CONTENTS

Introduction

Chapter I. Set Expressions and Proverbs in English language

1.1. Set Expressions: Features and Classification 5

1.2. Proverbs and its Determination 11

Chapter II. Semantic Characteristics of Proverbs and Set Expressions

2.1 Comparative Analysis of English and Russian Set Expressions with Health and
Body 16

2.2 Difficulties in translation of English proverbs into Russian 21

Conclusions 30

Bibliography 31

Appendix

2
 INTODUCTION

Language, as we know, is the repository of the collective experience of humanity. This

experience is reflected in the words and values of sustainable value expressions, associations and
enshrined in the language, rules of conduct, case law texts that define people belonging to a
particular culture. [Dmitriev 1997, p.1]. Proverbs play an important role in the transfer of
collective wisdom from generation to generation. From proverbs people reflected their attitude to
the native nature, wildlife, social and historical experience of their ancestors, expressed their
worldview, moral norms and aesthetic ideals. As an integral part of the language, proverbs and
sayings have long attracted the attention of writers and scholars. For this reason, a comparative
study of proverbs-sayings expression is relevant in the present. This issue applies to the works of
V.V. Vinogradov [1946] V.P. Anikin [1966] V.P. Zhukov [1988], G.L. Permyakov [1988], V.N.
Kravtsov [1988] E.V. Ivanova [2002] and others. In these writings, proverbs are studied in three
aspects: linguistic, semantic and cognitive.

In our modern times, our speech is characterized by increasing turns of speech, which uses
almost everyone. However, at the same time it preserved the value of proverbs, which are used
by people. They allow to clearly emphasizing the meaning of what was said. Many people
actively use such expressions, and their social status, their place of work does not matter. Using
the proverbs and sayings in the speech are capable to make it more colorful, and tells about the
person who from time to time uses them, as about competent and educated one. In speech, we
use not only proverbs and sayings, but also set expressions, very similar to them: the short
quotes, which have entered our speech from references, tropes, sayings of historical persons. Set
expressions make our speech bright, laconic, significant and capacious. With their help, it is
possible to describe and characterize the person or some situation and to express the attitude to it.
The person, who correctly uses in his speech set expressions, always be expressive and accurate.
Proverbs and set expressions play important role in language. They give emotionality,
expressiveness to the speech. They have certain pure linguistic features that must always be
taken into account in order to distinguish them from ordinary sentences. Set expressions and
proverbs are interesting because they are colorful and lively and because they are linguistic
curiosities. At the same time, they are difficult because they have unpredictable meanings and
grammar, and often have special connotations.

The purpose of writing this work is determination of features of the phraseological units with
this semantics, to study English and Russian set expressions and proverbs, to find connection
between the English and Russian proverbs, to point out the difficulties arising at the translation
of the English proverbs into Russian.
3
The working hypothesis of the given research is in the investigation of English
phraseological units with health and body will surely make out many structures of their origin
and present information about their semantic, grammatical, lexical and cognitive features,
cultural and historical background, which can be used in compiling phraseological dictionaries
and enriching the science of phraseology.

The novelty of the work in question is based on research of works of the well-known
phrenologists: Kunin, Vinogradov, Amosova, etymological dictionaries, Anglo-English and
English-Russian phraseological dictionaries, Russian-English dictionaries of sayings and
proverbs.

We have set concrete objectives to obtain the goal of our research:

- to give the definition of phraseological unit;

- to analyze features of an origin of phraseological units;
- to give definition of a proverb and to reveal their linguistic characteristics in the
English and Russian languages.
- to formulate conclusions on research.

For the completion of our objectives have studied scientific works by philosophers,
logicians, anthropologists and psychologists. The Famous linguist A.V. Kunin investigated a lot
in phraseology and made up the whole theory, creating the English-Russian phraseological
dictionary. We can say that A.V. Kunin is father of phraseology. N.N. Amosova presented the
general basis of phraseological science, E.F. Arsentyeva and Grenville were involved in the
comparative investigation of phraseological sources of different languages, Cowie revealed the
connection between phraseology and national cultural mentality of people. Such linguists as
Glaser R described the stylistic potential of phraseological units and Grant L. studied out the
frequency of usage of phraseological units in English.

The methods of the scientific-theoretical level used in our research are as follows:

Descriptive method (to describe main points of the research work),

4
 Comparative analysis (to compare English phraseological units with their equivalents
in Russian),
Componential analysis (to take a component: parts of body and health out of the
whole phraseological unit or proverb and analyze it),
Cognitive conceptual analysis (to investigate associations, background knowledge
in phraseological units and proverbs with health and body),
Lingual-cultural analysis (to find out interesting cultural events which deal with
phraseological units and proverbs with health and body),
Critical analysis of the literature on the problem of investigation (to analyze
scientific issues dedicated to the theme of investigation).

The given work falls into introduction, two chapters, conclusions, and bibliography.

Introduction presents the problems, which are investigated and discussed in the work, points
out the aim of this research, tasks of the work, scientific novelty, theoretical value, practical
value and other peculiarities and features of the research work. In Chapters I, II and III all the
duties and problems of the work are investigated and analyzed in details.

Chapter I capture mostly the history and structure of phraseological units with health and body
in language and presents semantic, grammatical and communicative features of proverbs and set
expressions.

Chapter II is devoted to the investigation of cognitive sphere of the proverbs and set
expressions in linguistic and occasional structures of them too.

In Conclusion pointed out the most important facts of investigation and showed the significant
results of the research work.

