceding check.

Connect the transmission line under investigation to the output terminals of
the bridge and connect a succession of noninductive resistors (RO in view
C)to the load end of the transmission line until the bridge is balanced.
Assuming that the bridge was originally balanced for the characteristic
impedance of the line, the standing-wave ratio can be computed from the
following equation:
Figure 4-2C. - Resistance-capacitance bridge circuit for measuring standing-
wave ratio.
Select the formula that yields a ratio greater than unity. The swr calibration
can be recorded on the meter scale directly, recorded on a chart in terms of
the meter deflection, or plotted on a graph against the meter deflection. The
variable capacitor, in turn, can be calibrated for various characteristic
impedances. This is accomplished by applying suitable resistors (RO) across
the output terminals and noting the capacitor settings at the respective
balance points. A range of 50 to 300 ohms should prove attainable.
ACCURACY OF BRIDGE MEASUREMENTS
To assure accurate measurements, the rf signal applied to the bridge must

be properly adjusted each time a calibrated instrument is used. Essentially,
this adjustment is a repetition of the previously described reversed-bridge
procedure. The following steps are to be performed:
Connect the line to the input terminals of the bridge and connect the
transmitter to the output terminals. Adjust the transmitter coupling until full-
scale deflection is obtained. From this point on, the coupling must be left
untouched. Reconnect the bridge in the usual way and proceed with the
measurement.
POWER OUTPUT VERSUS IMPEDANCE MATCHING
For maximum transfer of the power out of an rf source, with minimum heating
from reflected power, the total output impedance sensed by the rf source
must be equal to the internal impedance of that source. A perfect impedance
match between transmitter and load would exist if the swr were 1 to 1. As
discussed in NEETS, module 10, test equipment designed to measure the
instantaneous voltage of a standing wave will give you a voltage standing-
wave ratio (vswr). Test equipment designed to measure the instantaneous
current component of a standing wave will give you the current standing-
wave ratio (iswr). Regardless of the type of test equipment selected, both
ratios will be the same.
Q.2 What vswr is a perfect match between a transmitter and its load?
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Introduction to waveform interpretation
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INTRODUCTION TO WAVEFORM INTERPRETATION
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
Upon completion of this chapter, you will be able to do the

following:
Explain the use of waveform

interpretation in testing
applications. Join Integrated
Identify the different types of Publishing's
modulation and methods of Discussion Group
measuring modulation.
Explain the various uses of
spectrum analyzers.
Explain the various uses of
time-domain reflectometers.
Identify the various tests that
can be performed with the
swept-frequency technique. Order this
information on CD-
INTRODUCTION TO WAVEFORM INTERPRETATION Rom
Measurements performed with oscilloscopes, time-domain

reflectometers, and spectrum analyzers enable you to view the
signal produced by the equipment or circuit under test. However, a
visual display is of no value unless you are able to interpret the
signal characteristics.
Order this
A displayed waveform is a representation of a varying signal information in
related to time. You can graphically plot an unknown waveform by Print (Hardcopy).
using a system of coordinates in which the amplitude of the
unknown signal is plotted linearly against time. An analysis of the
resultant waveform provides you with valuable information in
determining the characteristics of many electronic (and some
mechanical) devices. For example, the waveform of a signal may
indicate the presence of harmonics or parasitic oscillations, or it
may indicate how closely a device is following a desired cycle of
operation. As the parts in an amplifier begin to shift in value or
deteriorate, waveform distortion often occurs and indicates
abnormal operation of a circuit and often precedes circuit
breakdown. Malfunctioning of electrical or electronic circuits within
equipment can usually be traced, by waveform inspection, to a
specific part or parts of the circuit responsible for the distorted
signal. On the basis of these facts, it is apparent that there is an
important need for test equipment that can provide a visual
presentation of a waveform at the instant of its occurrence in a
circuit.
DISTORTION is a term used by technicians and engineers alike

that generally signifies dissatisfaction with the shape of the wave
processed by an amplifier. Distortion of a waveform is the
undesired change or deviation in the shape of the observed signal
with respect to a reference waveform. Classifying any waveform as
a distorted wave without reference to the electronic circuitry
involved is meaningless. A waveform that can be validly termed
distorted with respect to a specific amplifier circuit may be the
normal waveform to be expected from another amplifier circuit. One
of the most important steps in waveform analysis, the one that
usually proves the most difficult for the maintenance personnel, is
the interpretation of patterns viewed on the test equipment.
This chapter will cover some of the basic test methods and
practices associated with waveform interpretation.
MODULATION MEASUREMENTS
Modulation measurements are sometimes required during tuning
procedures to adjust transmitting equipment for the proper amount
of modulation. During maintenance tests of modulated transmitter
equipment, you should determine the amount of distortion in the
output signal and the modulation level or index. The modulation
level in multiplexing equipment is usually set at the factory or
during corrective maintenance procedures. Proper adjustment of
the input signal level and automatic signal-level regulation circuits
provides the correct amount of modulation. Defects in modulation
circuits of a transmitter can be detected by measurements of the
quality of the received signals at the receiver. Corrective
maintenance analysis of multiplex equipment modulation circuits
can usually be made by signal-level measurements.
Some radio transmitters, when operating in the AM mode, must be

adjusted for correct modulation during normal tuning procedures. If
the modulation level is low, the transmitter is not operating at its
maximum efficiency. On the other hand, modulation in excess of
100% produces serious distortion. Since neither of these conditions
is desirable, amplitude modulation should be maintained between
60% and 95% when possible. The modulation level or index of AM
and fm radio transmitters that operate in the vhf range is initially
adjusted by the manufacturer or during corrective maintenance.
The amplifier gain of the modulator can be initially adjusted by
reference to the modulation meter provided on the front panel of
the equipment.
Pulse modulation of radar and radio beacon signals can be

measured by waveform displays presented on a standard
oscilloscope. The amount of usable energy in a pulsed waveform,
as measured by a spectrum analyzer, is also an indication of the
pulse modulation quality.
Attaining 100% amplitude modulation of an rf carrier with a sine

wave requires a modulating power equal to one-half of the rf carrier
power. Under this condition, the average power of the modulated
carrier is equal to 1.5 times the average unmodulated carrier
power. The added power is divided equally between the upper and
lower sidebands. During the peaks of 100% modulation, the
amplitude of the carrier is doubled. This will cause the
instantaneous peak power to be four times the instantaneous
unmodulated peak power P = E2/R. When voice modulation is
employed, only the highest amplitude peaks can be allowed to
modulate the carrier 100%. Since many speech components do not
modulate the carrier 100%, the average power required for voice
modulation is less than that required for modulation with a sine
wave. Voice peaks usually modulate a carrier 100% when the
modulation increases the average carrier output power 25% over
its normal value.
Q.1 What is the result of overmodulating an AM signal?

Q.2 For AM transmissions, the carrier is normally modulated within
what range?
AMPLITUDE-MODULATION MEASUREMENTS
An increase in the power output of an AM transmitter is indicated

by an increase in antenna current. The increase can be taken as a
measure of the degree of modulation and can be expressed as a
percentage, as shown in figure 5-1. The graph for this figure was
developed from the relationship existing between the carrier power
and the increased power resulting from the added modulation
power. The formula for calculating the PERCENTAGE of
MODULATION is as follows:
Figure 5-1. - Antenna current increase with amplitude modulation.

The use of this formula is based on the assumption that the
modulating voltage is a pure sine wave. Normal broadcasting,
however, is characterized by complex envelope patterns, as
illustrated in figure 5-2. In this light, the previous formula is not so
clear. Consequently, the preceding formula should be viewed more
correctly as the PERCENTAGE OF POSITIVE PEAK
MODULATION. When the minimum voltage (E min) rather than the
peak voltage (Emax) is used to compute percentage of modulation,
the computed percentage (shown below) is the PERCENTAGE OF
NEGATIVE PEAK MODULATION:
Figure 5-2. - Rf carrier amplitude-modulated by a complex wave

envelope.
Since the preceding two modulation percentages often differ, you
should define the AVERAGE PERCENTAGE OF MODULATION,
as shown below (refer to fig. 5-3):
Figure 5-3. - Rf amplitude percentage modulation wave envelope.
From the preceding definitions of percentage of modulation, you

should note that methods of measuring all three types of
modulation percentages must be devised. When differing values
are obtained, however, the cause may not necessarily be directly
related to unequal positive and negative peaks of a complex
modulation wave. Another possibility is distortion caused by carrier
shift. Distortion may also be produced by effects other than the
modulation process - for example, parasitic oscillation, nonlinear
radio-frequency amplification of modulated signals, and distortion
present in the audio amplifiers.
Unfortunately, continuous variations in the percentage of

modulation create a number of additional problems. For example,
damping is necessary so that a meter can provide an average
reading despite fluctuations. An average reading, on the other
hand, will not disclose the presence of transient overmodulation.
This shortcoming is serious because of the large number of
sideband frequencies produced in addition to the normal ones
whenever overmodulation occurs. Not only do these extra
frequencies interfere drastically with other transmissions, but they
also may significantly distort the modulation signal. These
considerations account for the importance of using a meter that
responds to modulation peak; specifically, both positive-peak and
negative-peak overmodulation must be indicated. Positive-peak
overmodulation occurs when the positive modulation exceeds
100%; negative-peak overmodulation occurs when the negative
modulation exceeds 100%.
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Book 22
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Operational concepts
Electronic computers
Digital computer generations
Uses of a digital computer
Using a desktop computer
Summary
Answers
Hardware
Join Integrated
Publishing's
Types of internal storage
Discussion Group
Classifications of internal storage
Physical organization of data on a disk.
Magnetic drum
Input/Output devices (external)
Floppy disk drive units (Input/Output)
Display Devices
Summary
Answers Order this
information on CD-
Rom
Software
Utility programs
Programming
Tools of Flowcharting
Program coding
Packaged software Order this
information in
Summary
Print (Hardcopy).
Answers
Data representation and communications
Computer coding systems

