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KUI XIE
The Ohio State University
KUN HUANG
Mississippi State University
ABSTRACT
Epistemic and learning beliefs were found to affect college students cog-
nitive engagement and study strategies, as well as motivation in classroom
settings. However, the relationships between epistemic and learning beliefs,
motivation, learning perception, and students actual learning participation
in asynchronous online settings have been under-studied and under-theorized.
In this study, 132 students participated in collaborative learning activities
through asynchronous online discussions in a college-level online course. The
results from correlation analysis and structural equation modeling indicate
that epistemic and learning beliefs have significant effects on students
learning participation and perceived learning, through the mediation of
achievement goals. The findings provide theoretical and practical implica-
tions for the design of online learning.
1. INTRODUCTION
Research has demonstrated the interactive relationships between epistemic and
learning beliefs, motivation, and learning (Braten & Strms, 2004; DeBacker
& Crowson, 2006; Kardash & Howell, 2000; Ravindran, Greene, & DeBacker,
315
2005). The few existing attempts also examined how these variables interact with
each other to collectively impact learning in classroom settings (Chen & Pajares,
2010; Kizilgunes, Tekkaya, & Sungur, 2009; Ravindran et al., 2005). As todays
education moves toward online settings, students online learning experience is
significantly different from that in face-to-face settings. They have to rely on
computer-mediated communications and exercise self-regulation to achieve
success in online learning. Investigations become necessary on the interplay
between learners epistemic and learning beliefs, motivation, and learning in
online learning environments. In addition, previous studies on epistemic and
learning beliefs relied mostly on self-reported measures of students cognitive
engagement (e.g., DeBacker & Crowson, 2006; Ravindran et al., 2005) or study
strategies (e.g., Kardash & Howell, 2000; Schommer, Crouse, & Rhodes, 1992).
Recent research has suggested that students actual participation and learning
behavior can greatly reflect their motivational characteristics (Fredericks,
Blumenfeld, & Paris, 2004; Reeve, 2006). While student participation data are
difficult to obtain in face-to-face settings (Dennen, 2008), most Learning
Management Systems (LMS; e.g., WebCT) have the capability to track a
variety of students participation records in online learning activities (Xie,
2013). The learning participation data, also being referred to as learning
analytics (Ferguson, 2012), become valuable resources for educational research.
More importantly, these data may provide researchers with the opportunity
to better understand online learning. Using a combination of self-reported
and learning analytics data, the present study built and tested a model among
epistemic and learning beliefs, motivation, and student participation and
perception in collaborative, asynchronous online discussions in college-level
online classes.
2. THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK
unchanging to the belief that knowledge is tentative and evolving), the source
of knowledge (ranging from the belief that knowledge comes from omniscient
authorities to the belief that knowledge emerges from personal construction), the
nature of ability to learn (ranging from the belief that ability to learn is innate
to the belief that learning ability can be acquired with effort), and the speed
of learning (ranging from the belief that learning takes place quickly or not at
all to the belief that learning is a gradual process) (Braten & Strms, 2005;
Schommer, 1990; Schraw et al., 2002). The five dimensions were later questioned
by Hofer and Pintrinch (1997), who argued that the nature of ability and the speed
of learning do not conceptually belong to the construct of epistemic beliefs.
Schommer-Aikins (2004) later theorized that the two sets of beliefs are in fact
beliefs about learning. She further advocated the need to investigate epistemic
beliefs in light of other closely related belief systems such as beliefs about learn-
ing. Research has found that epistemic beliefs (e.g., simple and certain knowledge)
and beliefs about learning (e.g., quick learning) could influence academic per-
formance (e.g., Qian & Alvermann, 1995; Schommer, 1993; Schommer-Aikins
& Easter, 2006; Schommer-Aikins et al., 2005; Windschitl, 1997), cognitive
engagement (e.g., DeBacker & Crowson, 2006; Ravindran et al., 2005), and study
strategies (e.g., Kardash & Howell, 2000; Schommer et al., 1992).
While previous research demonstrated a clear impact of epistemic and learn-
ing beliefs on learning, it is unclear whether the relationship is direct, indirect
through other mediating variables, or both. Some studies found that epistemic
and learning beliefs directly influenced learning (e.g., Cano, 2005; Kizilgunes
et al., 2009; Schommer, 1993; Schommer, Calvert, Gariglietti, & Bajaj, 1997;
Schommer-Aikins et al., 2005). Others suggested that epistemic and learning
beliefs affected learning indirectly through latent variables such as learning
approaches (e.g., Cano, 2005; Schommer et al., 1992), regulation of cognition
(e.g., Greene, Muis, & Pieschl, 2010; Muis, 2007), and motivation (e.g., DeBacker
& Crowson, 2006; Hofer & Sinatra, 2010; Kizilgunes et al., 2009). As a result,
in this study we modeled the relationship between beliefs and students par-
ticipation and perception in online learning both directly and indirectly through
the mediation of motivation.
learning). Our model also includes relational paths between achievement goals
and self-efficacy variables.
