58

FLUID MECHANICS

PROBLEMS*

Density and Specific Gravity 28E T he air in an automobile tire with a volume of 0.53
21C W hat is the difference between intensive and exten- ft3 is at 90F and 20 psig. D etermine the amount of air that
sive properties? must be added to raise the pressure to the recommended
value of 30 psig. A ssume the atmospheric pressure to be 14.6
22C W hat is specific gravity? H ow is it related to density? psia and the temperature and the volume to remain constant.
23C U nder what conditions is the ideal-gas assumption Answer: 0.0260 lbm
suitable for real gases? 29E A rigid tank contains 20 lbm of air at 20 psia and
24C W hat is the difference between R and Ru? H ow are 70F. M ore air is added to the tank until the pressure and
these two related? temperature rise to 35 psia and 90F, respectively. D etermine
the amount of air added to the tank. Answer: 13.7 lbm
25 A spherical balloon with a diameter of 6 m is filled
with helium at 20C and 200 kPa. D etermine the mole num- 210 T he density of atmospheric air varies with eleva-
ber and the mass of the helium in the balloon. Answers: 9.28 tion, decreasing with increasing altitude. (a)
kmol, 37.2 kg U sing the data given in the table, obtain a relation for the
variation of density with elevation, and calculate the density
26 R econsider Prob. 2 5. U sing E E S (or other) soft-
at an elevation of 7000 m. (b) C alculate the mass of the
ware, investigate the effect of the balloon diame-
atmosphere using the correlation you obtained. A ssume the
ter on the mass of helium contained in the balloon for the
earth to be a perfect sphere with a radius of 6377 km, and
pressures of (a) 100 kPa and (b) 200 kPa. L et the diameter
take the thickness of the atmosphere to be 25 km.
vary from 5 m to 15 m. Plot the mass of helium against the
diameter for both cases.
z, km r, kg/m3
27 T he pressure in an automobile tire depends on the tem-
6377 1.225
perature of the air in the tire. W hen the air temperature is
6378 1.112
25C , the pressure gage reads 210 kPa. If the volume of the
6379 1.007
tire is 0.025 m3, determine the pressure rise in the tire when
6380 0.9093
the air temperature in the tire rises to 50C . A lso, determine
6381 0.8194
the amount of air that must be bled off to restore pressure to
6382 0.7364
its original value at this temperature. A ssume the atmospheric
6383 0.6601
pressure to be 100 kPa.
6385 0.5258
6387 0.4135
6392 0.1948
6397 0.08891
6402 0.04008

V = 0.025 m3 Vapor Pressure and Cavitation

T = 25C
Pg = 210 kPa
A IR
FIGURE P27
* Problems designated by a C are concept questions, and
students are encouraged to answer them all. Problems designated
by an E are in English units, and the SI users can ignore them.
Problems with the icon are solved using EES, and complete
solutions together with parametric studies are included on the
enclosed DVD. Problems with the icon are comprehensive in
nature and are intended to be solved with a computer, preferably
using the EES software that accompanies this text.
211C W hat is vapor pressure? H ow is it related to satura-
tion pressure?
212C D oes water boil at higher temperatures at higher
pressures? E xplain.
213C If the pressure of a substance is increased during a
boiling process, will the temperature also increase or will it
remain constant? W hy?
214C W hat is cavitation? W hat causes it?
215 In a piping system, the water temperature remains
under 40C . D etermine the minimum pressure allowed in the
system to avoid cavitation.
216 T he analysis of a propeller that operates in water at
20C shows that the pressure at the tips of the propeller drops
to 2 kPa at high speeds. D etermine if there is a danger of cav-
itation for this propeller.