Data storage concepts
Storage access methods
Summary
Answers
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Operational concepts
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OPERATIONAL CONCEPTS
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
Learning objectives are stated at the beginning of each chapter. These

learning objectives serve as a preview of the information you are
expected to learn in the chapter. The comprehensive check questions
placed throughout the chapters are based on the objectives. By
successfully completing the Nonresident
Join Integrated
Training Course (NRTC), you indicate that you have met the Publishing's
objectives and have learned the information. The learning objectives Discussion Group
for this chapter are listed below.
Describe the history of

computers.
Describe how computers are
classified. Order this
Explain how digital computers information on CD-
have changed during each Rom
generation.
Describe the practical
applications of digital
computers in the Navy.
Describe the initial steps
needed to use a
Order this
microcomputer.
information in
Explain storage media
Print (Hardcopy).
handling, backups, and the
threats to storage media.
INTRODUCTION
Digital computers are used in many facets of today's Navy. It would be

impossible for one NEETS module to cover all the ways they are used
in any depth. A few of these ways are covered later in this chapter.
The purpose of this module is to acquaint you, the trainee, with the
basic principles, techniques, and procedures associated with digital
computers. We will use a desktop (personal) computer for most of the
examples. Personal computers should be more familiar to you than
the large mainframes, and the operating principles of personal
computers relate directly to the operating principles of mainframe
computers. You will learn the basic terminology used in the digital-
computer world. When you have completed these chapters
satisfactorily, you will have a better understanding of how computers
are able to perform the demanding tasks assigned to them.
If we were to define the word computer, we would say a computer is

an instrument for performing mathematical operations, such as
addition, multiplication, division, subtraction, integration, vector
resolution, coordinate conversion, and special function generation at
very high speeds. But the usage of computers goes well beyond the
mathematical-operations level.
Computers have made possible military, scientific, and commercial

advances that before were considered impossible. The mathematics
involved in orbiting a satellite around the earth, for example, would
require several teams of mathematicians for a lifetime. Now, with the
aid of electronic digital computers, the conquest of space has become
reality.
Computers are employed when repetitious calculations or the

processing of large amounts of data are necessary. The most frequent
applications are found in the military, scientific, and commercial fields.
They are used in many varied projects, ranging from mail sorting,
through engineering design, to the identification and destruction of
enemy targets. The advantages of digital computers include speed,
accuracy, reliability, and man-power savings. Frequently computers
are able to take over routine jobs, releasing people for more important
work; work that cannot be handled by a computer.
HISTORY OF COMPUTERS
The ever increasing need for faster and more efficient computers has
created technological advances that can be considered amazing. Ever
since humans discovered that it was necessary to count objects, we
have been looking for easier ways to do it. Contrary to popular belief,
digital computers are not a new idea. The abacus is a manually
operated digital computer used in ancient civilizations and used to this
day in the Orient (see fig. 1-1). For those who consider the abacus
outdated, in a contest between a person using a modern calculator
and a person using an abacus, the person using the abacus won.
Figure 1-1. - Abacus.
The first mechanical adding machine (calculator) was invented by

Blaise Pascal (French) in 1642. Twenty years later, an Englishman,
Sir Samuel Morland, developed a more compact device that could
multiply, add, and subtract. In 1682, Wilhelm Liebnitz (German)
perfected a machine that could perform all the basic operations
(addition, subtraction, division, and multiplication), as well as extract
the square root. Liebnitz's principles are still in use today in our
modern electronic digital computers.
As early as 1919, electronics entered the scene. An article by W. H.
Eccles and F. W. Jordan described an electronic "trigger circuit" that
could be used for automatic counting. It was the ECCLES-JORDAN
multivibrator which was a little ahead of its time because a trigger
circuit is one of many components required to make an electronic
digital computer. Modern digital computers use these circuits, known
as flip-flops, to store information, perform arithmetic operations, and
control the timing sequences within the computer.
Under the pressure of military needs in World War II, the science of
electronic data processing made giant strides forward. In 1944,
Harvard University developed a computing system known as the
Automatic Sequence Controlled Calculator. After the initial design and
construction, several improved models were built.
Meanwhile, at the University of Pennsylvania, a second system was

being developed. This system, completed in 1946, was named ENIAC
(Electronic Numerical Integrator and Computer). ENIAC employed
18,000 vacuum tubes in its circuitry; and in spite of these bulky, hot
tubes, it worked quite successfully. The first problem assigned to
ENIAC was a calculation in nuclear physics that would have taken 100
human-years to solve by conventional methods. The ENIAC solved
the problem in 2 weeks, only 2 hours of which were actually spent on
the calculation. The remainder of the time was spent checking the
results and operational details. All modern computers have their
basics in these two early developments conducted at Harvard
University and University of Pennsylvania.
In 1950, the UNIVAC I was developed. This machine was usually

regarded as the most successful electronic data processor of its day.
An outstanding feature of the UNIVAC I was that it checked its own
results in each step of a problem; thus eliminating the need to run the
problems more than once to ensure accuracy.
During the first outbreak of publicity about computers (especially when

the UNIVAC predicted the outcome of the 1952 presidential election),
the term "giant brain" caused much confusion and uneasiness. Many
people assumed that science had created a thinking device superior to
the human mind. Currently most people know better. By human
standards the giant brain is nothing more than a talented idiot that is
wholly dependent upon human instructions to perform even the
simplest job. A computer is only a machine and definitely cannot think
for itself. The field of artificial intelligence, however, is developing
computer systems that can "think"; that is, mimic human thought in a
specific area and improve performance with experience and operation.
The field of digital computers is still in the growing stages. New types
of circuitry and new ways of accomplishing things are continuing to be
developed at a rapid rate.
In the military field, the accomplishments of digital computers are

many and varied. One outstanding example is in weapons systems.
Most of the controlling is done by digital computers.
CLASSIFICATIONS OF COMPUTERS
Computers can be classified in many different ways. They can be

classified by the type of technology they use (mechanical,
electromechanical, or electronic), the purpose for which they were
designed (general purpose or special purpose), by the type of data
they can handle (digital or analog), by the amount they cost (from $50
to $10 million and up), and even by their physical size (handheld to
room size). We will briefly explain mechanical, electromechanical, and
electronic computers; special-purpose and general-purpose
computers; and analog and digital computers.
MECHANICAL COMPUTERS
Mechanical or analog computers are devices used for the computation

of mathematical problems. They are made up of components, such as
integrators, sliding racks, cams, gears, springs, and driveshafts.
Figure 1-2 shows a typical mechanical computer used by the Navy.
These computers are analog in nature, and their physical size
depends on the number of functions the computer has to perform. In
an analog computer, a continuing input will give a constantly updated
output. This being perfect for target information, the Navy uses these
analog computers primarily for gun fire control. As systems for naval
weapons became more and more complex, the need for a different
computer was apparent. The functions that had to be performed had
increased the size of the computer to an unreasonable scale.
Figure 1-2. - Bulkhead-type mechanical computer

ELECTROMECHANICAL COMPUTERS
Electromechanical computers came next and differ from mechanical

computers in that they use electrical components to perform some of
the calculations and to increase the accuracy. Because the electrical
components are smaller than their mechanical counterparts, the size
of the computer was reduced, even though it performs more functions.
The components used to perform the calculations are devices such as
synchros, servos, resolvers, amplifiers, servo amplifiers, summing
networks, potentiometers, and linear potentiometers. Figure 1-3 shows
one of the Navy's electromechanical computers. These computers are
used in gun fire control and missile fire control. Even though they are
better than the mechanical computer, they still have their drawbacks.
Of prime importance is that they are special-purpose computers. This
means they can only be used for one job, dependent on their design
characteristics. By today's Navy standards they are still too large, and
the maintenance time on them is excessive. The need for a more
accurate, reliable, versatile, and smaller computer was recognized.
Figure 1-3. - Electromechanical computer.

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Hardware
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HARDWARE
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
Explain the cpu and describe the

functions of the different sections.
Categorize the types of storage
and their functions. Join Integrated
Describe how storage is classified. Publishing's
Analyze and compare the Discussion Group
input/output devices and explain
their functions.
INTRODUCTION
Components or tools of a computer system are grouped into one of two

categories, hardware or software. We refer to the machines that compose a
computer system as hardware. This hardware includes all the mechanical, Order this
electrical, electronic, and magnetic devices within the computer itself (the information on CD-
central processing unit) and all related peripheral devices (printers, magnetic Rom
tape units, magnetic disk drive units, and so on). These devices will be
covered in this chapter to show you how they function and how they relate to
one another. Take a few minutes to study figure 2-1. It shows the functional
units of a computer system: the inputs, the central processing unit (cpu),
and the outputs. The inputs can be on any storage medium from punched
cards, paper tape, or magnetic ink to magnetic tape, disk, or drum; or they can
be entries from a console keyboard or a cathode-ray tube (crt) terminal. The
data from one or more of these inputs will be processed by the central
Order this
processing unit to produce output. The output may be in punched cards or
information in
paper tape, on magnetic tape, disk, or drum, or it may be printed reports or
Print (Hardcopy).
information displayed on a console typewriter or crt terminal. The figure also
shows the data flow, instruction flow, and flow of control. We'll start our
hardware discussion with the cpu and then move into storage media (disk,
tape, and drum). We'll end the chapter with a discussion of input/output
devices and how they work.
CENTRAL PROCESSING UNIT (CPU)
The brain of a computer system is the central processing unit, which we

generally refer to as the cpu or mainframe. The central processing unit IS
THE COMPUTER. It is the cpu that processes the data transferred to it from
one of the various input devices, and then transfers either the intermediate or
final results of the processing to one of many output devices. A central control
section and work areas are required to perform calculations or manipulate
data. The cpu is the computing center of the system. It consists of a control
section, internal storage section (main or primary memory), and arithmetic-
logic section (fig. 2-1). Each of the sections within the cpu serves a specific
function and has a particular relationship to the other sections within the cpu.
Figure 2-1. - Functional units of a computer system.

CONTROL SECTION
The control section may be compared to a telephone exchange because it

uses the instructions contained in the program in much the same manner as
the telephone exchange uses telephone numbers. When a telephone number
is dialed, it causes the telephone exchange to energize certain switches and
control lines to connect the dialing phone with the phone having the number
dialed. In a similar manner, each programmed instruction, when executed,
causes the control section to energize certain control lines, enabling the
computer to perform the function or operation indicated by the instruction.
The program may be stored in the internal circuits of the computer (computer
memory), or it may be read instruction-by-instruction from external media. The
internally stored program type of computer, generally referred to only as a
stored-program computer, is the most practical type to use when speed and
fully automatic operation are desired.
Computer programs may be so complex that the number of instructions plus

the parameters necessary for program execution will exceed the memory
capacity of a stored-program computer. When this occurs, the program may
be sectionalized; that is, broken down into modules. One or more modules are
then stored in computer memory and the rest in an easily accessible auxiliary
memory. Then as each module is executed producing the desired results, it is
swapped out of internal memory and the next succeeding module read in.
In addition to the commands that tell the computer what to do, the control unit
also dictates how and when each specific operation is to be performed. It is
also active in initiating circuits that locate any information stored within the
computer or in an auxiliary storage device and in moving this information to
the point where the actual manipulation or modification is to be accomplished.
The four major types of instructions are (1) transfer, (2) arithmetic, (3) logic,
and (4) control. Transfer instructions are those whose basic function is to
transfer (move) data from one location to another. Arithmetic instructions
are those that combine two pieces of data to form a single piece of data using
one of the arithmetic operations.
Logic instructions transform the digital computer into a system that is more
than a high-speed adding machine. Using logic instructions, the programmer
may construct a program with any number of alternate sequences. For
example, through the use of logic instructions, a computer being used for
maintenance inventory will have one sequence to follow if the number of a
given item on hand is greater than the order amount and another sequence if
it is smaller. The choice of which sequence to use will be made by the control
section under the influence of the logic instruction. Logic instructions, thereby,
provide the computer with the ability to make decisions based on the results of
previously generated data. That is, the logic instructions permit the computer
to select the proper program sequence to be executed from among the
alternatives provided by the programmer.
Control instructions are used to send commands to devices not under direct
command of the control section, such as input/output units or devices.
ARITHMETIC-LOGIC SECTION
The arithmetic-logic section performs all arithmetic operations-adding,

