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CLASSROOM INTERACTION ANALYSIS IN THE EFL SPEAKING CLASS

(A Case Study at the Second Semester of English Department in University of

Kuningan)

By Sinta Hoerun Nisa (2010041206)

English Department, Faculty of Teacher Training and Education,

University of Kuningan

A. Rationale

The need for English speaking mastery has increased due to the status of English

as a global language which is recognized in every country (Crystal, 2003: 3).

Furthermore, English has become the lingua franca for communication, business,

education, and opportunity in general (Latha and Ramesh, 2012: 1) and has a function

as the main gate to get a better job since it is used as the working language in

international organizations and multinational companies (Nazara, 2010: 1). The need

for getting a better job and globally participation become main reasons for non-native

speakers to learn and master English, either as a second language (ESL) or a foreign

language (EFL), particularly focused on speaking skill.

However, speaking is a complicated skill and needs a long time to develop

(Khadidja, 2010: 26). In developing speaking skill, people need to practice it as often

as possible and get a sufficient experience everywhere, including in language

classroom. In order to get experience in English communication, they need to

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interactregularly using the target language since interaction is the heart of

communication (Brown, 2001: 165).

Unfortunately, the interaction in the language classroom seems difficult to use the

target language all the time, especially in the EFL (English as a Foreign Language)

classroom. It is happened since the EFL students have common native languages

(Brown, 2001: 180). If the teacher of EFL ignores it, the goal of teaching process then

could not be achieved.

The problem related to the interaction using native language in English speaking

classroom can be solved if a teacher and students realize the importance of interaction

in language classroom. Interaction plays significant roles in the language classroom

since it can increase students language store (Rivers, 1987: 4), strengthen the social

relationship (Naimat, 2011: 672), develop communication skill and build up

confidence (Thapa and Lin, 2013).For the interaction in the language classroom has

advantages to the students speaking performance, therefore the study about

classroom interaction is considerably important and worth to be analyzed.

The analysis and observation of classroom interaction has been popular form

of research in 1970s and many coding category instrument and discourse analytical

system which is designed for use on transcripts of classroom interaction were

developed to describe and analyze the teaching and learning interaction such as

FLINT (Foreign Language Interaction) system (Chaudron, 1988). Foreign Language

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Interaction (FLINT) system developed by Moskowitz (1971, as cited in Brown, 2001:

170) is an interaction analysis which is able to be applied for classroom observation.

This model is helpful in developing interactive language teaching since it gives the

researcher a taxonomy for observing teachers, set a framework for evaluating and

improving the teaching, and helps to set a learning climate for interactive teaching

(Brown, 2001: 168-169). This interaction analysis has two categories to be analyzed,

namely teacher talk and student talk.

Interaction in classroom which aims at teaching the target language, including in

speaking class, comes variously. Malamah-Thomas (1987, as cited in Mingzhi, 2005:

59) notes that types of interaction often include teacher speaking to the an individual,

members of a group and the whole class. In addition, it also involves a student speak

to the teacher, to another student, to group members, and to the whole class.

Based on the elaboration above, therefore, the study is intended to analyze the

classroom interaction in the EFL speaking class, regarding the categories of talk

spoken by teacher and students as mentioned in FLINT system as well as types of

classroom interaction adapted from Malamah-Thomas (1987).

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B. Research Questions

The main questions to be addressed in this research are:

1. What categories of teacher talk and student talk used during interaction in the

EFL speaking class?

2. What are the types of classroom interaction applied during EFL speaking

class?

C. Research Objectives

According to the research questions, the research aims to analyze:

1. The categories of teacher talk and student talk used during interaction in the

EFL speaking class.

2. The types of classroom interaction applied during EFL speaking class.

D. Theoretical Framework

1. Classroom Interaction
The Cambridge Advanced Learners Dictionary defines interaction as when two

or more people or things communicate with or react to each other. In addition, Brown

(2001: 165) describes the term of interaction as the heart communication; it is what

communication is all about.Interaction occurs as long as people are communicating

each other and giving action and receiving the reaction in one another anywhere and

anytime, including in the classroom setting.