217E T he analysis of a propeller that operates in water at
70F shows that the pressure at the tips of the propeller drops
to 0.1 psia at high speeds. D etermine if there is a danger of
cavitation for this propeller.
218 A pump is used to transport water to a higher reser-
voir. If the water temperature is 25C , determine the lowest
pressure that can exist in the pump without cavitation.
Energy and Specific Heats
219C W hat is the difference between the macroscopic and
microscopic forms of energy?
220C W hat is total energy? Identify the different forms of
energy that constitute the total energy.
221C L ist the forms of energy that contribute to the inter-
nal energy of a system.
222C H ow are heat, internal energy, and thermal energy
related to each other?
223C W hat is flow energy? D o fluids at rest possess any
flow energy?
224C H ow do the energies of a flowing fluid and a fluid
at rest compare? N ame the specific forms of energy associ-
ated with each case.
225C U sing average specific heats, explain how internal
energy changes of ideal gases and incompressible substances
can be determined.
226C U sing average specific heats, explain how enthalpy
changes of ideal gases and incompressible substances can be
determined.
Coefficient of Compressibility
227C W hat does the coefficient of compressibility of a
fluid represent? H ow does it differ from isothermal com-
pressibility?
228C W hat does the coefficient of volume expansion of a
fluid represent? H ow does it differ from the coefficient of
compressibility?
229C C an the coefficient of compressibility of a fluid be
negative? H ow about the coefficient of volume expansion?
230 It is observed that the density of an ideal gas decreases
by 10 percent when compressed isothermally from 10 atm to
11 atm. D etermine the percent decrease in density of the gas
if it is compressed isothermally from 100 atm to 101 atm.
231 U sing the definition of the coefficient of volume
expansion and the expression bideal gas ! 1/T , show that the
percent increase in the specific volume of an ideal gas during
isobaric expansion is equal to the percent increase in absolute
temperature.
232 Water at 1 atm pressure is compressed to 800 atm
pressure isothermally. D etermine the increase in the density
of water. Take the isothermal compressibility of water to be
4.80 " 10#5 atm#1.
59
CHAPTER 2
233 Water at 15C and 1 atm pressure is heated to 100C
at constant pressure. U sing coefficient of volume expansion
data, determine the change in the density of water.
Answer: #38.7 kg/m3
234 Saturated refrigerant-134a liquid at 10C is cooled to
0C at constant pressure. U sing coefficient of volume expan-
sion data, determine the change in the density of the refriger-
ant.
235 A water tank is completely filled with liquid water at
20C . T he tank material is such that it can withstand tension
caused by a volume expansion of 2 percent. D etermine the
maximum temperature rise allowed without jeopardizing
safety.
236 R epeat Prob. 2 35 for a volume expansion of 1 per-
cent for water.
237 T he density of seawater at a free surface where the
pressure is 98 kPa is approximately 1030 kg/m3. Taking the
bulk modulus of elasticity of seawater to be 2.34 " 109 N /m2
and expressing variation of pressure with depth z as dP !
rg dz determine the density and pressure at a depth of
2500 m. D isregard the effect of temperature.
Viscosity
238C W hat is viscosity? W hat is the cause of it in liquids
and in gases? D o liquids or gases have higher dynamic vis-
cosities?
239C W hat is a N ewtonian fluid? Is water a N ewtonian
fluid?
240C C onsider two identical small glass balls dropped
into two identical containers, one filled with water and the
other with oil. W hich ball will reach the bottom of the con-
tainer first? W hy?
241C H ow does the dynamic viscosity of (a) liquids and
(b) gases vary with temperature?
242C H ow does the kinematic viscosity of (a) liquids and
(b) gases vary with temperature?
243 A 50-cm " 30-cm " 20-cm block weighing 150 N is
to be moved at a constant velocity of 0.8 m/s on an inclined
surface with a friction coefficient of 0.27. (a) D etermine the
force F that needs to be applied in the horizontal direction.
(b) If a 0.4-mm-thick oil film with a dynamic viscosity of
0.012 Pa ! s is applied between the block and inclined sur-
face, determine the percent reduction in the required force.
V = 0.8 m/s
50 cm
30 cm
F
20
150 N
FIGURE P243
 60
FLUID MECHANICS

244 C onsider the flow of a fluid with viscosity m through a at 20C (m ! 0.1 Pa ! s), as shown in Fig. P2 46. If the
circular pipe. T he velocity profile in the pipe is given as u(r) thickness of the oil film on all sides is 1.2 mm, determine the
! u max(1 # r n/R n), where u max is the maximum flow velocity, power required to maintain this motion. A lso determine the
which occurs at the centerline; r is the radial distance from reduction in the required power input when the oil tempera-
the centerline; and u(r) is the flow velocity at any position r. ture rises to 80C (m ! 0.0078 Pa ! s).
D evelop a relation for the drag force exerted on the pipe wall
247 T he clutch system shown in Fig. P2 47 is used to
by the fluid in the flow direction per unit length of the pipe.
transmit torque through a 3-mm-thick oil film with m !
u(r ) = umax (1 r n /R n ) 0.38 N ! s/m2 between two identical 30-cm-diameter disks.
W hen the driving shaft rotates at a speed of 1450 rpm, the
R driven shaft is observed to rotate at 1398 rpm. A ssuming a
r linear velocity profile for the oil film, determine the transmit-
umax 0 ted torque.