Bibliography presents the names of the authors and their theoretical issues and books, which
were used for writing this research work.

The theoretical interest is evident in the presenting important and interesting information
about culture, historical background, semantic-stylistic and grammatical-lexical structures of
English phraseological units and proverbs with proper names. Explanation of reasons of
including proper names into them and classification of them according to some features

The practical value is the possibility of usage of the rich material in communication during
the speech act with English people, at the lessons of practical English, lectures and seminars on
Country Study, Stylistics, Literature of English speaking countries, writing scientific articles and

5
course papers on the theme of research, compiling dictionaries of phraseological units and
proverbs, while working at literary texts and reading original literature, etc.

CHAPTER I. Set Expressions and Proverbs in English language

1.1. Set Expressions: Features and Classification.

6
J. Strasslers definition of an idiom is as follows: An idiom is a concatenation of more than one
lexeme whose meaning is not derived from the meanings of its constituents and which does not
consist of a verb plus adverbial particle or preposition.

Though there are differences in opinions, all linguists agree that phraseological units or idioms
are probably the most picturesque, colorful and expressive part of the language vocabulary,
which reflect nations customs, traditions and prejudices, recollections of its past history, scraps
of folk songs and fairy tales. But it is necessary to distinguish them from other words and
phrases existing in the language.

R.S.Ginzburg also accepts the term phraseological units and the definition given by her is the
following: Phraseological units are [..] non-motivated word-groups that cannot be freely made
up in speech but are reproduced as ready-made units. [Ginzburg 1966;p.190]

In her turn N.N.Amosova defines phraseological units as units of fixed context that is a context
characterized by a specific and unchanging sequence of definite lexical components and a
peculiar semantic relationship existing between them. [ 1963;p.97]

The English authors Jennifer Seidl and W.McMordie in their book English Idioms and How to
Use Them state: An idiom is a number of words which, taken together, mean something
different from the individual words of the idiom when they stand alone. The way in which the
words are put together is often odd, illogical or even grammatically incorrect. [..] We have to
learn the idiom as a whole and we often cannot change any part of it. [Seidl, McMordie
1983;p.48]

Ch.Ballys theory, which states that the main feature of a phraseological unit is possibility or
impossibility to replace it by one single word. [ 1970;p.23]

The concept of phraseology unit (unite phraseologique) has been first used by Charles Bally,
wherefrom it was taken by V.V. Vinogradov and other Soviet linguists, who translated it by
frazeologiceskaja edinitsa. He defines them as ready-made language units that are taken from
one generation to another and are used in the process of speech as traditional word-combinations.

Shansky defines phraseologisms as frozen patterns of language that consist of two or more
components and allow little or no variation in form, structure or meaning. [ 1969;p.91]

Another linguist, Senina, defines phraseological units as a semantically bound set of words that
are not produced at the moment of conversation but are reproduced as a rigid lexico-grammatical
units with a firm semantical background. [ 2010;p.165]

7
Another outstanding Russian linguist A.V.Kunin having done an elaborate research comes to the
conclusion that phraseological units are stable combinations of words with a fully or partially
figurative meaning. [ 1970;p.78]

This definition is best suited for the purpose as it includes two inherent properties of
phraseological units: stability and figurative meaning which differentiate these units from free
word combinations and also from set expressions with no figurative meaning.

The same understanding of a phraseological unit is shared also by Latvian scholars

A.Naciscione, A.Veisbergs.

From explanations of set expressions and examples of their use, it is possible to see that many
expressions, which have entered the literary speech, have received new value, not inherent in
their source. The expressions, which have arisen from bible myths, have lost the cult coloring,
have got other sense, and are often used with irony.

Many various lines of approach have been used, and yet the bound aries of this set, its
classification and the place of phraseology in the vocabulary appear controversial issues of
present-day linguistics.

A.J.Smirnitsky classifies phraseological units according to their stylistic features:

1) phraseological units (stylistically neutral, with faded metaphorical motivation, e.g., be in

love, fall in love);

2) idioms (they are based on metaphor, they are emotionally and stylistically colored, e.g., cool
as a cucumber).

Set expressions have sometimes been called "word equivalents", and it has been postulated by
A.I. Smirnitsky that the vocabulary of a language consists of words and word equivalents
(word-groups), similar to words in so far as they are not created in speech but introduced into
the act of communication ready-made. It is most important to keep in mind that here
equivalence means only this and nothing more.

Set expressions are contrasted to free phrases and semi fixed combinations. All these are but
different stages of restrictions imposed upon co-occurrence of words, upon the lexical filling of
structural patterns which are specific for even' language. The restrictions may be independent of
the ties existing in extra linguistic reality between the objects spoken of and be conditioned by
purely linguistic factors, or have extra linguistic causes in the history of the people. In free
combinations the linguistic factors are chiefly connected with grammatical properties of words

8
I.Arnold classifies phraseological units according to the type of the component parts and the
functioning of the whole. She states that structured like phrases they function like words.
[Arnold 1966;p.38]

There are seven types of phraseological units in I.Arnolds structural classification:

1) nominal phrases, e.g., high life

2) verbal phrases, e.g., put ones head in a noose

3) adverbial phrases, e.g., by hook or by crook

4) adjectival phrases, e.g., as wet as a drowned rat

5) prepositional phrases, e.g., in accordance with

6) conjunctional phrases, e.g., as long as

7) interjectional phrases, e.g., well, I never did!