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Dagarin (2004: 128) argues that classroom interaction is two way process

between the participants in the language process, the teacher influences the learners

and vice versa. Furthermore, interaction in the classroom is categorized as the

pedagogic interaction which means the interaction in the teaching and learning

process (Sarosdy et al, 2006). They also note that

The classroom or pedagogic interaction is a continuous and ever changing

process and the factors of context shift from minute to minute. The teacher acts
upon the students to cause a reaction. The reaction includes a response to a
question, an item in a drill, a word pronunced and a sentence written. (Sarosdy et
al, 2006: 35)

2. Roles of Classroom Interaction

Interaction in the classroom plays a significant role in acquiring and learning the

target language. These are several roles for interacting using the target language in

the classroom.

a. Increasing students language store

Rivers (1987) notes that:

Through interaction, students can increase their language store as they listen
to or read authentic linguistic material, or even the output of their fellow students,
in discussions, skits, joint problem-solving tasks, or dialogue journals. In
interaction, students can use all they possess of the language all they have
learned or casually absorbed - in real life exchanges. (Rivers, 1987: 4-5)
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The authentic material is not only the language output provided by the audio or

video recording, but also the language spoken by teacher and among students when

they speak using the target language.

b. Developing communication skill

The interaction during teaching and learning process not solely can increase

students knowledge and language store. According to Thapa and Lin (2013),

Interaction in the classroom becomes the central factors which is able to enhance the

students linguistic resources as well as equipping them with appropriate skills for

communication. Naimat (2011: 672) adds, The communication skill, then, will be

acquired through speaking activities, such as debates, discussions and about desired

topics among students.

c. Building confidence

Thapa and Lin (2013) explain that In language classroom, interaction is an

essential social activities for students through which they not only construct

knowledge, but also build confidence and identity as competent language users.

Therefore, by accostuming students to interact with teacher and among their fellows

will build their knowledge as well as their confidence.

d. Strengthening the social relationship

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Interaction, for students, will strengthen the relationship, either among them or

with their teachers since it gives them the chance to learn from each other and to get

feedback on their performance (Naimat, 2011: 672).

3. Aspect of Classroom Interaction

a) Teacher Talk

In language teaching what is claimed by teacher talk is the language typically

used by the teacher in their communication (Ellis, 1998 : 96). Teacher talk is crucial

and important, not only for the organization and for management of the classroom but

also the process of the acquisition. In teaching process, teacher often simplify their

speech, giving it many of the characteristics of foreigner talk such as applying slower

and louder than normal speech, using simpler vocabulary and grammar and the topics

are sometimes repeated (Richards, 2002).

According to Moskowitzs FLINT (Foreign Language Interaction) analysis

system in Brown (2001 : 177), teacher talk has eleven categories which enable to be

analyzed in classroom interaction. Those categories of teacher talk are divided into

two kinds of influence; indirect and direct influences.

The indirect influence is an effect which learners are lead to the warm

classroom atmosphere and try to break the ice in order to encourage them to

participate and learn in classroom interaction. Categories of teacher talk which are
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included in this indirect influence are mentioned and described below. (Brown, 2001 :

170)

a) Deals with feelings: in a non-threatening way, accepting, discussing, referring to

or communicating understanding of past, present or future feelings of students.

b) Praises or encourages: praising, complimenting, telling students what they have

said or done is valued, encouraging students to continue, trying to give them

confidence, confirming that answers are correct.

c) Jokes: intentional joking, kidding, making puns, attempting to be humorous,

providing the joking is not at anyones expense (unintentional humor is not

included in this category).

d) Uses ideas of students: clarifying, using, interpreting, summarizing the ideas of

students. The ideas must be rephrased by the teacher but still be recognized as

being student contributions.

e) Repeats student response verbatim: Repeating the exact words of students after

they participate.

f) Asks questions: Asking questions to which the answer is anticipated (rhetorical

questions are not included in this category).