FIGURE P244 D riving D riven

shaft shaft
245 A thin 20-cm " 20-cm flat plate is pulled at 1 m/s
horizontally through a 3.6-mm-thick oil layer sandwiched
between two plates, one stationary and the other moving at a 30 cm 3 mm
constant velocity of 0.3 m/s, as shown in Fig. P2 45. T he
dynamic viscosity of oil is 0.027 Pa ! s. A ssuming the veloc- SA E 30W oil
ity in each oil layer to vary linearly, (a) plot the velocity pro-
file and find the location where the oil velocity is zero and FIGURE P247
(b) determine the force that needs to be applied on the plate
to maintain this motion. 248 R econsider Prob. 2 47. U sing E E S (or other)
software, investigate the effect of oil film thick-
Fixed wall
ness on the torque transmitted. L et the film thickness vary
from 0.1 mm to 10 mm. Plot your results, and state your con-
h 1 = 1 mm V = 1 m/s F clusions.
h 2 = 2.6 mm
Vw = 0.3 m/s
249 T he viscosity of some fluids changes when a strong
electric field is applied on them. T his phenomenon is known
M oving wall as the electrorheological (E R ) effect, and fluids that exhibit
such behavior are known as E R fluids. T he B ingham plastic
FIGURE P245 model for shear stress, which is expressed as t ! ty %
m(du/dy) is widely used to describe E R fluid behavior
246 A frustum-shaped body is rotating at a constant angu- because of its simplicity. One of the most promising applica-
lar speed of 200 rad/s in a container filled with SA E 10W oil tions of E R fluids is the E R clutch. A typical multidisk E R
clutch consists of several equally spaced steel disks of inner
radius R 1 and outer radius R 2, N of them attached to the
C ase input shaft. T he gap h between the parallel disks is filled
with a viscous fluid. (a) F ind a relationship for the torque
generated by the clutch when the output shaft is stationary
SA E 10W oil
D = 12 cm
h = 1.2 mm
z
L = 12 cm
Shell
d = 4 cm R2 R1
r