subtracting, multiplying, and dividing. Through its logic capability, it tests
various conditions encountered during processing and takes action based on
the result. As indicated by the solid arrows in figure 2-1, data flows between
the arithmetic-logic section and the internal storage section during processing.
Specifically, data is transferred as needed from the internal storage section to
the arithmetic-logic section, processed, and returned to the internal storage
section. At no time does processing take place in the storage section. Data
may be transferred back and forth between these two sections several times
before processing is completed. The results are then transferred from internal
storage to an output unit, as indicated by the solid arrow (fig. 2-1).
MEMORY (INTERNAL STORAGE) SECTION
All memory (internal storage) sections must contain facilities to store

computer data or instructions (that are intelligible to the computer) until
these instructions or data are needed in the performance of the computer
calculations. Before the stored-program computer can begin to process input
data, it is first necessary to store in its memory a sequence of instructions,
and tables of constants and other data it will use in its computations. The
process by which these instructions and data are read into the computer is
called loading.
Actually, the first step in loading instructions and data into a computer is to
manually place enough instructions into memory using the keyboard or
electronically using an operating system (discussed in chapter 1), so that
these instructions can be used to bring in more instructions as desired. In this
manner a few instructions are used to bootstrap more instructions. Some
computers make use of an auxiliary (wired) memory that permanently stores
the bootstrap program, thereby making manual loading unnecessary.
The memory (internal storage) section of a computer is essentially an

electronically operated file cabinet. It has a large number (usually several
hundred thousand) of storage locations; each referred to as a storage address
or register. Every item of data and program instruction read into the computer
during the loading process is stored or filed in a specific storage address and
is almost instantly accessible.
Q.1 What is the brain of a computer system?
Q.2 How many sections make up the central processing unit?
Q.3 What are the names of the sections that make up the cpu?
Q.4 The control section can be compared to what?

Q.5 What are the four major types of instructions in the control section?
Q.6 What capability allows the arithmetic/logic section to test various

conditions encountered during processing and take action based on the
result?
Q.7 In the arithmetic/logic section, data is returned to what section after
processing?
Q.8 What is the process by which instructions and data are read into a
computer?
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Software
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SOFTWARE
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
Upon completion of this chapter, you will be able to do the

following:
Recognize and compare the

different types and functions
of operating systems. Join Integrated
Identify the types of utilities Publishing's
and explain their functions. Discussion Group
Describe the different types
and functions of programming
languages.
Explain the steps necessary
to develop a program and
describe the tools used.
Compare and describe the
types and functions of Order this
applications packages. information on CD-
Rom
INTRODUCTION
Up to now we have been discussing computer OPERATIONAL
CONCEPTS and HARDWARE (the computer and its peripheral
devices), and how these devices work and communicate with
each other. What about this thing called SOFTWARE? Do we
really need it? We most certainly do! Software plays a major
Order this
role in computer data processing. For example, without
information in
software, the computer could not perform simple addition. It's
Print (Hardcopy).
the software that makes everything happen. Or putting it
another way, software brings the computer to life.
You already know it takes a program to make the computer

function. You load an operating system into the computer to
manage the computer's resources and operations. You give job
information to the operating system to tell it what you want the
computer to do. You may tell it to assemble or compile a COBOL
program. You may tell it to run the payroll or print inventory reports.
You may tell it to copy a tape using a utility program. You may tell it
to print the data from a disk file, also using a utility program. You
may tell it to test a program. This job information may be entered
through the console or read into the computer from tape or disk. It
also may be entered by the programmer or user from a remote
computer terminal. The operating system receives and processes
the job information and executes the programs according to that
job information.
Software can be defined as all the stored programs and routines

(operating aids) needed to fully use the capabilities of a computer.
Generally speaking, we say, "If it is not hardware then it must be
software."
OPERATING SYSTEMS
The operating system is the heart of any computer system.

Through it, everything else is done. Basically, operating systems
are designed to provide the operator with the most efficient way of
executing many user programs.
An operating system is a collection of many programs used by the

computer to manage its own resources and operations. These
programs control the execution of other programs. They schedule,
assign resources, monitor, and control the work of the computer.
There are several types.
TYPES OF OPERATING SYSTEMS
Operating systems are designed to provide various operating

modes. Some systems can only do one task at a time, while others
can perform several at a time. Some systems allow only one
person to use the system, and others allow multiple users. Single
user/single tasking operating systems are the simplest and most
common on microcomputers. CP/M-801, CP/M-861, and MS-
DOS(1,2)2 are examples. Single user/multitasking operating
systems allow you to do more than one task as long as the tasks
don't use the same type of resources. For example, you can print
one job while you run another, as long as the second job does not
require the printer. Examples are Concurrent CP/M-863,
Concurrent DOS3, and MS-DOS (3.0 and above).
Multiuser/multitasking operating systems let more than one user
access the same resources at the same time. This is especially
useful for sharing common data. These are only feasible on
processors (the functional unit in a computer that interprets and
executes instructions) of 16 bits or more and with large memories.
UNIX4 is an example. There are also multiprocessor systems,
shared resource systems. This means each user (or operator) has
a dedicated microprocessor (cpu), which shares common
resources (disks, printers, etc.).
1CP/M and CP/M-86 are registered trademarks of Digital Research

Inc.
2MS-DOS is a registered trademark of Microsoft Corporation.
3Concurrent CP/M and Concurrent DOS are trademarks of Digital

Research Inc.
4UNIX is a trademark of AT & T.
COMPATIBILITY WITH APPLICATIONS SOFTWARE
To use an applications program, it must be compatible with the

operating system. Therefore, the availability of application software
for a particular operating system is critical. Because of this, several
operating systems have become the most popular. For 8-bit
microcomputers, CP/M (Control Program for Microprocessors) is
widely used because many hardware manufacturers have adopted
it. MS-DOS (MicroSoft Disk Operating System) designed from
CP/M dominates in lower performance 16-bit systems. UNIX, an
operating system for larger computers, is being used on the more
powerful 16-bit and 32-bit microcomputers. Other operating
systems are offered by microcomputer manufacturers.
To overcome the applications software compatibility problem, some

software comes in several versions so it can be run under several
different operating systems. The point to remember is that not all
applications software will run on all systems. You have to check to
see that compatibility exists. You need the right version.
OPERATING SYSTEM FUNCTIONS
To give you a better idea of what you can expect to see on your
microcomputer display screen, we will show a few fundamental
disk operating system commands and messages. Again, the
functions of each operating system are about the same, but each
may use a different command to do about the same thing. For
example, try not to get confused because CP/M uses the command
PIP (peripheral interchange program) to copy a file, while MS-DOS
uses the command COPY.
Remember, the first thing you need to do is boot (initial program

load) the system. There are many ways this can be done. Here is
an example. When you turn on the power, a prompt may appear on
the screen. You then insert the operating system floppy disk into
the drive A. Type a B (for boot) and press the RETURN key. The
operating system will load from the disk. If you are using a system
set up for automatic booting, you won't have to type the B. The
system automatically loads the operating system when you insert
the disk that contains it. Some systems will then ask for date and
time. Enter these. You will next see a prompt, usually A> (or A:).
The system is ready and drive A is assigned as your primary drive.
One thing you might want to do is to display the disk directory to
see what is on the disk. To do this, enter DIR following the A>. This
will list your files.
COMMAND.COM
CONFIGUR.COM
DATDBL.BAK
DATDBL.DOC
FINANCE.BAS
MASTER.DOC
It may also give you file size and the date and time of the file. Let's
take an example. Let's say you are to copy the file "MASTER.DOC"
from the floppy disk in drive A to the floppy disk in drive B and then
delete the file on the floppy disk in drive A. You have just displayed
the directory of the floppy disk in drive A. Check to see that the file
you want is on the floppy disk in drive A. It is. You then insert the
floppy disk on which you want the copy into drive B. Be sure it is
formatted with the track and sector information so it is ready to
receive data. Also, be sure the disk is not write-protected. On a 5-
1/4 inch floppy disk that means the write protect notch is
uncovered. Following the A> type
COPY MASTER.DOC B: and press RETURN. The system will

copy the file and give it the same name. Next you might want to
display the directory on drive B to see that the file was copied. You
can do this by entering DIR B: following the A> prompt. To delete
the file on the floppy disk in drive A, type
DEL MASTER.DOC following the A> prompt on the screen and

press RETURN.
You probably noticed each entry in the directory is followed by

three characters. These are called extensions, and we use them
to tell us the type of file we are working with. For example,
.BAK means backup file.

.BAS means BASIC source program.
.TMP means temporary file.
.DOC means ASCII document file.
.BIN means binary file, and so on.
Other typical built-in operating system commands you can use

might include:
RENAME to change the name of a file
DISKCOPY to copy a whole floppy disk
to initialize a floppy disk, get it ready to receive data
FORMAT
and programs from the system
TIME to display or set the time
You will learn to use these and many other system commands as
you operate a specific computer.
We won't go into any more detail here. You will have

documentation and reference manuals for the specific version of
the operating system you will be using.
Q.1 What is the heart of any computer system?

Q.2 Which types of operating systems are the simplest and most
common on microcomputers?
Q.3 What types of operating systems let more than one user
access the same resources at the same time?

Q.4 Why is the availability of applications software for a particular
operating system critical?

Q.5 How is the applications software compatibility problem
overcome?
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Data representation and communications
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DATA REPRESENTATION AND COMMUNICATIONS
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
Explain data and how it is represented.