Another influence in the teacher talk is direct influence. The direct influence is

done whose aim is to encourage students to involve directly in the teaching and

learning activity. The features are described as follows.

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a) Gives information: giving information, facts, own opinion, or ideas: lecturing or

asking rhetorical questions.

b) Corrects without rejection: telling students who have made a mistake the correct

response without using words or intonations which communicate criticism.

c) Gives directions: giving directions, requests or commands that students are

expected to follow; directing various drills; facilitating whole class and small-

group activity.

d) Criticizes student behavior: rejecting the behavior of students, trying to change

the non-acceptable behavior, communicating anger, displeasure, annoyance,

dissatisfaction with what students are doing.

e) Criticizes student response: telling the student his or her response is not correct

or acceptable and communicating criticism, displeasure, annoyance, rejection by

words or intonation.

b) Students Talk

Students talk can be used by the students to express their own ideas, initiate

new topics, and develop their own opinions. As the result, their knowledge will

develop. Students talk will show the activity concentration of the students to their

teaching learning activity. According to Moskowitzs FLINT in Brown (2001:170)

there are six categories of students talk described as follows.

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a) Student response, specific: responding to the teacher within a specific and limited

range of available or previously practiced answers, reading aloud, dictation,

drills.

b) Student response, open-ended or student-initiated: responding to the teacher with

students own ideas, opinions, reactions, feelings. Giving one from among many

possible answers that have been previously practiced but from which students

must now make a selection. Initiating the participation.

c) Silence: pauses in the interaction. Periods of quiet during which there is no

verbal interaction.

d) Silence-AV: silence in the interaction during which a piece of audiovisual

equipment, e.g., a tape recorder, fimstrip projector, record player, etc., is being

used to communicate.

e) Confusion, work-oriented: more than one person at a time talking, so the

interaction cannot be recorded. Students calling out excitedly, eager to participate

or respond, concerned with the task at hand.

f) Confusion, non-work-oriented: more than one person at a time talking to the

interaction cannot be recorded. Students out of order, not behaving as the teacher

wishes, not concerned with the task at hand.

4. Types of Classroom Interaction

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Malamah-Thomas (1987) as cited in Mingzhi (2005: 59) points out seven types

of classroom interaction in the classroom aiming at teaching the target language as

follow.

a. Teacher speaking to the whole class

This is a common type of interaction in the language classroom and is established

when a teacher talks to the whole class at the same time (Dagarin, 2004: 129).

Furthermore, Mingzhi (2005: 59) elaborates that This type of classroom interaction

are characterized by teacher initiation, students response and teacher follow up

pattern namely IRF exchange structure. The role of teacher in this type interaction

is as a controller. This role is commonly applied when taking the roll, telling students

about information or materials, organising drill, reading aloud and other activities

related to the teacher-fronted classroom (Harmer, 2001: 58).

b. Teacher speaking to an individual student with the rest of students of the

class as hearers

The second type of interaction is the other common interaction which is applied

in the language classroom. Dagarin points out:

Likewise the first type of interaction, this interaction is conducted when the
teacher speaks to the whole class as well. However, in this interaction, the teacher
expects only one student to answer. This arrangement can also be used for an
informal conversation at the beginning of the lesson or for leading students into a
less guided activity. (Dagarin, 2004: 129)
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c. Teacher speaking to a group of members

According to Mingzhi (2005: 59), this type of classroom interaction refers to the

teacher participating students group work. In group work, students are assigned a

task which involves collaboration and self-initiated language (Brown, 2001: 177). In

this type of classroom interaction, the teacher acts as an organiser for giving students

information about what the are going to do or when putting them into pairs or groups,

and closing them when the time is over (Harmer, 2001: 58).

d. Student speaking to teacher

This type of interaction refers to the students initiation. Mingzhi (2005: 59)

argues that When this occurs, it is regarded as learner initiative, learner initiative is

common in the learner-centred classrooms, but rare in the teacher-fronted classroom.