The Russian scholar A.I.Molotkov classifies phraseological units of the Russian language taking
into account that the lexical meaning of a phraseological unit and its grammatical categories
form the content of a phraseological unit (in contrast to its form), with which the lexical-
grammatical characteristic of a phraseological unit is connected: nominal, verbal, adjectival,
adverbial, verbal-prepositional; interjectional phraseological units. [ 1978;p.46]

Another classification in which there are two principles applied is established by N.Amosova.
N.N. Amosova's approach is contextological. She defines phraseological units as units of fixed
context. Fixed context is defined as a context characterized by a specific and unchanging
sequence of definite lexical components, and a peculiar semantic relationship between them.
Units of fixed context are subdivided into phrasemes and idioms. Phrasemes are always binary:
one component has a phraseological bound meaning, the other serves as the determining context
(small talk, small hours, small change). In idioms the new meaning is created by the whole,
though every element it has its original meaning weakened or even completely lost: in the nick
of time 'at the exact moment'. Idioms may be motivated or demotivated. A motivated idiom is
homonymous to a free phrase, but this phrase is used figuratively: take the bull by the horns 'to
face dangers without fear'. In the nick of time is demotivated, because the word nick is obsolete.

Both phrasemes and idioms may be movable (changeable) or immovable. N.Amosova

distinguishes two types of phraseological units:

9
 1) phrasemes (units of fixed context in which one of the components has specialized meaning
dependent on the second component, e.g., small talk, fair sex);

2) idioms (idioms are semantically and grammatically inseparable units, e.g., play with fire).
[ 1963;p.69]

Taking into account the comparative analysis of different classifications of phraseological units
which the author has observed, she has to admit that the following classification worked out by
A.V.Kunin can be considered the most detailed one. He has critically examined most of the
existing classifications and elaborated his own classification of phraseological units which is
based on more thorough analysis of these phenomena of language. In his classification
A.V.Kunin keeps a close watch to the elements of phraseology which have not been emphasized
by other researchers, as well as takes into consideration also the development of the English
language. Since A.V.Kunins classification of phraseological units is grounded on wide
theoretical and practical material concerning different languages, the author of the present
article assumes that this classification could be applied also to the phraseological systems of
other languages.

Kunin has worked out a structural-semantic classification, which reveals the function of a
phraseological unit depending on its size (collocations or sentences)

The sheet of functioning of set expressions like different parts of speech.

Set Expressions Examples Explanation
N+N

maiden name; -the surname of a woman before she

was married;
brains trust; -a committee of experts;

Ns+N - one who is used for the

cats paw; convenience of a cleverer and
stronger person;

Hob-sons choice; - when there is no choice at all;

Noun
Ns'+N - one who makes special effort to
ladies man ; charm or please women;

10
 N+prp+N
- you will be catched if you have
the arm of the law; done something illegal;

N+A - is applied to any chivalrous man

ready to help and protect oppressed
knight errant;
and helpless people;

N+and+N
- husband;
lord and master;

-the ordinary working members of

rank and file;
an organisation;

A+N
- the general reception room of a
green room; theatre;
- a short nap;
forty winks;

N+subordinate clause - chance acquaintances;

ships that pass in the night;
V+N
take advantage; - to use the good things in a

V+and+V situation;

pick and choose; - to take only the things you want

from a group;

Verb V+(ones)+N+(prp)
- treat with contempt;
snap ones fingers at;
V+one+N
- to fire somebody;
give one the bird;

V+subordinate clause -to discover the state of affairs;

see how the land lies;
A+and+A
high and mighty; - as if you are more important than

11
 other people;
Adjective (as)+A+as+N

as old as the hills; - very old;

N+N
tooth and nail; - furiously or fiercely;

prp+N
- exactly and from memory;

Adverb by heart; - yes; certainly; for sure;

of course; - very seldom;

- using any method possible;

adv+prp+N

once in a blue moon;

-extremely quickly; almost

prp+N+or+N immediately; suddenly or in a very
by hook or by crook; short space of time

cj+clause

before one can say Jack

Robinson;

Preposition prp+N+prp

in consequence of; - by reason of; as the effect of;

Interjection Bless (ones) soul! -an exclamation of surprise;

God bless me!
s - express exasperation or disgust.

Hang it (all)!

12
This table points out that set expressions, can be any part of speech. This feature enriches our
speech and make it to more colorful.

1.2 Proverbs and its Determination

The definition of a proverb has caused scholars from many disciplines much chagrin over the
centuries. Many attempts at definition have been made from Aristotle to the present time.
[Meider (1985]

1. ARISTOTLE (4C. B.C.)

13
a. The fragments of an elder wisdom, which, on account of their brevity and aptness, had amid a
general wreck and ruin been preserved.

b. Proverbs are metaphors from one species to another [Rhetorica Bk. 11/21]

2. MATHIEN DE VENDOME (12 CENTURY)

A proverb is a popular phrase accredited by custom, accepted by the general opinion,

expressing a truth that has been proved genuine [As quoted by Gynla Paczolay 1978].