Explain computer coding systems.
Define a parity bit and what it is used for.
Explain data storage concepts. Join Integrated
Describe three storage access methods. Publishing's
Describe networks and data communications. Discussion Group
INTRODUCTION
One of the major problems we face in using a digital computer is communicating with it. We must have
one or more ways of getting data into the computer to be processed. You learned in chapter 2 that
there are several types of input devices that read data into a computer. But how does one prepare the
data to be used as input? How do we convert human-readable documents into a computer-readable
form, and what type of input media do we use? If the data is to be used by another computer some Order this
distance away, how do we transmit it? Well, as you probably suspect, there are several ways to information on CD-
perform this conversion and transmission process, and that is the chapter of our discussion. Rom
DATA
Data is a general term used to describe raw facts. To put it simply, data is nothing more than a
collection of related elements or items, that when properly coded into some type of input medium, can
be processed by a computer. Data items might include your service number, your name, your Order this
paygrade, or any other fact. Until some meaning has been given to the data, nothing can really be information in
determined about it; therefore, it remains data. When this data has been processed together with Print (Hardcopy).
other facts, it then has meaning and it becomes information we can understand and properly use.
DATA REPRESENTATION
Data is represented by symbols. Symbols convey meaning only when understood. The symbol itself is
not the information, but merely a representation of it. Symbol meaning is one of convention (fig. 4-
1).Symbols may convey one meaning to you and me, another meaning to others, and no meaning at
all to those that do not know their significance. Data must be reduced to a set of symbols that the
computer can read and interpret before there can be any communication with the computer. The first
computers were designed to manipulate numbers to solve arithmetic problems. But as you can see in
figure 4-1, we create, use, and manipulate many other symbols to represent facts in the world in which
we live. We are fortunate that early computer experts soon realized the need to manipulate
nonnumerical symbols as well. Manipulating these symbols is possible if an identifying code or coded
number is assigned to the symbol to be stored and processed. Thus, the letters in a name such as
ALBERT or CAROL can be represented by different codes, as can all special characters, such as #,
(,), &, $, @, and yes, even the comma. The data to be represented is called source data.
Figure 4-1. - Communications symbols.
SOURCE DATA
Source data or raw data is typically written on some type of paper document, which we refer to as a
source document. The data contained on the source document must be converted into a machine-
readable form for processing either by direct or indirect means. The data may be entered directly into
the computer in its original form; namely right from the source document on which it is recorded by
way of magnetic ink characters, optically recognizable characters, or bar code recognition. Or the data
on the documents may be entered indirectly on input media, such as punched cards, paper tape,
magnetic tape, or magnetic disk. It may also be keyed directly into a computer from a keyboard.
If you look at figure 4-2, you see a list of SERVMART items that have been typed on a preprinted
form. To most people this is just another piece of paper; however, to the Storekeeper (SK) it is a
source document to be used to provide input data to the computer. In this example, the SERVMART
form deals with requisitioning supplies. The form could be sent to the data-entry department to be
used as a source document. There the data-entry operator can key the data into or on whatever
computer medium is to be used, according to a prescribed format. The data elements are numbered in
the order they are to be keyed: (1) document identification, (2) stock number, (3) unit of issue, (4)
quantity, and so on. You'll notice we need more than numbers, and that is where coding systems
come into play.
Figure 4-2. - SERVMART shopping list (source document).
Q.1 What is a general term used to describe raw facts?
Q.2 How is data represented?

Q.3 What were the first computers designed to manipulate in order to solve arithmetic problems?
Q.4 By what two means can the data contained on a source document be converted into a machine-
readable form for processing?
Q.5 What are some of the types of input media on which data may be indirectly entered?
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Book 23
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Introduction to magnetic recording
Prerequisites for magnetic recording

Summary
Answers
Magnetic tape
Join Integrated
Causes of magnetic tape failure
Publishing's
Tape Reels and Tape Cartridges
Discussion Group
Handling, Storing, and packaging magnetic tape
Summary
Answers
Magnetic tape recorder record and reproduce electronics
Summary Order this

Answers information on CD-
Rom
Magnetic tape recording specifications
Harmonic Distortion
Flutter
Summary Order this
Print (Hardcopy).
Digital magnetic tape recording
Digital magnetic tape recording encoding methods

Summary
Answers
Magnetic disk recording
Fixed magnetic recording disks

Recording digital data on magnetic disks
Magnetic disk drive preventive maintenance
Summary
Answers
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Introduction to magnetic recording
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INTRODUCTION TO MAGNETIC RECORDING
LEARNING OBJECTIVES

They serve as a preview of the information you are expected to
learn in the chapter. The comprehension check questions placed
within the text are based on the objectives. By successfully
completing those questions and the associated NRTC, you show
that you have met the objectives and have learned the information. Join Integrated
The learning objectives for this chapter are listed below. Publishing's
Discussion Group
After completing this chapter, you will be able to do the following:
Describe the history and

purpose of magnetic
recording.
State the prerequisites for
magnetic recording.
Describe a magnetic Order this
recording head, how it's information on CD-
constructed, and how it Rom
operates.
INTRODUCTION
Have you ever wondered how a whole album of your favorite music
got onto one of those little cassette tapes? Or, what about
computer floppy disks; have you ever wondered how they can hold Order this
180 or more pages of typed text? The answer to both of these information in
questions is magnetic recording. Print (Hardcopy).
Magnetic recording devices seldom get much attention until they

fail to work. But without magnetic recording, recording your favorite
television show on a video cassette recorder would be impossible,
portable tape players wouldn't exist, and you wouldn't be able to
get money from an automated bank teller machine at two o'clock in
the morning.
Now what about the Navy? Could it operate without magnetic

recording? The answer is definitely no. Without it:
Computer programs and data

would have to be stored on
either paper cards or on rolls
of paper tape. Both of these
methods need a lot of storage
space, and they take much
longer to load into and out of
the computer.
There wouldn't be any movies
to show or music to play on
the ship's entertainment
system when the ship is at
sea and is out of range for
television and radio reception.
Intelligence-collection
missions would be impossible
since you couldn't store the
collected signals for later
analysis.
As you can see, magnetic recording plays a very important part

both in our Navy life and in our civilian life.
HISTORY OF MAGNETIC RECORDERS

In 1888, Oberlin Smith originated the idea of using permanent
magnetic impressions to record sounds. Then in 1900, Vladeniar
Poulsen brought Mr. Smith's dream to reality. At the Paris
Exposition, he demonstrated a Telegraphone. It was a device that
recorded sounds onto a steel wire. Although everyone thought it
was a great idea, they didn't think it would succeed since you had
to use an earphone to hear what was recorded. It wasn't until 1925,
when electronic amplifiers were developed, that magnetic recording
started to receive the attention it deserved.
The best magnetic recording is the one that produces an output

signal identical to the input signal. It didn't take long to realize that
the magnetism generated during the recording process didn't vary
directly to the current which caused it. This is because there's a
step in the magnetism curve where it crosses the zero point and
changes polarity. This step causes the output signal to be distorted
when compared with the input signal. Figure 1-1 shows this step.
Figure 1-1. - Magnetic recording without bias voltage.

In 1907, Mr. Poulsen discovered a solution to this problem. He
discovered dc bias. He found that if a fixed dc voltage were added
to the input signal, it moved the input signal away from the step in
the magnetism curve. This prevented the input signal from crossing
the zero-point of the magnetism curve. The result is an output
signal exactly like the input signal. Figure 1-2 shows this process.
Figure 1-2. - Magnetic recording with dc bias voltage.

Unfortunately, dc bias had its problems. Since only a small portion
of the magnetism curve was straight enough to use, the output
signal was weak compared with the natural hiss of the
unmagnetized tape passing the playback head. This is commonly
called poor signal-to-noise ratio (SNR). We'll explain SNR in more
detail later.
From the beginning, the U.S. Naval Research Laboratories (NRL)

saw great potential in magnetic recording. They were especially
interested in using it to transmit telegraph signals at high speed.
After electronic amplifiers were invented around 1925, W.L.
Carlson and G.W. Carpenter at the NRL made the next important
magnetic recording discovery. They found that adding an ac bias
voltage to the input signal instead of a fixed dc bias voltage would
reproduce a stronger output

signal
greatly improve the signal-to-
noise ratio
greatly reduce the natural
tape hiss that was so
common with dc bias
To make ac bias work, they used an ac frequency for the bias

voltage that was well above what could be heard, and a level that
placed the original input signal away from both steps in the
magnetism curve. This resulted in two undistorted output signals
that could be combined into one strong output. See figure 1-3.
Figure 1-3. - Magnetic recording with ac bias voltage.
Until 1935, all magnetic recording was on steel wire. Then, at the
1935 German Annual Radio Exposition in Berlin, Fritz Pfleumer
demonstrated his Magnetophone. It used a cellulose acetate tape
coated with soft iron powder. The Magnetophone and its "paper"
tapes were used until 1947 when the 3M Company introduced the
first plastic-based magnetic tape.
In 1956, IBM introduced the next major contribution to magnetic
recording - the hard disk drive. The disk was a 24-inch solid metal
platter and stored 4.4 megabytes of information. Later, in 1963,
IBM reduced the platter size and introduced a 14-inch hard disk
drive.
Until 1966, all hard disk drives were "fixed" drives. Their platters
couldn't be removed. Then in 1966, IBM introduced the first
removable-pack hard disk drive. It also used a 14-inch solid metal
platter.
In 1971, magnetic tape became popular again when the 3M

Company introduced the first 1/4-inch magnetic tape cartridge and
tape drive. In that same year, IBM invented the 8-inch floppy disk
and disk drive. It used a flexible 8-inch platter of the same material
as magnetic tape. Its main goal was to replace punched cards as a
program-loading device.
The next contribution to magnetic recording literally started the

personal computer (PC) revolution. In 1980, a little-known company
named Seagate Technology invented the 5-1/4-inch floppy disk
drive. Without it, PCs as we know them today would not exist.
From then on, it was all downhill. Magnetic tape became more
sophisticated. Floppy disks and disk drives became smaller, while
their capacities grew bigger. And hard disk capacities just went
through the roof. All of the major hurdles affecting magnetic
recording had been successfully cleared, and it was just a matter of
refining both its methods and materials.
Q.1 Why did the early inventors of magnetic recording find it
necessary to add a fixed dc bias to the input signal?

Q.2 How does dc bias added to the input signal correct the
distortion in the output signal?

Q.3 Why does adding dc vice ac bias voltage to the input signal
result in a poor signal-to-noise ratio (SNR)?

Q.4 What are three advantages of adding an ac bias voltage to the
input signal instead of adding a fixed dc bias voltage?

Q.5 Why does using ac vice dc bias voltage result in a stronger
output signal?
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Magnetic tape
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MAGNETIC TAPE
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
After completing this chapter, you'll be able to do the following:
Describe the physical properties of magnetic tape in terms of:
The Three Basic Materials

Used To Make magnetic Join Integrated
Tape. Publishing's
The function of the magnetic Discussion Group
tape's base material, oxide
coating, and binder glue.
Describe the two types of
magnetic recording tape.
Describe the following types
of tape errors and their effects
on magnetic tape recording:
signal dropout, noise, skew, Order this
and level. information on CD-
Rom
Describe the following causes
of magnetic tape failure:
normal wear, accidental
damage, environmental
damage, and winding errors.
Order this
Describe the purpose and
information in
makeup of tape reels and
Print (Hardcopy).
tape cartridges.
Describe the two methods for
erasing magnetic tape, the
characteristics of automatic
and manual tape degaussers,
and the procedures for
degaussing magnetic tape.
Describe the proper
procedures for handling,
storing, and packaging
magnetic tape, tape reels,
and tape cartridges.
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF MAGNETIC TAPE
The three basic materials used to make magnetic tape are (1) the
base material, (2) the coating of magnetic oxide particles, and (3)
the glue to bind the oxide particles onto the base material. See
figure 2-1.
Figure 2-1. - Magnetic tape construction.