The students initiate to speak to the teacher is commonly happened when they do not

understand clearly about the information given by the teacher, or in other word, is to

ask for the clarification.

e. Student speaking to student

It is related to the pair-work activities. Unlike group-work, the pair-work

involves collaboration and self-initiated with only two students. Activities related to

this classroom interaction , for example in performing the dialogue, or in the

simulation between a speaker and a moderator. This pair-work activity has several

benefits for the students. Firstly, it offers many opportunities to speak, to initiate the
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interaction, to practice in negotiation meaning, and to increase their motivation to

speak (Brown, 2001: 178).

f. Student speaking to group members

This type of interaction is related to the group work. Mingzhi (2005: 60) states

that this interaction can provide more opportunities for language

production.However, this group-work has the weakness, especially when a teacher

does it for the purpose of giving the students more opportunity to speak in the target

language. The weakness is that the students will use their native language. Brown

(2001: 180) explains that it is caused by the EFL students which have a common

native language.

Therefore, by impressing the students about the importance of practice in English

for eventual success and telling them that small group members can help them to

build their intuition to language, the use of native language when interacting in a

small group will be able to be reduced (Brown, 2001: 180).

g. Student speaking to the whole class

The last type of classroom interaction is commonly applied when the speaking

activities are stdents-fronted, for instance in presentation and workshop (Mingzhi,

2005: 59).

5. Foreign Language Interaction (FLINT) System

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McKay (2006) states that:

Interaction analysis in the classroom context is defined as the uses some type of
coding system to investigate the communication patterns that occur in the classroom.
The coding systems can be used to determine kinds of classroom interaction, evaluate
teachers of using patterns of communication and train prospective teachers to use a
variety of communication patterns in the classroom (McKay, 2006: 89-90).

Foreign Language Interaction (FLINT) system developed by Moskowitz (1971,

as cited in Brown, 2001: 170) is an interaction analysis which is able to be applied for

classroom observation. This model is helpful in developing interactive language

teaching since it gives the researcher a taxonomy for observing teachers, set a

framework for evaluating and improving the teaching, and helps to set a learning

climate for interactive teaching (Brown, 2001: 168-169).

6. Teaching English as a Foreign Language

TEFL is the abbreviation from Teaching English as a Foreign Language. TEFL

involves teaching students whose first language is not English. The English as a

foreign language (EFL) is usually learned in environments where the language of the

community and schools is not English (Gunderson, 2009).

7. The Speaking Skill

Learning English without practice it is pointless, and speaking is the way to

practice it. Through speaking, one can express their minds, ideas and thoughts freely

and spontaneously (Mora, 2010: 3). Speaking is a basic skill that should be mastered
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by language students. Speaking is not a simple skill; its mastery requires some

experiences and practice. Khadidja (2010: 26) argues that speaking in a foreign

language is very difficult and competence in speaking takes a long time to develop.

Therefore, by practising the English speaking as often as possible will be considered

to reduce the difficulty in mastering that English speaking skill.

8. Characteristics of Speaking Performance

In the communicative approach, fluency and accuracy are seen by the main

characteristics of communication language teaching (CLT) ans as complementary in

accomplishing in a given task (Khadidja, 2010: 30). In teaching speaking, fluency

and accuracy in grammar, vocabulary and pronunciation should be taken into

account.

Khadidja explains the main characteristics of speaking skill below (Khadidja,

2010: 31-34):

a. Fluency

Fluency is the ability to speak fluently and accurately (Mora, 2010: 5). In

addition, Fluency means the ability to express oneself in an intelligible, reasonable

and accurate without too much hesitation (Khadidja, 2010: 31). Based on those

statements, it can be concluded that fluency is related to the ability of a speaker to

express his or her ideas accurately and without recitation.