3. LORD JOHN RUSSELL (1792-1878) The wisdom of many, the wit of one or One mans
wit , and all mens wisdom (Memoirs of the Life of the Right Honorable Sir James Mackintosh,
edited by his son Robert James Mackintosh, Esz., 2. Vols. [London 1835;p. 472]

4. RICHARD CHENEVIX TRENCH (1953)

a. Without this popularity, without these suffrages and this consent of the many, no saying,
however brief, however wise, however seasoned with salt, however worthy on all these accounts
to have become a proverb, however fulfilling all other its conditions, can yet be esteemed as
much. This popularity, omitted in that enumeration of the essential notes on the proverb, is yet
the only one whose presence is absolutely necessary, whose absence is fatal to the claims of any
saying to be regarded as such. [Proverbs and Their Lessons;p.10]

b. one quality of the proverb, and that the most essential of all I mean popularity,
acceptance and adoption on the part of the people. [Proverbs and Their Lessons; p.10]

5. ARCHER TAYLOR (1931)

a. The definition of the proverb is too difficult to repay the undertaking; and should we
fortunately combine in a single definition all the essential elements and give each the proper
emphasis, we should not even then a touchstone. An incommunicable quality tells us this
sentence is proverbial and that one is not. Hence no definition will enable us identify positively
a sentence as proverbial. Those who do not speak a language can never recognize all its
proverbs, and similarly much that is truly proverbial escapes us in Elizabethan and older English.
Let us to content with recognizing that a proverb is a saying current among the folk. At least so
much of a definition is indisputable, and we shall see and weigh the significance of other
elements later. [The Proverb; p. 3].

b. A saying which summarizes a situation and in its own inimitable way passes some sort of
judgement on it or characterizes its essence.

6. G.L. APPERSON (1935)

14
 A proverb is a crystallized summary of popular wisdom or fancy. [As quoted by Joanna
Wilson in the Introduction to the Third Edition of The Oxford Dictionary of English Proverbs.
Oxford: Clarendom Press. 1970, vii]

7. KENNETH BURKE (1941)

Proverbs are strategies for dealing with situations. In so far as situations are typical and
recurrent in a given social structure, people develop names for them and strategies for handling
them. Another name for strategies might be attitudes. [Literature as Equipment for Living in
The Philosophy of Literary Form: Studies in Symbolic Action, 1941; 256]

8. ANONYMOUS (1961)

Many people have loved proverbs for the wisdom embedded in them. Others have treasured
proverbs for the vividness or earthiness of their imagery. But students of the subject are
impressed by still another characteristic of the proverb: its verbal economy. Proverbs are rarely
wordy. The usual proverb is spare and austere in expression, and some are marvels of
compactness. [Can Anybody Compare a Proverb. The New York Times [November 12,
1961], section IV, pp.8, col.3. As quoted in Mieder 1993b, pp.32]

9. HORACE REYNOLDS (1959)

a. A proverb in the hand is often worth a thousand words.

b. Like Poetry, the proverb is indefinable. There have been some good tries. Francis Bacon
called proverbs: The edged tools of speech. Lord John Russell in a much quoted appraisal
called a proverb the wisdom of many and the wit of one. But the definition I like best comes
from the good old Encyclopedia Britannica: A pungent criticism of life. That seems to fit the
insight and compassion which mark the proverbs at its best. [A proverb in the Hand Is Often
Worth a Thousand Words. The New York Times Magazine (September 13, 1959), pp.74.

10. PETER SEITEL (1969 and 1976)

Proverbs in English may be provisionally defined as short, traditional, out of context

statements used to further some social end [Proverbs: A Social Use of Metaphor in Folklore
Genres, p. 127]

From a close examination of the definitions I find out that some of them are observations on the
properties of proverbs while others are proper attempts to define proverbs. Whatever be the case,
none of them has successfully captured the defining characteristics of proverbs that will account
15
for the universal characteristic that constitutes a proverb and the distinguishing characteristic that
differentiates a proverb from an item of another genre.

Lord John Russells definitions of a proverb is one of the most popular definitions and here also,
the emphasis is on wisdom. The only difference is in the manner of its origin. Certainly for a
proverb to be formed someone must have uttered it first. It is only then it must have caught on
and become popular. However, it need not necessarily be all mens wisdom, if there is wisdom in
the proverb. Again, the wisdom need not necessarily be shared by the people before its reception
by the many. It may be a case of recognition of the wisdom after its revelation. Nonetheless,
that propositional wisdom must have been accepted by the users. In spite of these possibilities
there is no evidence that all proverbs are wisdom bearing. Many proverbs like those born from
unique incidents or legends or great thinking. One example of such a proverb is One butcher
does not fear money sheep uttered by Alexander the Great when the Persians were advancing to
attack him. The wisdom in the proverb was not perceived by the users before its creation but
recognized after its. Coinage. Another example is in Greek many things find place between the
cup and lip or its English equivalent there is many a ship twixt the cup and the lip! [Trench
1853 and 2003; p38]. In such cases as these, it is the other way round: the wit of one becoming
the wisdom of many giving rise to popularity for the wit. To put it differently, The wit of one,
the proverb for many.

Richard C. Trench also brings in the issue of popularity as the most essential characteristic of a
proverb. He also accepts at the same time brevity, and perch as important characteristics of
proverbs.

Appersons definition is precise but not universal in its characterization of proverbs. Some
proverbs contain wisdom (e.g. A stitch in time saves nine) but some do no (e.g. If you cannot
beat them join them) and some proverbs are born our or real life experiences (e.g. Mirzas dog
in Baluchi). Hence, both wisdom and fancy are not universal among proverbs.

Horace Reynolds definition of a proverb as a pungent criticism of life is again not a definition
that captures the distinguishing characteristic of a proverb. Even non proverbial statements
such as we can only know life backwards or Life is birth, copulation and death or Life is a
tale told by an idiot full of sound and fury are memorable statements especially, the last one
which is pungent, beet they are not proverbs. The other title definitions A proverb in the hand is
often worth a thousand words again falls into the same category since a picture is also worth a
thousand words.