BASE MATERIAL
The base material for magnetic tape is made of either plastic or

metal. Plastic tape is used more than metal tape because it's very
flexible, it resists mildew and fungus, and it's very stable at high
temperatures and humidity.
OXIDE COATING
Oxide particles that can be magnetized are coated onto the base
material. The most common magnetic particles used are either
gamma ferric oxide or chromium dioxide. It's very important that
these magnetic particles are uniform in size. If they're not, the
tape's surface will be abrasive and will reduce the life of the
recorder's magnetic heads.
An ideal magnetic particle is needle-shaped. It's actual size

depends on the frequency of the signal to be recorded. Generally,
long particles are used to record long wavelength signals (low-
frequency signals), and short particles are used to record short
wavelength signals (high-frequency signals).
GLUE
The glue used to bond the oxide particles to the base material is
usually an organic resin. It must be strong enough to hold the oxide
particles to the base material, yet be flexible enough not to peel or
crack.
TYPES OF MAGNETIC RECORDING TAPE
There are two basic types of magnetic recording tape in common

use: analog and digital. Analog magnetic tape is used to record,
store, and reproduce audio and instrumentation type signals.
These signals are usually in a frequency band from very-low
frequency (VLF) to 2.5 MHz. Digital magnetic tape is used to
record, store, and reproduce computer programs and data. It's
base material thickness is about 50 percent thicker than analog
magnetic tape. This allows the digital tape to withstand the more
strenuous starts and stops associated with digital magnetic
recorder search, read, and write functions.
Digital magnetic tape is also held to much stricter quality control

standards.
It's important not to have any blemishes or coating flaws on the

tape's surface. Because, if you lost one digital data bit, your
computer program or data would be bad. In contrast, losing one
microsecond of an analog signal is not nearly as critical.
Q.1 Magnetic tape is made of what three basic materials?
Q.2 Why is plastic magnetic tape used more than metal tape?
Q.3 Which of the two types of magnetic tape is used to record

audio and instrumentation type signals in the VLF to 2.5MHz
frequency range?
Q.4 What type of magnetic tape is used to record computer
programs and data, and what are the additional thickness and
quality standards for this type of tape?
TAPE ERRORS AND THEIR EFFECTS
Four types of tape errors that will degrade the performance of a

magnetic recording system are signal dropout, noise, skew, and
level (signal amplitude changes).
DROPOUT ERRORS
Signal dropout is the most common and the most serious type of
tape error. It's a temporary, sharp drop (50% or more) in signal
strength caused by either contaminates on the magnetic tape or by
missing oxide coating on part of the tape.
During recording and playback, the oxide particles on the tape can
flake off and stick to the recorder's guides, rollers, and heads. After
collecting for awhile, the oxide deposits (now oxide lumps) break
loose and stick to the magnetic tape. As the tape with the lumps
passes over the head, the lumps get between the tape and the
head and lift the tape away from the head. This causes the signal
dropouts. Although oxide lumps cause most signal dropouts,
remember that any contaminate (such as dust, lint or oil) that gets
between the tape and the head can cause signal dropouts.
NOISE ERRORS
Noise errors are unwanted signals that appear when no signal

should appear. They're usually caused by a cut or a scratch on the
magnetic tape. It's the lack of oxide particles at the cut or the
scratch that causes the noise error.
SKEW ERRORS
Skew errors only occur on multi-track magnetic tape recorders. The

term skew describes the time differences that occur between
individual tracks of a single magnetic head when the multi-track
tape isn't properly aligned with the magnetic head.
There are two types of skew errors: fixed and dynamic. Fixed skew
happens when properly aligned magnetic tape passes an
improperly aligned magnetic head. Dynamic skew happens when
misaligned tape passes a properly aligned head. This type of skew
is usually caused by one or more of the following:
A misaligned or worn-out tape

transport system.
A stretched or warped
magnetic tape.
A magnetic tape that is
improperly wound on a reel.
LEVEL ERRORS
Magnetic tape is manufactured to have a specified output signal

level (plus or minus some degree of error). Level errors happen
when the actual output signal level either drops or rises to a level
outside the expected range. For example, if a magnetic tape is
rated for 10 volts ( +/-10%), any output signal level below 9 volts or
above 11 volts is a level error. Level errors are caused by an
uneven oxide coating on the magnetic tape. This can come from
either the original manufacturing process or from normal wear and
tear.
Some causes of level errors are permanent and cannot be

removed by any means. For example, a crease in the tape, a hole
in the oxide, or a damaged edge. Other causes of level errors are
removable and may be cleaned off the tape. For example, oxide
flakes or clumps, metallic particles, or dirt are removable.
Q.5 What are four types of tape errors that can degrade a magnetic
recording system's performance?

Q.6 What are signal dropouts, and what are two tape defects that
can cause signal dropouts?

Q.7 What is the most common and most serious type of signal
dropout?
Q.8 You see a build-up of dust and lint on the take-up reel of a tape
recorder. This can cause which of the four types of tape errors?
Q.9 What type of tape error causes noise to appear on the tape
when no signal should appear? What causes this type of tape
error?
Q.10 The multi-track tape recorder in your computer system has a
fixed skew error. What does this mean and what is the probable
cause?
Q.11 Some tapes you are using may have level errors. What does
this mean and what is the cause?
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Magnetic tape recorder record and reproduce electronics
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MAGNETIC TAPE RECORDER RECORD AND REPRODUCE ELECTRONICS
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
State the two types of record and reproduce electronics used on magnetic tape recorders.
Describe the purpose and function of direct

record electronics and the four main parts of a Join Integrated
recorder's direct record component. Publishing's
Describe the purpose and function of direct Discussion Group
reproduce electronics and the three main parts
of a recorder's direct reproduce component.
Describe the purpose and function of frequency
modulation (FM) record electronics and the
three main parts of a recorder's FM record
component.
Describe the purpose and function of FM
reproduce electronics and the four main parts of Order this
a recorder's FM record component. information on CD-
Rom
RECORD AND REPRODUCE ELECTRONICS
There are two ways to record and reproduce analog signals. The first way is direct record. It's also
called amplitude modulation (AM) electronics. The second way is frequency modulation (FM). Even
though direct record and reproduce circuits are much different from FM record and reproduce
electronics, they both share the same two very important jobs. They both must: Order this
information in
Take an input signal, process it as needed, and then send it to the record magnetic head for Print (Hardcopy).
reproduction.
Take the reproduced signal from the reproduce magnetic head, process it as needed, and output it for
listening or analysis.
DIRECT RECORD ELECTRONICS

Direct record electronics record input signals onto magnetic media just as the signals appeared at the
recorder's input. The only processing an input signal receives is the adding of a bias signal. The added
bias signal makes sure the signal stays away from the steps of the magnetism curve. Figure 5-1 shows
a basic block diagram of a recorder's direct record electronics.
Figure 5-1. - Direct record electronics.
Direct record electronics has four main parts:
Input pre-amplifier circuit.
This circuit takes the input signal, amplifies it, and sends it to the summing network. It also matches the
impedance between the source of the input signal and the magnetic tape recorder.
Bias source. This circuit generates the high-frequency bias signal and sends it to the summing network.
Normally, the frequency of the bias signal will be five to ten times higher than the highest frequency the
tape recorder can record.
Summing network. This network takes the input signal and the bias signal, mixes them, and sends the
resulting signal to the head driver circuit.
Head driver circuit. This circuit takes the signal from the summing network, amplifies it, and sends it to
the record head for recording.
DIRECT REPRODUCE ELECTRONICS
Direct reproduce electronics amplify the very weak input signals from the reproduce head, and send
them out for listening or analysis, as needed. Figure 5-2
shows a basic block diagram of direct reproduce electronics.
Figure 5-2. - Direct reproduce electronics.
Direct reproduce electronics consists of three main parts:
Pre-amplifier circuit.
This circuit takes the very weak reproduced signal from the reproduce head and (a) amplifies the signal,
(b) removes any bias signal that was used during the recording process, and (c) sends the signal to the
equalization and phase correction circuit.
Equalization and phase correction circuit. This circuit takes the pre-amplified signal and fixes any
Frequency response problems that the reproduce magnetic head may have caused. To better
understand this, look at the voltage versus Frequency response graph in figure 5-3.
The top of the graph shows the input signal that comes from the pre-amplifier and the bottom shows the
equalization signal generated by the equalization circuit. In the top part of the graph, note how the
output voltage level varies as the frequency of the signal varies.
This isn't good. A good output voltage level is one that remains constant as the frequency changes. The
equalization signal corrects this problem. Notice that when the input signal and the equalization signal
are combined they cancel each other out. This allows a nice flat (voltage versus frequency) output
signal to go to the output amplifier circuit.
Figure 5-3. - Equalization process.
Output amplifier circuit.
This circuit takes the signal from the equalization and phase correction circuit and amplifies it for output.
It also matches the magnetic recorder's impedance to the output device that is used for listening or
recording.
FM RECORD ELECTRONICS
FM record electronics process signals to be recorded differently than direct record electronics. Instead
of recording the input signal just as it appears at the recorder's input, FM record electronics use the
input signal to vary (modulate) the carrier frequency of a record oscillator. The frequency modulated
output signal of the record oscillator then becomes the signal that's actually recorded onto the magnetic
media. Figure 5-4 shows a block diagram of the FM record electronics.
Figure 5-4. - FM record electronics.
FM record electronics consist of three main parts:
Input pre-amplifier circuit.
This circuit does two things: (a) it serves as an impedance matcher between the signal source and the
magnetic recorder, and (b) it pre-amplifies the input signal.
Record oscillator circuit.
This circuit generates a carrier signal onto which the input signal will be modulated. The input signal is
used to vary (frequency modulate) the carrier signal. This is how the input signal gets frequency
modulated onto the carrier signal. The output of this circuit is the frequency-modulated carrier signal.
The center frequency of the carrier depends on two things: (a) the bandwidth of the signal you're
recording, and (b) the media onto which you're recording.
For magnetic tape, the carrier frequency can be as low as 1.688 kHz for an operating tape speed of 1-
7/8 inches per second, and as high as 900 kHz for 120 inches per second.
Head driver circuit. This circuit takes the frequency-modulated output from the record oscillator circuit,
amplifies it, and sends it to the magnetic head for recording. The output level of this circuit is set to be
just below the magnetic saturation point of the magnetic media.
FM REPRODUCE ELECTRONICS
The FM reproduce electronics work just like direct reproduce electronics, with one exception. FM
reproduce electronics must first demodulate the original input signal from the carrier frequency before
the intelligence can be sent to the output device for listening or analysis. Figure 5-5 shows a block
diagram of the FM reproduce electronics.
Figure 5-5. - FM reproduce electronics.
FM reproduce electronics consist of four main parts:
Pre-amplifier circuit.
This circuit takes the frequency modulated carrier frequency from the reproduce head and amplifies it.
Limiter/demodulator circuit.
This circuit takes the output of the preamplifier, stabilizes the amplitude level, and demodulates the
signal intelligence from the carrier frequency.
Low-pass filter circuit.
This circuit takes the signal intelligence from the limiter/demodulator circuit and cleans up any noise or
left over carrier signal.
Output amplifier circuit.
This circuit takes the output from the low-pass filter and amplifies it for output. It also matches the
impedance of the magnetic recorder to the output device.
Q.1 What two types of record and reproduce electronics are used by magnetic tape recorders?
Q.2 The head driver circuit in a tape recorder's direct record electronics component (figure 5-1)
performs what function?