Input shaft Output shaft

Plates mounted Plates mounted on shell
on input shaft
Variable magnetic field

FIGURE P246 FIGURE P249


and (b) calculate the torque for an .E R clutch with N ! 11 for
R 1 ! 50 mm, R 2 ! 200 mm, and n ! 2400 rpm if the fluid is
SA E 10 with m ! 0.1 Pa ! s, ty ! 2.5 kPa, and h ! 1.2 mm.
Answer: (b) 2060 N ! m
250 T he viscosity of some fluids, called magnetorheologi-
cal (M R ) fluids, changes when a magnetic field is applied.
Such fluids involve micron-sized magnetizable particles sus-
pended in an appropriate carrier liquid, and are suitable for use
in controllable hydraulic clutches. See Fig. P249. T he M R
fluids can have much higher viscosities than the ER fluids, and
they often exhibit shear-thinning behavior in which the viscos-
ity of the fluid decreases as the applied shear force increases.
T his behavior is also known as pseudoplastic behavior, and can
be successfully represented by H erschelB ulkley constitutive
model expressed as t ! ty % K (du/dy)m. H ere t is the shear
stress applied, ty is the yield stress, K is the consistency index,
and m is the power index. For a H erschelB ulkley fluid with ty
! 900 Pa, K ! 58 Pa ! sm, and m ! 0.82, (a) find a relation-
ship for the torque transmitted by an M R clutch for N plates
attached to the input shaft when the input shaft is rotating at
an angular speed of v while the output shaft is stationary and
(b) calculate the torque transmitted by such a .clutch with N
! 11 plates for R 1 ! 50 mm, R 2 ! 200 mm, n ! 2400 rpm,
and h ! 1.2 mm.
251 T he viscosity of a fluid is to be measured by a vis-
cometer constructed of two 75-cm-long concentric cylinders.
T he outer diameter of the inner cylinder is 15 cm, and the
gap between the two cylinders is 0.12 cm. T he inner cylinder
is rotated at 200 rpm, and the torque is measured to be 0.8 N
! m. D etermine the viscosity of the fluid.
200 rpm
0.12 cm
Fluid
Stationary
cylinder
FIGURE P251
252E T he viscosity of a fluid is to be measured by a vis-
cometer constructed of two 3-ft-long concentric cylinders. T he
inner diameter of the outer cylinder is 6 in, and the gap between
the two cylinders is 0.05 in. T he outer cylinder is rotated at 250
rpm, and the torque is measured to be 1.2 lbf ! ft. Determine the
viscosity of the fluid. Answer: 0.000648 lb ! s/ft2
253 In regions far from the entrance, fluid flow through a
circular pipe is one-dimensional, and the velocity profile for
61
CHAPTER 2
laminar flow is given by u(r) ! umax(1 # r 2/R 2), where R is
the radius of the pipe, r is the radial distance from the center of
the pipe, and umax is the maximum flow velocity, which occurs
at the center. Obtain (a) a relation for the drag force applied by
the fluid on a section of the pipe of length L and (b) the value
of the drag force for water flow at 20C with R ! 0.08 m, L
! 15 m, umax ! 3 m/s, and m ! 0.0010 kg/m ! s.
( 2
umax 1 r 2
R )
R
r umax
o
FIGURE P253
254 R epeat Prob. 2 53 for u max ! 5 m/s. Answer: (b)
0.942 N
Surface Tension and Capillary Effect
255C W hat is surface tension? W hat is it caused by? W hy
is the surface tension also called surface energy?
256C C onsider a soap bubble. Is the pressure inside the
bubble higher or lower than the pressure outside?
257C W hat is the capillary effect? W hat is it caused by?
H ow is it affected by the contact angle?
258C A small-diameter tube is inserted into a liquid
whose contact angle is 110. W ill the level of liquid in the
tube rise or drop? E xplain.
259C Is the capillary rise greater in small- or large-diameter
tubes?
260E A 0.03-in-diameter glass tube is inserted into
kerosene at 68F. T he contact angle of kerosene with a glass
surface is 26. D etermine the capillary rise of kerosene in the
tube. Answer: 0.65 in
0.03 in
K erosene
FIGURE P260E
261 A 1.9-mm-diameter tube is inserted into an unknown
liquid whose density is 960 kg/m3, and it is observed that the
liquid rises 5 mm in the tube, making a contact angle of 15.
D etermine the surface tension of the liquid.
 62
FLUID MECHANICS
262 D etermine the gage pressure inside a soap bub-
ble of diameter (a) 0.2 cm and (b) 5 cm at 20C .
263 N utrients dissolved in water are carried to upper parts
of plants by tiny tubes partly because of the capillary effect.
D etermine how high the water solution will rise in a tree in a
0.005-mm-diameter tube as a result of the capillary effect.
Treat the solution as water at 20C with a contact angle of
15. Answer: 5.75 m
W ater 0.005 mm
solution
FIGURE P263
264 T he surface tension of a liquid is to be measured using
a liquid film suspended on a U -shaped wire frame with an
8-cm-long movable side. If the force needed to move the wire
is 0.012 N , determine the surface tension of this liquid in air.
265 C ontrary to what you might expect, a solid steel ball
can float on water due to the surface tension effect. D eter-
mine the maximum diameter of a steel ball that would float
on water at 20C . W hat would your answer be for an alu-
minum ball? Take the densities of steel and aluminum balls
to be 7800 kg/m3 and 2700 kg/m3, respectively.
Review Problems
266 T he absolute pressure of an automobile tire is mea-
sured to be 290 kPa before a trip and 310 kPa after the trip.
A ssuming the volume of the tire remains constant at 0.022 m3,
determine the percent increase in the absolute temperature of
the air in the tire.
267 A 20-m3 tank contains nitrogen at 25C and 800 kPa.
Some nitrogen is allowed to escape until the pressure in the
tank drops to 600 kPa. If the temperature at this point is
20C , determine the amount of nitrogen that has escaped.
Answer: 42.9 kg
268 T he composition of a liquid with suspended solid par-
ticles is generally characterized by the fraction of solid parti-
cles either by weight or mass C s, mass ! ms /mm or by volume,
C s, vol ! Vs / Vm where m is mass and V is volume. T he sub-
scripts s and m indicate solid and mixture, respectively.
D evelop an expression for the specific gravity of a water-
based suspension in terms of C s, mass and C s, vol .
269 T he specific gravities of solids and carrier fluids of a
slurry are usually known, but the specific gravity of the slurry
depends on the concentration of the solid particles. Show that
the specific gravity of a water-based slurry can be expressed
in terms of the specific gravity of the solid SG s and the mass
concentration of the suspended solid particles C s, mass as
1
SG m !
1 % C s, mass(1/SG s # 1)
270E T he pressure on the suction side of pumps is typi-
cally low, and the surfaces on that side of the pump are sus-
ceptible to cavitation, especially at high fluid temperatures. If
the minimum pressure on the suction side of a water pump is
0.95 psia absolute, determine the maximum water tempera-
ture to avoid the danger of cavitation.
271 A closed tank is partially filled with water at 60C . If
the air above the water is completely evacuated, determine
the absolute pressure in the evacuated space. A ssume the
temperature to remain constant.
272 T he variation of the dynamic viscosity of water
with absolute temperature is given as
T, K m, Pa ! s
273.15 1.787 " 10#3
278.15 1.519 " 10#3
283.15 1.307 " 10#3
293.15 1.002 " 10#3
303.15 7.975 " 10#4
313.15 6.529 " 10#4
333.15 4.665 " 10#4
353.15 3.547 " 10#4
373.15 2.828 " 10#4
U sing tabulated data, develop a relation for viscosity in the
form of m ! m(T ) ! A % B T % C T 2 % D T 3 % E T 4. U sing
the relation developed, predict the dynamic viscosity of water
at 50C at which the reported value is 5.468 " 10#4 Pa ! s.
C ompare your result with the results of A ndrades equation,
which is given in the form of m ! D ! e B /T , where D and B
are constants whose values are to be determined using the
viscosity data given.
273 C onsider laminar flow of a N ewtonian fluid of viscos-
ity m between two parallel plates. T he flow is one-dimen-
sional, and the velocity profile is given as u(y) ! 4umax
[ y/h # (y/h)2], where y is the vertical coordinate from the
bottom surface, h is the distance between the two plates, and
u max is the maximum flow velocity that occurs at midplane.
 63
CHAPTER 2