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b. Accuracy

Accuracy is another main characteristics in speaking skill. Accuracy has the

important role since if the structure speech is not accurate, the speakers will not be

understood and their interlocutors will lose interest is they perform incorrect

utterances each time (Khadidja, 2010: 32). There are three focuses in this speaking

accuracy; accuracy in grammar, accuracy in vocabulary, and accuracy in

pronunciaton.

Accuracy in grammar refers to the appropriate use of the students grammatical

structure which involves the length and complexity of the utterances. It is needed for

students, for example in arranging sentences in conversation (Mora, 2010: 5).

Accuracy in vocabulary means the appropriate selection of words during speaking. In

addition, Harmer (2001, as cited in Khadidja, 2010: 33) expresses that the

knowledge of the word classes also allows the speakers to perform well formed

utterances.Accuracy in pronunciation is the way for students to produce language

when they speak (Mora, 2010: 5).

Students should be aware of the different sounds, be aware of where the words

should be stressed since those aspects give them the extra information about how to

speak English effectively and help them to achieve the goal of better understanding of

spoken English (Khadidja, 2010: 34).

9. Practising Speaking Skill

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In the mother country, like in Indonesia, the English as a Foreign Language (EFL)

students need to practice the language regularly inside the classroom through

practising different activities in order to serve the teaching and learning goals of

speaking proficiency and to express themselves in situations where they can use

spontaneous language (Khadidja, 2010: 39).

There are several classroom activities which are able to promote speaking skill

according to Harmer (2001: 271-274).

a. Acting from a script

In this activity, the students act out dialogues the have written by themselves and

involve them in coming out to the front of the class.

b. Discussion activities

This activity offers students to give their opinions or receive others opinions and

they can speak freely without being told what to say or not by the teacher (Khadidja,

2010: 41). Mora (2010: 6) notes that in conducting this discussion, the teacher can

form groups of students and each group works on their topic for a given time period

and presents their opinions to the class.

c. Presentation
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This activity can gain students self-confidence. A prepared talk is when students

make the presentation on a given topic of their choice, and this talk is not planned for

an informal spontaneous conversation; it is more writing-like (Harmer, 2001: 274).

d. Simulations

These activities are important for reducing students anxiety, increasing their

motivation and enhancing their language acquisition (Khadidja, 2010: 40)

e. Communication games

The games are designed by the teachers to encourage and involve their students in

a verbal interaction. These activities include describe and draw activity in which

student describes a given picture and the other one draws it, describe and arrange

means one student describes a particular structure using oral language and the other

reconstructs it without seeing the original one, find the difference for finding the

differences in similar pictures given and the must extract differences through

describing their pictures (Khadidja, 2010: 40).

f. Questionnaires

This speaking activity is useful because by being pre-planned, they ensure that both

questioner and respondent have something to say to each other, and the teacher can

act as a resource.

E. Research Methodology
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1. Research Design

This study will use a qualitative research design. Qualitative design will be

chosen in order to explore and understand the social phenomenon (Creswell, 2009:

22). The strategy applied will be a case study since it explores in depth activity in one

or more individuals (Creswell, 2009: 30).

In this study, the phenomena explored and understood is about the classroom

interaction in the English speaking class at the second semester of English

Department in the University of Kuningan, 2013/2014.

2.Site and Participants

The research will be undertaken at the second semester of English Department in

the University of Kuningan. This university is choosen since the researcher had been

studying there. The participants involved in this research are 25 students at the second

semester of English Department who are taking the Speaking 2 subject and an

English teacher who teaches the Speaking 2 subject.

3. Data Collection

Creswell (2009: 166) notes that data collection procedures in qualitative

research include collecting information through un-structured or semi-structured

observation and interviews, documents and visual materials, as well as establishing

the protocol for recording information.

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In this research, the data will be collected through naturalistic observation and

document analysis.

a) Naturalistic Observation

According to Fraenkel and Wallen (2009: 442), Naturalistic observation means

observing individuals in their natural settings, simply obseverves and records what

happens as things naturally occur.In this research, the classroom interaction will be

observed through video recording.