Q.3 The equalization and phase correction circuit in a tape recorder's direct reproduce electronics
(figure 5-2) performs what function?
Q.4 How do FM record electronics differ from AM (direct record) electronics?

Q.5 The head driver circuit of a tape recorder's FM record electronics (figure 5-4)performs what
function?
Q.6 What is the major difference between direct reproduce electronics and FM reproduce
electronics?
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Magnetic tape recording specifications
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MAGNETIC TAPE RECORDING SPECIFICATIONS
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
Define the seven most common magnetic tape

recording specifications.
Describe a magnetic tape recorder's signal-to-
noise ratio (SNR) specification, how it's
measured, and why a high SNR is important.
Describe a tape recorder/reproducer's Join Integrated
frequency-response specification, how it's Publishing's
measured, and the three factors that can limit or Discussion Group
degrade a recorder's Frequency response.
Describe a tape recorder's harmonic-distortion
specification, how it's measured, and how a
recorder produces harmonic distortion.
Describe a recorder's phase-response
specification, how it's measured, and why good
phase response is important.
Describe a recorder's flutter specification, how Order this
it's measured, and why minimal flutter is information on CD-
important. Rom
Describe a recorder's time-base error (TBE)
specification, how it's measured, and why
minimal TBE is important.
Describe a multi-track magnetic tape recorder's
skew specification, how it's measured, and why
minimal skew is important.
Order this
INTRODUCTION information in
Print (Hardcopy).
Have you ever gone to a store to buy a magnetic tape recorder? Were you able to decide which of the
displayed models was the good
one to buy? Or, did you instead end up confused when the salesperson started spouting words like
SNR, flutter, and bandwidth. If so, you weren't alone.
This chapter (1) defines the seven most common magnetic tape recording specifications, (2) describes
their effect on the magnetic recording process, and (3) tells how to measure each specification. The
remaining paragraphs in this chapter describe each of the following magnetic tape recorder
specifications:
Signal-to-noise ratio
Frequency response
Harmonic distortion
Phase response
Flutter
Time-base error
Skew
SIGNAL-TO-NOISE RATIO
Signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) is the first magnetic tape recorder specification we'll describe. It's one of the
most important specifications of a magnetic tape recorder.
SIGNAL-TO-NOISE RATIO DEFINITION
The SNR is the ratio of the normal signal level to the magnetic tape recorder's own noise level. It's
measured in decibels (dB). In other words, the higher the SNR of a magnetic tape recorder, the wider
the range of input signals it can properly record and reproduce.
The noise part of the signal-to-noise ratio is generated in the magnetic tape recorder itself. Although
noise can be generated by almost any part of the magnetic tape recorder, it's usually generated by
either the magnetic heads or the magnetic tape.
SIGNAL-TO-NOISE RATIO MEASUREMENT
You can measure the SNR with a vacuum tube voltmeter (VTVM) and a signal generator. The
equipment set up for measuring the SNR is shown in figure 6-1. After equipment setup, measure the
SNR as follows:
Figure 6-1. - Test equipment setup for measuring signal-to-noise ratio.
Set the signal generator to inject a test signal into the tape recorder. The technical manual for the tape
recorder you're testing will tell you how to set up the signal generator.
While recording and reproducing, set the output level of the tape recorder's reproduce electronics to a
level that displays 0-dB reference on the VTVM.
Disconnect the signal generator. The voltage displayed on the VTVM will drop from 0-dB to some
negative dB level. This level is the magnetic tape recorder's SNR.
There are two things you should know when reading SNR specifications in technical manuals,
equipment brochures, etc.
First, the SNR is stated in three ways. You'll see it as (1) root-mean-square (RMS) signal-to-RMS
noise, (2) peak-to-peak signal-to-RMS noise, or (3) peak signal-to-RMS noise. If the SNR specification
doesn't state which way it was measured, you could be mislead. For example, a 25-dB RMS SNR is
equal to a 34-dB peak-to-peak signal-to-RMS noise ratio, or a 28-dB peak signal-to-RMS noise ratio.
Second, all SNR specifications should include the record level that was used. Since the SNR varies
directly to the record level, you could be mislead by a SNR that doesn't include the record level of the
test signal used when the SNR was measured.
Frequency response
The frequency-response specification of a magnetic tape recorder is sometimes called the bandwidth. A
typical frequency-response specification might read within + / - 3 db from 100 Hz to 100 kHz at 60 ips.
This means the magnetic tape recorder is capable of recording all frequencies between 100 Hz and 100
kHz at 60 inches per second (ips) without varying the output amplitude more than 3 dB.
FREQUENCY-RESPONSE DEFINITION
Frequency response is the amplitude variation with frequency over a specified bandwidth. Let's convert
this to plain English. The frequency-response specification of a magnetic tape recorder tells you the
range of frequencies the recorder can effectively record and reproduce. What exactly does the word
effectively mean? That's hard to say because Frequency response varies from recorder to recorder,
and from manufacturer to manufacturer. But a good rule of thumb is that an effective frequency-
response specification tells the lowest and highest frequencies that the recorder can record and
reproduce with no more than + / - 3-dB difference in output amplitude.
FREQUENCY-RESPONSE MEASUREMENT
The equipment setup for measuring the Frequency response of a magnetic tape recorder is the same
as for measuring the signal-to-noise ratio. It's shown in figure 6-1. After equipment setup, measure a
recorder's Frequency response as follows:
Set the signal generator to output a test signal.

The technical manual for the tape recorder will
tell you how.
Set the recorder's reproduce electronics output
level to a 0-dB reference on the VTVM.
While recording at a set speed, vary the
frequency of the signal generator from the
lowest to highest frequency you're checking.
Make sure that the output level of the signal
generator stays the same.
As you sweep through the frequencies, look at
the VTVM.
You'll see the amplitude rise and fall as you vary
the output frequency of the signal generator. As
you approach the lowest and the highest
frequencies that the magnetic tape recorder can
effectively record, you'll see the VTVM drop to
less than - 3 dB. This determines the lower and
upper limits of the frequency-response
specification for that magnetic tape recorder.
FREQUENCY-RESPONSE LIMITING FACTORS

Four factors that can limit or degrade the Frequency response of magnetic tape recorders are:
A too-high or too-low bias signal level setting for

the record head.
An improper reproduce head.
An improper tape transport speed.
A poor magnetic tape-to-head contact.
The magnetic record head transforms the electrical signal into a magnetic field for recording onto
magnetic tape. If the bias signal level is set to high, you might erase the higher frequencies. If it's too
low, you'll get excessive tape distortion.
The reproduce head transforms the magnetic field from the magnetic tape back into an electrical signal.
As explained in chapters 3 and 5, the head gap of a recorder's reproduce head and the operating
speed of the magnetic tape transport determine the wavelength of the reproduce head. The wavelength
determines the center frequency of a recorder's frequency-response specification. Once you pass this
center frequency, both below and above, the output voltage level of the recorder's reproduce head will
decrease. Figure 6-2 shows this. This is why the equalization circuits described in chapter 5, figure 5-
3,are used.
Figure 6-2. - Frequency response of a reproduce head.
Poor tape-to-head contact can seriously degrade the record and reproduce process. Magnetic heads
are designed to reduce tape-to-head gap as much as possible. A tape-to-head gap is extremely
degrading at the higher frequencies. Figure 6-3 shows this. Note how a .1-mil gap causes only a small
loss at 10 kHz. But, at 1 MHz, it causes a 46-dB loss! You must maintain tape-to-head contact. Keeping
the magnetic tape recorder heads and tape transport clean is the best way to do this.
Figure 6-3. - Effects of poor tape-to-head contact.

Q.1 Two tape recorders have signal-to-noise ratios (SNRs) of 25-dB RMS and 35-dB RMS respectively.
Which of the SNRs can record and reproduce the widest range of input signals and why?
Q.2 You plan to measure your tape recorder's SNR. What test equipment will you need?
Q.3 Technical manuals for tape recorders can state the SNR in what three different ways?
Q.4 The frequency-response specification of your tape recorder reads within +/- 3 dB from 150 Hz to
150 kHz at 60 ips. What does this mean?

Q.5 While measuring Frequency response, as the signal generator approaches the lowest and highest
frequency the recorder can effectively record, the VTVM reading drops to less than - 3 dB. What does
this indicate?
Q.6 List four factors that can degrade the Frequency response of magnetic tape recorders.

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Digital magnetic tape recording
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DIGITAL MAGNETIC TAPE RECORDING
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
Describe the characteristics of digital magnetic

tape recording and the difference between
analog and digital recording.
Describe each of the three formats for digital Join Integrated
magnetic tape recording (serial, parallel, and Publishing's
serial-parallel). Discussion Group
Define the following terms as they apply to
digital magnetic tape recording: mark, space, bit-
cell period, packing density, and bit-error rate
(BER).
Describe the eight most common methods for
encoding digital data onto magnetic tape.
Describe the characteristics and use of the
following categories of digital magnetic tape Order this
recorders: (1) computer-compatible, (2) information on CD-
telemetry, and (3) instrumentation. Rom
INTRODUCTION TO DIGITAL MAGNETIC TAPE RECORDING
This chapter introduces you to digital magnetic tape recording. It describes (1) the three formats for
digital magnetic tape recording, (2) the eight methods of encoding digital data onto magnetic tape, and
(3) the configuration differences between the three types of digital tape recorders.
Order this
information in
Until now, you've learned about magnetic tape recording from an analog point-of-view. That is, the Print (Hardcopy).
signal you record and reproduce is the actual analog input signal waveform. In digital magnetic tape
recording, the signal you record and reproduce is, instead, a series of digital pulses. These pulses are
called binary ones and zeros. These ones and zeros can represent one of three types of data: (1) data
used by digital computers, (2) pulsed square-wave signals, or (3) digitized analog waveforms.
The digital magnetic tape recording process stores data onto tape by magnetizing the tape to its
saturation point in one of two possible polarities: positive (+) or negative (-). The saturation point of
magnetic tape is the point where the magnetic tape is magnetized as much as it can be.
DIGITAL MAGNETIC TAPE RECORDING FORMATS
There are three digital magnetic tape recording formats: serial, parallel, and serial-parallel. Each of
these is described below. Figure 7-1 shows each of the three formats as they apply to recording an
eight-bit binary data stream.
SERIAL DIGITAL MAGNETIC TAPE RECORDING FORMAT
This is the simplest of the three digital magnetic tape recording formats. It's usually used when
recording instrumentation or telemetry data.
In this format, the incoming data pulses are recorded onto a single recorder track of the magnetic tape
in a single, continuous stream. Figure 7-1A shows how this looks.
Figure 7-1A. - Digital magnetic tape recording formats.
PARALLEL DIGITAL MAGNETIC TAPE RECORDING FORMAT
In this format, the incoming data pulses come in on more than one input channel and are recorded side-
by-side onto more than one tape track. The data pulses across the width of the magnetic tape are
related to each other. Figure 7-1B shows how this looks. This format is usually used to store computer
data.
Figure 7-1B. - Digital magnetic tape recording formats.