16
According to Mieder(1993a:4), The problem of defining a proverb appears to be as old as
mans interest in them. Not only did such great minds as Aristotle and Plato occupy themselves
with the question of what constitutes a proverb, but early Greek paremiographers in particular
wrestled with this seemingly insurmountable task as well.

And according to Trench (1905 and 2003:7), Nothing is harder than a definition. While on the
one hand there is for the most part no easier take than to detect a fault or flaw in the definitions
of those who have gone before us, nothing on the other is more difficult than to propose one of
our own, which shall not also present a vulnerable side.

Mieder (1993a, b and 2000) in his three seminal articles on the nature and popular views of the
proverb gives us a very concise but highly informative account of the various attempts made by
scholars to define a proverb and proposes his own definitions. He reviews the work of such well
known authorities as Taylor(1931), Whiting(19320,

Burke(1941), Bryant(1945), Gallacher(1959), Seitel(1969), Milner(1971), Kirshenblah

Gimblett(1973), Blehr(1973), Barley(1974). Krikman (1974), Dundes(1975), Silverman
Weinreich(1978), Rokem(1982), Cram(1983), Arora(1984), Norrick(1985) and many others. In
addition, he also disusses the major insights into the nature of proverbs as discovered by such
critics as Bock and Brewer(1980), Grambo(1972), Holbek(1970), Rothstein(1969) and
Zhokooskii(1978) regarding the poetic aspects of proverbs; Goodwin and Wenzel (1981),
Honeck and Kibler (1984), Kemper (1981), and Pasamanick (1985) regarding the cognitive
aspect of proverbs; Lieber (1984), and Yankah (9183) regarding the pragmatics of proverbs;
Bond (1936) regarding legal proverbs; Elmquist (1934 35) regarding medical proverbs;
Szemerkenyi and Voigt regarding variant proverbs; Lucus (1965) on the national character of
proverbs; and so many other critics regarding their definitions.

In addition to Mieders three articles which provide us with detailed survey of the critical
literature on the definition of the proverb as well as his own interpretation of proverbs for his
own definition, three more articles need to be consulted for their intrinsic value. The first is that
of Richard Chenevix Trench (1807 86) that is titled The Form and Definition of a Proverb.
This seminal article was published in 1853 along with five more articles in the form of a book on
the Lessons in Proverbs. This book was an important and influential survey on the origin,
nature, distribution, meaning, and significance of proverbs in the English speaking world
(Mieder 2003: ii). The second article is that of Gyula Paczolay (1970) in which he classified the
proposed definitions into three classes: 1. Those denying the possibility of a definition; 2. Those
identifying the proverb with its text; 3. Those which are complex. The third article is that of Paul

17
Hermadi and Francis Steen (1999) in which the characteristics of proverbs are described under
the five sub-headings of 1) what; 2) when; 3) where; 4) How; and 5) Why are proverbs

Appersons definition is precise but not universal in its characterization of proverbs. Some
proverbs contain wisdom (eg. A stitch in time saves nine) but some do no (eg. If you cannot
beat them join them) and some proverbs are born our or real life experiences (eg. Mirzis dog in
Baluchi). Hence, bnoth wisdom or fancy are not universal among proverbs.

Kenneth Burkis description is indeed a very important characteristic of proverbs but again there
are many other genres that function as strategies for dealing with situations. Even though he has
pointed our a discourse function characteristic which is very vital for understanding proverbs, he
has not pi8npointed how this strategy has come about. This point will be discussed in the context
of alternative ways of saying the same thing.

The quotation of anonymous points out to wisdom, imagery and verbal economy in proverbs.
The issue of verbal economy and wisdom has already been discussed. vividness or earthiness of
their imagery is again not universal in proverbs. For example, literary proverbs such as
Prevention is better than cure cure etc. do not have imagery at all.

Horace Raynolds definition of a proverb as a pungent criticism of life is again not a definition
that captures the distinguishing characteristic of a proverb. Even non proverbial statements
such as we can only know life backwards or Life is birth, 25 copulation and death or Life is
a tale told by an idiot full of sound and fury are memorable statements especially, the last one
which is pungent, beet they are not proverbs. The other title definitions A proverb in the hand is
often worth a thousand words again falls into the same category since a picture is also worth a
thousand words.

Peter Seitels definition, like that of Kenneth Burke, is pragmatic but again does not pinpoint the
distinguishing characteristics of proverbs. Other types of statements can also be used to further
some social end.

Chapter II. Semantic Characteristics of Proverbs and Set Expressions

2.1. Comparative Analysis of English and Russian Set Expressions with Health and
Body

For the comparative analyzes of English and Russian set expressions and proverbs with health
and body I use the dictionary written by A. Ambrazheychik 2000 2000
, which contains more than 2000

18
Russian idioms and their English equivalents, which are followed by a large number of examples
of use in informal and written language. Having analyzed dictionary, I have found more than 200
expressions connected with a subject of my paper, namely set expressions about parts of a body.

Eyes

1. stand out like a sore thumb;

2. - -in the eyes of smb;
3. out of sight;
4. - cry one's eyes out;
5. -strake like a stug pig;
6. - trained eye;
7. - keep an eye on smb;
8. - -eyes are the mirror of the soul;
9. -easily moved to tears ;
10. draw straws;
11. - be all eyes;
12. - see double;
13. - evil eye;
14. -- close ones eyes to smth;
15. before ones nose;
16. , -good shoot;
17. -not to get a wink of sleep;
18. - eye for an eye;
19. -stay out of the way
20. -put the wool over smbs eyes

The word eyes is replaced with other words way/sight, or expression had other context, but at
the same time the sense of expression remains clear both in Russian and in English languages.