Observation has a number of advantages covering (1) researcher can record

information as it occurs, (2) researcher has a first-hand experience with participants,

(3) usual aspect can be noticed during observation, and (4) it is useful in exploring

topics that may be uncomfortable for participants to discuss (Creswell, 2009: 167).

b) Document Analysis

Document analysis is defined as a technique which enables a researcher to study

human behavior in indirect way through an analysis of their communication

(Fraenkel and Wallen, 2009: 472). Document analysis has advantages, namely it is

useful as a means of analyzing observational data and a researcher can delve into

records and documents (Fraenkel and Wallen, 2009: 483).

In this research, the document analyzed will be videos transcription of teaching-

learning process in the speaking class at the second semester of English Department
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in University of Kuningan. To display the language used in the classroom, the videos

will be transcribed.

Furthermore, to investigate the classroom interaction appeared between teacher

and students, this research will employ FLINT (Foreign Language Interaction)

analysis framework adopted from Moskowitz (1971 as cited in Brown, 2010: 170).

While, to investigate types of classroom interaction in the speaking class, the

researcher will use Malamah-Thomass (1987, as cited in Mingzhi, 2005: 59)

framework about types of classroom interaction.

4. Data Analysis

Having collected all of the data gained, the data will be analyzed using following

steps adapted from Suherdi (2008 as cited in Sakina, 2013: 37-39).

Step 1. Transcribing the video

The basic data of this research were obtained from video of the second semester

students in English Department. The data gained were then transcribed to show the

interaction and language used by teacher and students during English speaking class.

Step 2. Coding the data

Having transcribed all interactions in the classroom, the transcripts will be coded

by using several categories of teacher talk and student talk as well as types of

classroom interaction. The coding process is an essential part caused by a number of

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reasons; including enabling the researcher to identify phenomena, to conduct

quantification of frequency, to show the tendency of findings, and to categorize and

subcategorize findings (Sakina, 2013: 38).

Steps to be conducted in this research procedure are as follow.

1. Segmenting the transcript according to each exchange of interaction.

2. Coding and calculating the amount of each category of Teacher Talk and Student

Talk using Foreign Language Interaction (FLINT) system adapted from

Moskowitz (1971, as cited in Brown, 2001: 170)

3. Analyzing the amount of each category of teacher Talk and Student Talk in order

to discover the occurrence and dominant categories applied.

4. Coding and calculating the amount of each type of classroom interaction adapted

from Malamah-Thomas (1987, as cited in Mingzhi, 2005: 59).

5. Analyzing the amount of each category of classroom interaction types in order to

find out the occurrence and dominant category used.

Step 3. Interpreting the data

This stage presented the answer of research questions formulated in the chapter I.

The quantification of the findings was displayed into several diagrams. Thus, the

phenomena occurred from the diagrams were described.

Step 4. Finishing
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The findings through several steps above and discussions were presented in

conclusion and suggestion to illustrate the whole research.

F. Significance of Study

The findings of the research are expected to be beneficial and be able to give a

contribution to the improvement of the effective English teaching and learning

process focused on speaking skill theoritically and practically.

In terms of theory, this research can enrich the literature and knowledge about

the importance of interaction using English in EFL (English as a Foreign Language)

classroom, such as increasing students language store (Rivers, 1987: 4-5),

Strengthening social relationship (Naimat, 2011: 672), developing communication

skill and self confidence (Thapa and Lin, 2013).

Practically, this study is expected to be useful for teachers of English to apply

categories of talk mentioned in FLINT (Foreign Language Interaction) system

developed by Moskowitz (1971, as cited in Brown, 2001: 170) to promote interactive

teaching and learning process and to apply several types of interaction which focused

on students performance according to framework from Malamah-Thomas (1987, as

cited in Mingzhi, 2005: 59) during EFL speaking class.