SERIAL-PARALLEL DIGITAL MAGNETIC TAPE RECORDING FORMAT
This format is more complex. It takes a serial input stream of data pulses, breaks them up, and records
them on more than one recorder track. When the tape is reproduced, the recorder recombines the
broken-apart data into its original form. Figure 7-1C shows how this looks. The serial-parallel format is
usually used in instrumentation recording when the input data rate is high.
Figure 7-1C. - Digital magnetic tape recording formats.
DIGITAL MAGNETIC TAPE RECORDING DEFINITIONS
Before we describe the methods for encoding digital data onto magnetic tape, let's define the following
terms:
Mark: The voltage state of a digital one (1) data bit. It's also sometimes called true.
Space: The voltage state of a digital zero (0) data bit. It's also sometimes called false.
Bit-cell period: The time occupied by a single digital bit.
Packing density: The number of bits per fixed length of magnetic tape per track. There are three
categories of packing density:
Low density - 200 to 1,000 bits per inch (bpi).

Medium density - 1,000 to 8,000 bpi.
High density - 8,000 to 33,000 bpi.
Bit-error rate: The number of bits within a finite series of bits that will be reproduced incorrectly.
Q.1 In digital magnetic tape recording, the series of recorded digital pulses can represent what three
types of data?
Q.2 What three formats are used for digital magnetic tape recording?
Q.3 What format of digital tape recording is normally used to store computer data?
Q.4 What format of digital tape recording takes a serial input stream of data pulses, breaks them up,
and records them on more than one data track?

Q.5 What format of digital tape recording is normally used to record instrumentation or telemetry data?
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Magnetic disk recording
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MAGNETIC DISK RECORDING
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
Describe how flexible (floppy) disks are

constructed; how data is organized on
them; how they are handled, stored, and
shipped; and how they are erased. Join Integrated
Describe how fixed (hard) disks are Publishing's
constructed; how data is organized on Discussion Group
them; how they are handled, stored, and
shipped; and how they are erased.
Describe each of the following methods
for recording (encoding) digital data onto
magnetic disks: frequency-modulation
encoding, modified frequency-
modulation encoding, and run length-
limited encoding. Order this
Describe the characteristics of floppy information on CD-
disk drive transports and hard disk drive Rom
transports and describe the preventive
maintenance requirements of each type.
Describe the following parts of the
electronics component of a magnetic
disk drive: control electronics, write/read
electronics, and interface electronics.
Describe the five most common types of Order this
disk drive interface electronics. information in
Define the following magnetic disk Print (Hardcopy).
recording specifications: seek time,
latency period, access time, interleave
factor, transfer rate, and recording
density.
INTRODUCTION
Magnetic disk recording was invented by International Business Machines
(IBM) in 1956. It was developed to allow mainframe computers to store large amounts
of computer programs and data. This new technology eventually led to what's now
known as the computer revolution.
This chapter introduces you to the following aspects of magnetic disk recording:
Disk recording mediums

Disk recording methods
Disk drive transports
Disk drive electronics
Disk recording specifications
MAGNETIC DISK RECORDING MEDIUMS
There are two types of disk recording mediums: flexible diskettes and fixed (hard) disks.
The following paragraphs describe (1) how flexible and fixed disks are made; (2) how
data is organized on them; (3) how to handle, store, and ship them; (4) and how to
erase them.
FLEXIBLE MAGNETIC RECORDING DISKETTES
Flexible diskettes, or floppy disks as they're more commonly called, are inexpensive,
flexible, and portable magnetic storage mediums. They have the following
characteristics.
Floppy Disk Construction
Floppy disks are made of round plastic disks coated with magnetic oxide particles. The
disks are enclosed in a plastic jacket which protects the magnetic recording surface
from damage.
Floppy disks come in three sizes: 8 inch, 5 1/4 inch, and 3 1/2 inch. Figure 8-1 shows
each size. All disk sizes can either be single-sided or double-sided. Single-sided disks
store data on only one side of the disk; double-sided disks store data on both sides.
Figure 8-1. - Floppy disk construction.

When floppy disks are manufactured, the magnetic oxide coating is applied to both
sides. Each disk is then checked for errors. Disks certified as single-sided, are checked
on only one side; disks certified as double-sided are checked on both sides.
Floppy disks are also classified by how much data they can store.
This is called a disk's density. There are three levels of floppy disk density: single-
density, double-density , and high-density.
Some of the more common types of floppy disks and their storage capacity are listed
below:
TYPE OF FLOPPY DISK STORAGE CAPACITY

5-1/4" double-sided, double-density 360,000 bytes
5-1/4" double-sided, high-density 1,200,000 bytes
3-1/2" double-sided, double-density 720,000 bytes
3-1/2" double-sided, high-density 1,400,000 bytes
Floppy Disk Data Organization
Data is stored on a floppy disk in circular tracks. Figure 8-2 shows a circular track on a
floppy disk. The total number of tracks on a floppy disk is permanently set by (1) the
number of steps the disk drive's magnetic head stepper motor can make, and (2)
whether the disk drive has a magnetic head for one or both surfaces of the floppy disk.
These two things will also determine the type of floppy disk that's needed. Each type of
disk is rated with a number that represents how many tracks per inch (TPI) it can hold.
Some common track capacities are 40, 48, 80, and 96 TPI.
Figure 8-2. - Tracks and sectors of a magnetic disk.
Each track of a floppy disk is broken up into arcs called sectors. A disk is sectored just
as you'd slice an apple pie. Figure 8-2 shows the sectors of a floppy disk.
How many slices are made? That depends on who made the disk and in what host
computer the disk is used.
There are two methods for sectoring a floppy disk:
Hard Sectoring: This method sectors the disk physically. The disk itself will have marks
or sensor holes on it that the floppy disk drive hardware can detect. This method is
seldom used today.
Soft sectoring: This method sectors the disk logically. The computer software
determines the sector size and placement, and then slices
the disk into sectors by writing codes on the disk. This is called formatting or initializing
a floppy disk. During formatting, if the computer software locates a bad spot on the disk,
it locks it out to prevent the bad spot from being used. Soft sectoring is by far the most
popular method of sectoring a floppy disk.
Once a floppy disk is formatted, the computer uses the disk's side number, a track
number, and a sector number (together) as an address. It's this address that locates
where on the disk the computer will store the data.
Floppy Disk Handling, Storage, and Shipping
Floppy disks hold a lot of data. Even disks with only a 360,000-byte storage capacity
can hold 180 pages of data! That's why it's important to handle, store, and ship floppy
disks properly. One hundred and eighty pages of data is a lot of data to retype just
because of carelessness.
Before we get into disk handling and storage procedures, let's first learn about head-to-
disk contact. Do you remember reading in chapter 2 that the quality of magnetic tape
recording is seriously degraded when dust, dirt, or other contaminates get between the
magnetic head and the tape? Well, the same is true for magnetic disk recording. In fact,
head-to-disk contact is extremely important with floppy disks. This is because floppy
disk drives, unlike magnetic tape drives, spin at very high speeds - 300 to 600
revolutions-per-minute (RPM). If anything gets between the head and the recording
surface, you can lose data, or even worse, you can damage the magnetic head and the
disk's recording surface. Figure 8-3 shows the size relationship between a disk drive's
magnetic head, the disk recording surface, and some common contaminants.
Figure 8-3. - Size relationship of distance between head and disk to contaminants.
You must handle, store, and ship floppy disks with great care if you want them to stay in
good condition. Here's some specific precautions you should take:
DO always store 8" and 5-1/4" floppy
disks in their envelopes when not in use.
Dirt, dust, etc., can get on the recording
surface through the magnetic head
read/write access hole if you leave it
exposed for any length of time.
DO always write on a floppy disk label
first, and then place the label on the
disk. NEVER write directly on a floppy
disk. If you absolutely must write on a
disk, use a felt-tip marker.
DO hold floppy disks by their outside
corners only. DO NOT bend them. And
NEVER, NEVER paper clip them to
anything, or anything to them.
DO always store floppy disks in an
upright position.
Laying them on their side can cause
them to warp.
DO always keep floppy disks away from
food, liquids, and cigarette smoke. All of
these can easily damage floppy disks.
DO always ship floppy disks in
appropriate shipping containers.
When shipping only a few disks, use the
specially designed cardboard shipping
envelopes. If you must ship a large
number of disks, make sure the box you
use is sturdy enough to protect the disks
from damage. A good rule of thumb is to
use a shipping box that allows you to
place 2 inches of packing material
around the disks.
DO NOT touch any exposed recording
surfaces. Something as simple as a
fingerprint can destroy the data on a
floppy disk.
DO NOT expose a floppy disk to
magnetic fields. Telephones, magnetic
copy holders, printers, and other
electronic equipment generate magnetic
fields that can destroy the data on a
floppy disk.
DO NOT expose floppy disks to extreme
heat or cold. Floppy disks will last longer
if they're stored in an environment that
stays around 70-80 degrees Farenheit
and 30-60 percent relative humidity.
Floppy Disk Erasing
There are two ways to erase a floppy disk: (1) degauss it and then reformat it, or (2) just
reformat it. The process for degaussing floppy disks is the same as for degaussing
magnetic tape. Refer back to chapter 2 for the details on this.
If the floppy disks were used to store classified, or unclassified but sensitive information,
they can't be de-classified by erasing them. This is because, with the right equipment
and software, the data that was on the disk can be reconstructed. Floppy disks are
cheap and easy to replace. If you can't re-use the floppy disks to store other classified
data, just destroy them, using the procedures in OPNAVINST 5510.1, DON Information
and Personnel Security Program Regulation.
Q.1 Floppy disks are manufactured in what three sizes?
Q.2 What type of floppy disk is made to store data on both sides of the disk?
Q.3 What are the three levels of floppy disk density?