Head/mind

1. - run for ones life;

2. - get into ones head;
3. - go through smb's mind;
4. - be in the right mind;
5. - know which side ones bread is buttered;
6. - be printed on smbs mind;
7. - get under smbs shin ;
8. -knock the nonsense out of smb;
9. -get smb out of ones head;
10. - slip ones mind;
11. -give a pat on the back;
12. - neck and neck;
13. - head on ones shoulders;
14. run in ones head;
15. -common sense;
16. -roof over ones hand;
17. -set ones with the work;

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 18. -lead smb a job dance;

Having analyzed expressions about head/mind, it is possible to draw a conclusion that English-
speaking people most often replace the words head/mind with absolutely different parts of a
body, and also absolutely exclude from the speech words head/mind, using other expressions
for transfer of sense. What is surprising, without using words head/mind, and replacing them
with other words, the sense all the same remains.

Tongue/lips/mouth

1. -be on the lips;

2. - have a sharp tongue;
3. - be on the top of ones tongue;
4. -keep mum;
5. -one could bite ones tongue off;
6. -jump down smb's throat;
7. -from mouth to mouth;
8. -shut up like an oyster;
9. -keep ones mouth shut;
10. - deeds not words;
11. - bite tongue
12. -shoot off one's face;
13. - wag ones tongue;
14. -have ones lips sealed;
15. - melt in one's mouth;
16. - take the words out of smbs mouth;
17. -loosen smbs tongue;

The expressions connected with tongue/lips/mouth have almost similar equivalents, both in
Russian, and in English languages, one I may say, that the cult of communication and the speech
in two languages is synonymous. Often tangue is replaced with mouth.

Hands/shoulders/neck/fingers

1. be tied by the leg;

2. -set ones cap at smb;
3. -take on ones shoulders;
4. -catch by the throat;
5. -pull oneself together;
6. -at the top of one's lungs;
7. -ones fingers are all thumbs;
8. -have broad shoulders;
9. -give smb the bum 's rush;
10. -be a load of smb's mind;
11. -butter fingers;
12. - iron hand;
13. - stick in ones throat;
14. --play into smbs hand;
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 15. -at second hand;
16. -from hand to hand;
17. -have a lomg arm;
18. -have at hand;
19. -be wax in smbs hands;
20. -rough and ready;
21. - run wild;
22. -not to do a hands turn;
23. -ones right hand;
24. -put ones hands on;
25. --have a hand in smth;
26. -slip through ones fingers;
27. -free smbs hands;
28. -open out ones shoulders;
29. -straight from the shoulder;
30. -helping hand;
31. - keep your hands off smth;
32. -firm hand;
33. -wash ones hands of smth;
34. - clean hands;
35. -open hand;

The expressions connected with hands/shoulders/neck/fingers have almost similar equivalents,

both in Russian, and in English languages. English-speaking people most often replace the words
hands/shoulders/neck/fingers with different parts of a body. Often hands are replaced with
shoulders and vice versa, also, the throat is replaced with lungs and shoulders. Most of all
expressions are connected with hands.

Feet

1. - get out of bed the wrong way;

2. - -cut the ground under smbs feet;
3. - keep one's feet;
4. -fall into step;
5. - be out of step;
6. - be in the way;
7. - fast as ones legs can carry one;
8. -sleep like a log;
9. -get back on ones feet;
10. -have ones fat on the ground;

Having analyzed these expressions, I noticed that in the English equivalent of the word
feet/leg, often replaced with words way/step, at the same time the full sense of expression
remains.

From the dictionary written by A. Ambrazheychik 2000 2000 ,

I have found more than 200 expressions

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connected with a subject of my paper, namely set expressions about parts of a body. I gave
examples only of hundreds of them. These examples show that Russian and English languages
have almost similar equivalents. English-speaking people most often replace the words, but
replacement of the word does not change the general sense of expression. I came to conclusion
that the Russian and English languages contain essential quantity of synonymous expressions.

2.2 Difficulties in translation of English proverbs into Russian

Centuries-old experience of communication of the people speaking and writing in various

languages demonstrates that the good translator has to not only understand sense of the text
being translated, but also own phraseological richness of language on which a transfer is made.

22
Difficulties of the translation of the English proverbs and sayings arise and arose always. And,
considering all features of this or that language, to translate what is considered part of culture of
one people on other language very difficult.

For example, English proverb

The pot calls the kettle black (1)

The literal translation of this proverb sounds so:

(2)

If for English the sense of a proverb is clear, then for the Russian person this proverb seems
something new therefore the sense isn't always revealed completely. Means in order that also the
Russian understood what English wanted to tell a proverb, it is necessary to look for the Russian
equivalent:

, (3)

Such option is clearer and is closer to the Russian person. But if to translate it again into English,
then the following will turn out:

Anyones cow may moo, but yours should keep quite (4)

As we see, the initial version (1) is far from final (4).

Here what difficulties meet on the way of the translator when it translates the English proverbs

Then I tried to use all I have acquired in the course of work on this course knowledge through
detailed analysis, reflection and, finally, the translation of English proverbs and sayings to the
Russian language.