G. Scope of Study

The research is limited to analyze the categories of talk used by a teacher and

students during interaction in the speaking class based on FLINT (Foreign Language
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Interaction) analysis system developed by Moskowitz (1971 as cited in Brown, 2001:

170) and the types of classroom interaction according to Malamah-Thomas (1987,

cited in Mingzhi, 2005: 59).

H. Clarification of Key Terms

In order to avoid misconception, several terms related to the research are clarified

as follow.

1) Classroom interaction refers to the interaction between teacher and students and

among students in the Speaking 2 subject.

2) Interaction analysis is the process of encoding and decoding the interaction

between a teacher and students.

3) EFL (English as a Foreign Language) class refers to the group of students in a

university who take the Speaking 2 subject.

I. Previous Studies

The study about classroom interaction have been conducted by several

researchers before. Mujahidah (2012) conducted the research entitled The

Descriptive Study on the Classroom Interaction during the English Teaching

Learning Process at the Eighth Grade of SMPN I Banjarmasin Academic Year

2011/2012. The result showed that during interaction, teacher dominated the

interaction. The category mostly applied was asking question and English was

language mostly used. Furthermore, Sakina (2013) in her research entitled An

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Analysis of Anomalous Exchange in Young Learners Classroom Interaction

revealed that the interaction was dominated by the teacher and delivered information

through questiona and answer activities.

The similarity between those previous studies and this present study is in

applying FLINT (Foreign Language Interaction) analysis developed by Moskowitz

(1971, as cited in Brown, 2001: 170) framework to analyze the classroom

interaction. However, the writer chose types of classroom interaction as the second

research question in order to discover interaction types applied during EFL speaking

class using types of classroom interaction adapted from Malamah-Thomas (1987, as

cited in Mingzhi: 59). This study analyzes the interaction in the EFL speaking class

which means the class is totally focused on the speaking skill. Since it focuses on

speaking skill, the interaction analyzed will not only when a teacher delivers

materials, but also any kind of alk spoken by teacher and students.

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APPENDICES
Appendix 1
RESEARCH INSTRUMENTS

1. Foreign Language Interaction (FLINT) system (adapted from Moskowitz,

1971)
Category of Talk Details Category and Description

Indirect Influence
 29

1. Deals with feelings: accepting, discussing, referring to, or

communicating understanding of past, present or future
feelings of students in non-threatening way.
2. Praises or encourages: Praising, complimenting, telling
students what they have is valued. Encouraging students to
continue, to give them confidence, confirming that answers
are correct.
3. Uses ideas of students: Clarifying, using, interpreting,
summarizing the ideas of students.
4. Asks questions: Asking questions to which the answer is
anticipated.
Direct Influence

5. Gives information: Giving information, facts, opinions,

lecturing. Corrects without rejection which refers to tell
students who have made a mistake the correct response
without using words or intonations which communicate
Teacher Talk criticism.
6. Gives direction: giving directions, request, or commands
that students are expected to follow; directing various
drills; facilitating whole-class and small-group activity.
7. Criticizes students behavior and response: Rejecting the
behavior and response of students; trying to change the
non-acceptable behavior; communicating anger,
displeasure, annoyance, dissatisfaction with what students
are doing.
8. Students response, specific: Responding to the teacher
within a specific and limited range of available or
preciously practiced answers.
9. Students initiation: responding to the teacher with
students own ideas, opinions, reactions, feelings.
10. Silence: Pauses in the interaction. Periods of quiet during
which there is no verbal interaction. This includes silence
which a piece of audiovisual equipment, e.g., a tape
recorder, is being used to communicate (Silence-AV).
Student Talk 11. Confusion: more than one person at a time talking, so the
interaction cannot be recorded.
 30

2. Types of Classroom Interaction (adapted from Malamah-Thomas, 1987)

Type Description

1 Teacher speaking to the whole class

2 Teacher speaking to an individual

3 Teacher speaking to a group of members

4 Student speaking to the teacher

5 Student speaking to student

6 Student speaking to group members

7 Student speaking to the whole class