Q.4 What is the storage capacity of a 5-1/4" double-sided, high-density floppy disk?
Q.5 The floppy disks you are using have a rating of 96 TPI. What does this mean?
Q.6 The process of formatting a floppy disk is called what type of sectoring?
Q.7 What three components determine the address that locates where on a floppy disk
the computer will store the data?
Q.8 Why should you always store floppy disks in their envelopes?
Q.9 Why should you never place floppy disks near telephones or other electronic
equipments that generate magnetic fields?
Q.10 What are the two ways to erase floppy disks?
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Fiber optic data links Email address:
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Fiber optic concepts
Propagation of light
Properties of light Add Address
Reflection of light
Refraction of light
Diffusion of light
Absorption of light
Basic optical-material properties
Basic structure of an optical fiber Join Integrated Publishing's Discussion
Propagation of light along a fiber Group
Mode Theory
Optical fiber types
Multimode Fibers
Properties of optical transmission
Attenuation
Dispersion
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Multimode step-index fiber
Multimode graded-index fiber
Single mode step-index fibers
Single mode graded-index fibers
Fabrication of optical fibers
Optic cables
Cable strength and support members
Cable designs
Summary
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Optic splice, connector, and coupler
Optical fiber coupling loss
Reflection losses
Fiber end preparation
Fiber mismatches
Fiber optic splices
Mechanical splices
Fusion splicing
Multifiber splicing
Fiber optic connectors
Military connectors
Fiber optic couplers
Summary
Answers
Fiber optic measurement techniques
Laboratory measurements
Cutoff Wavelength
Bandwidth
Chromatic Dispersion
Fiber Geometry
Core Diameter
Numerical Aperture
Return Loss and Reflectance
Field measurements
Optical Time-Domain Reflectometry
Power Meter
Summary
Answers
Optical source properties
Semiconductor light-emitting diodes and laser diodes
Semiconductor material and device operating principles
Light-emitting diodes
Laser diodes
Superluminescent diodes
Fiber optic transmitters
Fiber optic transmitter packages
Summary
Answers
Optical detectors and fiber optic receivers
Optical detectors
Semiconductor material and device properties
Response Time
Avalanche photodiodes
Fiber optic receivers
Receiver noise
Receiver design
Fiber optic receiver packages
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Fiber optic links
Link classification
Digital transmission
Analog transmission
System design
System installation
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BACKGROUND ON FIBER OPTICS
LEARNING OBJECTIVES

questions are based on the ob jectives. By successfully completing
learned the information. The learning objec tives are listed below. Join Integrated
Publishing's
Upon completing this chapter, you should be able to do the Discussion Group
following:
Describe the term fiber optics.

List the parts of a fiber optic
data link.
Understand the function of
each fiber optic data link part.
Outline the progress made in Order this
the history of fiber optic information on CD-
technology. Rom
Describe the trade-offs in
fiber properties and
component selection in the
design of fiber optic
systems.
List the advantages and
Order this
the disadvantages of fiber
optic systems compared to information in
electrical commu nications Print (Hardcopy).
systems.
DEFINITION OF FIBER OPTICS
In the other Navy Electricity and Electronics Training

Series (NEETS) modules, you learn the basic concepts used
in electrical systems. Electrical systems include
telephone, radio, cable tele vision (CATV), radar, and
satellite links. In the past 30 years, researchers have
developed a new technology that offers greater data rates
over longer distances at costs lower than copper wire
systems. This new technology is fiber optics.
Fiber optics uses light to send information (data). More

formally, fiber optics is the branch of optical technology
concerned with the transmission of radiant power (light
energy) through fibers.
Q.1 Define fiber optics.
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OPTICAL FIBERS AND CABLES
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
Upon completion of this chapter, you should be able to do the following:
Describe multimode and single

mode step-index and graded-
index fibers.
Explain the terms refractive Join Integrated
index profile, relative
Publishing's
refractive index difference,
and profile parameter. Discussion Group
List the performance
advantages of 62.5/125 μm
multimode graded-index
fibers.
Identify the two basic types of
single mode step-index fibers.
Describe the vapor phase
oxidation and direct-melt
optical fiber fabrication Order this
procedures. information on CD-
Describe the fiber drawing Rom
process.
List the benefits of cabled optical
fibers over bare fibers.
Identify the basic cable
components, such as buffers,
strength members, and jacket
materials. Order this
Describe the material and information in
design requirements imposed
Print (Hardcopy).
on military fiber optic cable
designs.
Describe the advantages and
disadvantages of OFCC cable,
stranded cable, and ribbon
cable designs.
OPTICAL FIBER AND CABLE DESIGN
Optical fibers are thin cylindrical dielectric (non-conductive)

waveguides used to send light energy for communication. Optical
fibers consist of three parts: the core, the cladding, and the
coating or buffer. The choice of optical fiber materials and
fiber design depends on operating conditions and intended
application. Optical fibers are protected from the environment
by incorporating the fiber into some type of cable structure.
Cable strength members and outer jackets protect the fiber.
Optical cable structure and material composition depend on the
conditions of operation and the intended application.
OPTICAL FIBERS
Chapter 2 classified optical fibers as either single mode or

multimode fibers. Fibers are classified according to the number
of modes that they can propagate. Single mode fibers can
propagate only the fundamental mode. Multimode fibers can
propagate hundreds of modes. However, the classification of an
optical fiber depends on more than the number of modes that a
fiber can propagate.
An optical fiber's refractive index profile and core size

further distinguish single mode and multimode fibers. The
refractive index profile describes the value of refractive index
as a function of radial distance at any fiber diameter. Fiber
refractive index profiles classify single mode and multimode
fibers as follows:
Multimode step-index fibers

Multimode graded-index fibers
Single mode step-index fibers
Single mode graded-index fibers
In a step-index fiber, the refractive index of the core is

uniform and undergoes an abrupt change at the core-cladding
boundary. Step-index fibers obtain their name from this abrupt
change called the step change in refractive index. In graded-
index fibers, the refractive index of the core varies gradually
as a function of radial distance from the fiber center.
Single mode and multimode fibers can have a step-index or graded-

index refractive index profile. The performance of multimode
graded-index fibers is usually superior to multimode step-index
fibers. However, each type of multimode fiber can improve system
design and operation depending on the intended application.
Performance advantages for single mode graded-index fibers
compared to single mode step-index fibers are relatively small.
Therefore, single mode fiber production is almost exclusively
step-index. Figure 3-1 shows the refractive index profile for a
multimode step-index fiber and a multimode graded-index fiber.
Figure 3-1 also shows the refractive index profile for a single
mode step-index fiber. Since light propagates differently in
each fiber type, figure 3-1 shows the propagation of light along
each fiber.
Figure 3-1. - The refractive index profiles and light

propagation in multimode step-index, multimode graded-index, and
single mode step-index fibers.
In chapter 2, you learned that fiber core size and material
composition can affect system performance. A small change in
core size and material composition affects fiber transmission
properties, such as attenuation and dispersion.
When selecting an optical fiber, the system designer decides

which fiber core size and material composition is appropriate.
Standard core sizes for multimode step-index fibers are 50 μm

and 100 μm. Standard core sizes for multimode graded-index
fibers are 50 μm, 62.5 μm, 85 μm, and 100 μm.
Standard core sizes for single mode fibers are between 8 μm
and 10 μm. In most cases, the material used in the
preparation of optical fibers is high-quality glass (SiO2).
This glass contains very low amounts of impurities, such as

water or elements other than silica and oxygen. Using high-
quality glass produces fibers with low losses. Small amounts of
some elements other than silica and oxygen are added to the
glass material to change its index of refraction. These elements
are called material dopants. Silica doped with various materials
forms the refractive index profile of the fiber core and
material dopants are discussed in more detail later in this
chapter. Glass is not the only material used in fabrication of
optical fibers. Plastics are also used for core and cladding
materials in some applications.
A particular optical fiber design can improve fiber optic system

performance.
Each single mode or multimode, step-index or graded-index, glass

or plastic, or large or small core fiber has an intended
application. The system designer must choose an appropriate
fiber design that optimizes system performance in his
application.
Q.1 Describe the term "refractive index profile."

Q.2 The refractive index of a fiber core is uniform and
undergoes an abrupt change at the core-cladding boundary. Is
this fiber a step-index or graded-index fiber?
Q.3 Multimode optical fibers can have a step-index or graded-
index refractive index profile. Which fiber, multimode step-
index or multimode graded-index fiber, usually performs better?
Q.4 List the standard core sizes for multimode step-index,
multimode graded-index, and single mode fibers.
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OPTICAL SOURCES AND FIBER OPTIC TRANSMITTERS
LEARNING OBJECTIVES

following:
Explain the principal

properties of an optical source
and fiber optic transmitter. Join Integrated
Discuss the optical emission Publishing's
properties of semiconductor Discussion Group
light-emitting diodes (LEDs)
and laser diodes (LDs).
Describe the operational
differences between surface-
emitting LEDs (SLEDs), edge-
emitting LEDs (ELEDs),
superluminescent diodes
(SLDs), and laser diodes. Order this
Describe typical fiber optic information on CD-
transmitter packages. Rom
INTRODUCTION TO OPTICAL SOURCES AND FIBER OPTIC

TRANSMITTERS
Chapter 1 taught you that a fiber optic data link has three basic
functions.
Order this
One function is that a fiber optic data link must convert an electrical information in
signal to an optical signal permitting the transfer of data along an Print (Hardcopy).
optical fiber.
The fiber optic device responsible for that signal conversion is a

fiber optic transmitter.
A fiber optic transmitter is a hybrid device.
It converts electrical signals into optical signals and launches the

optical signals into an optical fiber. A fiber optic transmitter consists
of an interface circuit, a source drive circuit, and an optical source.
The interface circuit accepts the incoming electrical signal and
processes it to make it compatible with the source drive circuit. The
source drive circuit intensity modulates the optical source by
varying the current through the source.
An optical source converts electrical energy (current) into optical

energy (light). Light emitted by an optical source is launched, or
coupled, into an optical fiber for transmission. Fiber optic data link
performance depends on the amount of optical power (light)
launched into the optical fiber. This chapter attempts to provide an
understanding of light-generating mechanisms within the main
types of optical sources used in fiber optics.
Q.1 What are the three parts of a fiber optic transmitter?

Q.2 Which part of a fiber optic transmitter converts the processed
electrical signal to an optical signal?

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Electrical Engineering Training Series.

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Introduction to Matter, Energy, and Electricity

Matter, Energy, and Electricity

Introduction to Alternating Current and Transformers

Inductive and Capacitive Reactance

Introduction to Circuit Protection, Control, and Measuring Join Integrated

Introduction to Electrical Conductors, Wiring Techniques,

Direct Current Generators

Introduction to Electron Tubes

Introduction to Solid-State Devices and Power Supplies

Introduction to Wave-Generation and Wave-Shaping Circuits

Introduction to Wave Propagation, Transmission Lines, and

Introduction to Number Systems and Logic Circuits

Principles of Synchros, Servos, and Gyros

Introduction to Test Equipment

Test Equipment and Administration Use

Radio-Frequency Communications Principles

Test Methods and Practices

Introduction to Digital Computers

Introduction to Magnetic Recording

Background on fiber optics

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Book1 Matter Energy and Electricity

Matter, Energy, and Electricity

Chapter 3 - Direct Current

The basic electric circuit

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Matter, Energy, and Electricity

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Upon completing this chapter, you will be able to:

3. State, in terms of valence, the differences between a conductor, an insulator, and

5. State the meanings of retentivity, reluctance, permeability, ferromagnetism,

7. State, using the water analogy, how a difference of potential (a voltage or an

MATTER, ENERGY, AND ELECTRICITY

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A battery consists of a number of cells assembled in a common container and connected

Figure 2-1. - Simple voltaic or galvanic cell.

Figure 2-2. - Dry cell, cross-sectional view.

Q1.What is the purpose of a cell?

Q2.What are the three parts of a cell?

Q3.What is the purpose of each of the three parts of a cell?

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Upon completing this chapter, you will be able to:

Identify the term schematic diagram and identify the

This chapter also explains how to determine the total resistance,

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For instance, if &thetas; is 30m what is Φ ?

Also, if &thetas; is known, Φ may be determined in the same