1. You cannot eat your cake and have it. -

(literal translation)
(Russian proverb)
Proverb in a situation: Make a choice. You mustnt have two things. You must have one
or the other, not both. Do you know the English proverb: You cannot eat your cake and
have it?
2. Custom is a second nature. - .
.
Proverb in a situation: A young woman wants her mother to move to town and live with
her and her family. If you live in town a bit longer, Im sure youll like it. No, Im

23
 afraid I shant get accustomed to town life. I like the woods and the river. Custom is a
second nature, they say.
3. A man can die but once. - (literal)
, . (Russian equivalent)
Proverb in a situation: A father and his son were standing on the bank of a stream. The
son jumped over it, but the father was afraid to. At last, murmuring, A man can die but
once, the father jumped and fell into the muddy water. But the young man quickly
pulled him up onto the bank.
4. A cat in gloves catches no mice. - (literal).
(Russian proverb)
Proverb in a situation: Mary wants her mother to make a nice cake, but she doesnt want
to go to the shop to buy eggs and butter. A cat in gloves catches no mice. Therell be no
cake for you then, says Marys mother.
5. Murder will out. - (literal).
(Russian proverb).
Proverb in a situation: You know, Dad, when I was ten I didnt like geography and often
got bad marks at geography lessons. So I tried to hide my day-book with bad marks in it.
Why, Fred, do you think I didnt guess what you had done? Murder will out, after all.
6. If the cap fits, wear it. - , (literal).
. (Russian proverb)
Proverb in a situation: Dont you speak to me in that manner! said Mary.
Do you think I took your book and lost it? Well, if the cap fits, wear it,
answered Kate.
7. Deeds, not words. - , . (literal).
. (Russian proverb)
Proverb in a situation: Mother! What does the proverb Deeds, not words mean? It
means that a person is known and judged more by his actions than by what he says.
8. Every dog has his day. - . (literal)
(Russian proverb).
Proverb in a situation: Im lucky today, your turn will come later on. Tomorrow our
positions may be reserved. Yes, every dog has his day and good fortune comes once to
all of us.
9. There is no smoke without fire. - . .
.
Proverb in a situation: Who told you this? Mary? I cant believe that Paul could let his
friends down, said Betty. Believe it or not as you like, but there is no smoke without
fire, answered Mike.
10. Cut your coat according to your cloth. -
(literal).
(Russian proverb).
Proverb in a situation: The girl was poor and had to cut her coat according to her cloth.

24
11. Dont count your chickens before they are hatched . - ,
(literal).
(Russian proverb).
Proverb in a situation: Dont count your chickens before they are hatched, said Mary.
A cowards proverb, cried Mike gaily. You lose half the fun, if you dont.
12. Practise what you preach. - , (literal)
(Russian proverb).
Proverb in a situation: The moral of the proverb Practice what you preach is: behave in
the same way as you advise others to behave. Do not recommend early rising if you
yourself lie in bed till noon.
13. The devil is not as black as he is painted . - ,
(literal)
, (Russian proverb).
Proverb in a situation: When Victor failed in the examination, life suddenly seemed very
hard. But his father said that the devil was not as black as he was painted, and that Victor
must try and take the examination again.
14. East or West, home is best. - , , (literal).
, (Russian proverb).
Proverb in a situation: She was standing on the same bridge talking to Bob, whom she
had not seen for five years. Well, East or West, home is best! She was happy to be at
home again.
15. A good beginning makes a good ending. -
(literal).
(Russian proverb).
Proverb in a situation: The first time-period was over with the score 2:0. The coach was
pleased with the result. A good beginning makes a good ending.
16. Great boast, small roast. - , (literal).
, (Russian proverb).
Proverb in a situation: Mr. Green was not a modest person. He liked to boast his rich
house, his pretty garden, his clever children and many other things. Neighbors said about
him: Great boast, small roast.
17. Bad news travels fast. - (literal).
(Russian proverb).
Proverb in a situation: The proverb Bad news travels fast means that bad news nearly
always reaches us more quickly than good news.
18. The rotten apple injures its neighbors. -
(literal).
(Russian proverb).
Proverb in a situation: Nicks mother was strongly against her sons friendship with Pete.
She was afraid that it would tell upon her son, who was a good pupil. A rotten apple
injures its neighbors, she often said to him.

25
 19. Appearances are deceitful. - () (literal).
.
Proverb in a situation: He is not so quiet as he looks. His appearance is deceitful.
20. What is done cannot be undone. - , (literal)
(Russian proverb).
Proverb in a situation: I am afraid, sir, that you have ruined a great career. I suppose
that is so, he answered with a sigh. What is done cannot be undone.

The following represented proverbs are directly related to the theme of the course work
connected with parts of body and health.

1. Out of sight, out of mind. - , ( ).

- ( ).
2. Dont look a gift horse in the mouth. -
( ).
( ).
3. A bird in the hand is worth two in the bush. - ,
( ).
, ( ).
4. Two heads are better than one. - ( ).
, ( ).
5. Scratch my back and Ill scratch yours. - ,
( ).
( ).
6. To make a silk purse out of the sows ear. -
( ).
( ).

7. A bird in the hand is worth two in the bush. - ,

( ).

, ( )

8. A clean hand wants no washing. - (

)

( )

26
9. A fair face may hide a foul heart. -
. ( )

, ( )

10. A honey tongue, a heart of gall. - , (

)

, ( )

11. A sound mind in a sound body. - .

7. An apple a day keeps the doctor away. - ,

. ( )
- ( )

8. Better the foot slip than the tongue. - , .

( )
, ( )

9. Crows do not pick crow's eyes. - .

10.Don't look a gift horse in the mouth .