D evelop a relation for the drag force exerted on both plates that the damping torque is proportional to angular speed
by the fluid in the flow direction per unit area of the plates. in accordance with the relation T damping ! C v where C !
0.5pm(1/a %1/b)R 4. A ssume linear velocity profiles on both
u(y) = 4umax [y/h (y/h)2] sides of the disk and neglect the tip effects.
276E A 0.9-in-diameter glass tube is inserted into mer-
cury, which makes a contact angle of 1408 with glass. D eter-
h mine the capillary drop of mercury in the tube at 68F.
umax
y Answer: 0.0175 in
0 277 D erive a relation for the capillary rise of a liquid
between two large parallel plates a distance t apart inserted
FIGURE P273 into the liquid vertically. Take the contact angle to be f.
274 Some non-N ewtonian fluids behave as a B ingham 278 C onsider a 30-cm-long journal bearing that is lubri-
plastic for which shear stress can be expressed as t ! ty % cated with oil whose viscosity is 0.1 kg/m ! s at 20C at the
m(du/dr). For laminar flow of a B ingham plastic in a horizon- beginning of operation and 0.008 kg/m ! s at the anticipated
tal pipe of radius R, the velocity profile is given as u(r) ! steady operating temperature of 80C . T he diameter of the
(&P /4mL )(r 2 # R 2) % (ty /m)(r # R), where &P /L is the con- shaft is 8 cm, and the average gap between the shaft and the
stant pressure drop along the pipe per unit length, m is the journal is 0.08 cm. D etermine the torque needed to overcome
dynamic viscosity, r is the radial distance from the centerline, the bearing friction initially and during steady operation
and ty is the yield stress of B ingham plastic. D etermine (a) when the shaft is rotated at 500 rpm.
the shear stress at the pipe wall and (b) the drag force acting
Design and Essay Problems
on a pipe section of length L .
279 D esign an experiment to measure the viscosity of liq-
2 75 I n some damping systems, a circular disk immersed
uids using a vertical funnel with a cylindrical reservoir of
in oil is used as a damper, as shown in F ig. P2 75. Show
height h and a narrow flow section of diameter D and length
L . M aking appropriate assumptions, obtain a relation for vis-
cosity in terms of easily measurable quantities such as den-
sity and volume flow rate.
R
280 W rite an essay on the rise of the fluid to the top of the
a trees by capillary and other effects.
281 W rite an essay on the oils used in car engines in dif-
b ferent seasons and their viscosities.
D isk D amping oil

FIGURE P275