( )
( )

11.Early to bed and early to rise makes a man healthy, wealthy and wise . -
, , .

12.Faint heart never won fair lady. ()

( )
, . ( )

13.Far from eye, far from heart. - , .

14.Fish begins to stink at the head. - . (

)
( ).

15.Four eyes see more (better) than two. - (),

. ( )
27
 , . ( )

16.Good health is above wealth. - . (

)

( )

Having analyzed about 50 proverbs and sayings, I came to the following conclusions:

Proverbs and sayings, being part of culture of the people, always remained and will
remain actual, despite development of economy and equipment, on progress etc. At any
time proverbs and sayings will be characteristic feature of the people, object of attention
and research;
English proverbs are pretty difficult for the translation into other languages;
Almost in any language the English proverbs and can pick up equivalents.

CONCLUSIONS

In conclusion I want to say that the main goal of language teaching must be to create
opportunities to acquire more and more language. We need to know more new words with more
fixed collocations increasing their collocation competence with words which they already know.
28
It is lexis and collocations competence which allows us to red more widely, understand more
quickly and speak more fluently. Proverbs are the outcome of language. They come from people
and are used by people. Proverbs, as a prominent scholar once said the mirror of a nation and the
living fossil of a language, do play an important role in different languages and cultures. In the
words of Francis Bacon, the Genius, wit and spirit of a nation are discovered in its proverbs.''
There are a variety of proverbs almost all English speakers are familiar with. They regard these
words of wisdom with respect. To sum up, the major sources of English proverbs are the
experience of the common people, literary works, religious scripture, mythology, translated
loans, and history. So we can gain some basic knowledge of English culture through learning
English proverbs, which plays an important role in cross-cultural communication. Because of
using rhetorical devices and rhythmical ways, English proverbs are filled with image and
vividness, which can catch the attention of the readers and make the idea impressed deeply on
the readers. They also reveal a universal truth from a particular point in order to enlighten
people. So proverbs give people advice or warnings in dealing with everyday issues, and point
out the path to knowledge and self- cultivation. We see several phraseological units and proverbs
from our study. Similar to a previous study, our study made it clear that the phraseological units
and proverbs comprehension deficit in speech is not restricted to the classical symptom named
concretism that claims a tendency towards the literal interpretations in linguistic. Instead, the
error pattern also includes difficulties in disentangling the opposite direction, as a significant
proportion of errors made by patients with phraseological units and proverbs are in misjudging
the intention of meaningless and literal statements as ironic. In future we shall try to work harder
on phraseological research in the fields of pragmatic language comprehension and research on
(miss) interpretation of the intention of others is warranted. I hope in future certainly we shall
continue this research work, because it is interesting and modern theme among the linguists.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

1. Altenberg Bengt. On the Phraseology of Spoken English: The Evidence of Recurrent

Word-Combinations // Phraselogy. Ed. A.P.Cowie. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1998.
204 .

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 2. Brewer E.C. Dictionary of Phrase and Fable. Philadelphia; London: James Brodie,
2003. 1440 p.
3. Collins V.H. A Book of English Idioms. With Explanations. London: Longman, 1998.
XI.- 258 p.
4. Cowie Anthony Paul. Introduction. In: Cowie Anthony Paul (ed.): Phraseology. Theory,
Analysis and Applications. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1998. . 120
5. Fernando Chitra. Idioms and Idiomaticity. - Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1996.
126 . R.S.
6. Ginzburg, S.S. Khidekel, G.Y. Knyazeva, A.A. Sankin A Course in Modern English
Lexicology. 1979 119 p.
7. Hockett Charles F. A Course in Modern Linguistics. - New York: Blackwell, 1978. 204
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8. Knappe Gabriele. Idioms and Fixed Expressions in English Language Study before 1800.
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10. Parker C.A. Aspects of a theory of proverbs. Washington. 1974,
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Society. University of Berkeley, USA. 1994. 137p.
12. Teliya Veronika. Phraseology as a Language of Culture. Its Role in the Representation of
a Cultural Mentality. In: Cowie, Anthony Paul (ed.): Phraseology. Theory, Analysis and
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13. Weinreich, U. Problems in the Analysis of Idioms: Substance and Structure
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17. .. (
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18. .. . : , 1978.
178 .
19. . . - . - . 3-, .,
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DICTIONARIES

20. Brewer E.C. Dictionary of Phrase and Fable. Philadelphia; London: James Brodie,
2003. 1440 p.
21. Collins obuild Dictionary of Idioms. London: HarperCollins Publishers, 1995. 454 p.
(CCDI)
22. Cowie Anthony Paul. Introduction. In: Cowie Anthony Paul (ed.): Phraseology. Theory,
Analysis and Applications. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1998. . 120

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23. Hornby A. S. The Advanced Learners Dictionary of Current English. London:
Longman, 1999. 678 p. (ALD)
24. Longman Idioms Dictionary. London: Longman, 1998. 632 p. (LID)
25. . 2000 ,
,2007. - 201 .

INTERNET SOURCES
26. Bibliofond -http://bibliofond.ru/view.aspx?id=37424
27. Context.reverso-
http://context.reverso.net///+++
28. English-portal- http://www.english-portal.com
29. Elf-English http://elf-english.ru/2013/08/zhurnaly-na-anglijskom-yazyke/
30. Twirpx- http://www.twirpx.com/file/45640/

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