Hofer and Pintrich (1997) posited that epistemic beliefs might influence aca-
demic performance through their impact on motivation, which includes achieve-
ment goals. They further suggested that individuals with more sophisticated
epistemic beliefs would be more likely to adopt mastery goals. DeBacker and
Crowson (2006) also argued that particular epistemic beliefs could create ten-
dencies to adopt certain achievement goals. Although research has not yielded
consistent results on how different dimensions of epistemic and learning beliefs
might influence students adoption of achievement goals, recent studies generally
suggested that students who held less mature beliefs were less likely to adopt
mastery goals but more likely to adopt performance goals, and those who held
more mature beliefs were on the contrary. For example, studies have repeatedly
shown that students adoption of mastery goals was negatively related to beliefs
in certain knowledge (Braten & Strms, 2005), omniscient authority (Kizilgunes
et al., 2009), quick learning (Braten & Strms, 2004, 2005), and fixed ability
(Cury, Elliot, Da Fonseca, & Moller, 2006; Hong, Chiu, Dweck, Lin, & Wan,
1999; Kray & Haselhuhn, 2007). The adoption of performance-avoidance goals
was positively predicted by beliefs in certain knowledge and fixed ability,
while the adoption of performance-approach goals was positively predicted by
beliefs in omniscient authority (Chen & Pajares, 2010; Muis & Franco, 2009),
simple knowledge and fixed ability (Cury et al., 2006; Ravindran et al., 2005).
Would certain epistemic and learning beliefs give rise to certain levels of
self-efficacy beliefs? Research has been done to investigate whether epistemic
and learning beliefs would be possible antecedents for self-efficacy beliefs.
Paulsen and Feldmans (1999) correlation study showed that beliefs in simple
knowledge and quick learning were related to lower self-efficacy. In Kizilgunes
et al.s (2009) study, path analysis found significant associations between three
dimensions of epistemic beliefs (source, development, and justifications) and
self-efficacy. Specifically, mature beliefs about the source and development of
knowledge were associated with a high level of self-efficacy; on the other hand,
those with mature beliefs about the justification of knowledge tended to be less
self-efficacious. Different from Kizilgunes et al.s (2009) findings, Chen and
Pajares (2010) used the same instrument to measure epistemic beliefs and found
that beliefs about the certainty and justification of knowledge predicted self-
efficacy, with more advanced beliefs leading to higher self-efficacy. In Neber and
320 / XIE AND HUANG
Schommer-Aikins (2002) study, path analysis found that nave beliefs that
success is unrelated to work predicted low levels of self-efficacy. Braten and
Strms (2005) found three significant predictors of Norwegian student teachers
self-efficacy: beliefs about the speed of learning, beliefs about control of knowl-
edge acquisition, and implicit theories of intelligence. In a recent study by
Komarraju and Nadler (2013), less self-efficacious students were found to be more
likely to hold nave theories of intelligence. Overall, while the findings provided
some evidence about the relationship between epistemic and learning beliefs and
academic self-efficacy, the findings lack consistency with regard to the impact
of specific dimensions of epistemic and learning beliefs on self-efficacy.
In light of previous research findings, our study intended to find out whether
and how specific dimensions of beliefs interact with students motivation.
Therefore, our model depicts the relationship between the five dimensions of
epistemic and learning beliefs and motivation variables (achievement goals and
self-efficacy).
4. Method
All the sections were taught by the same instructor and followed identical learning
procedures. One hundred nineteen participants (90.2%) rated their confidence
level as high in the use of technology to complete the coursework.
4.2 Measurement
Four groups of variables were measured in this study: epistemic and learning
beliefs, motivation (i.e., achievement goals and self-efficacy), online learning
perception, and online learning participation (i.e., posting and non-posting
participations).
Epistemic beliefs inventory (EBI) was used to assess epistemic beliefs (Schraw
et al., 2002). The reason for choosing EBI is because of its better psychometric
quality in assessing epistemic and learning beliefs (DeBacker, Crowson, Beesley,
Thomas, & Hestevold, 2008). EBI consists of 23 items measuring five dimensions.
Three of the dimensions measure epistemic beliefs: simple knowledge indicating
the belief about the structure of knowledge (four items), certain knowledge
indicating the belief about the certainty of knowledge (six items), omniscient
authority indicating the belief about the source of knowledge (five items). The
other two dimensions probe learners beliefs about learning: innate ability indi-
cating the belief about the nature of ability to learn (five items), and quick learning
indicating the belief about the speed of learning (three items). For each dimension,
high scores indicate nave beliefs. In their validity study, Schraw et al. (2002)
documented that the instruments subscale a ranged from 0.500.60s.
Motivation
Perceived Learning
Perception of learning from an online discussion scale (Wu & Hiltz, 2004)
was administered, which has 10 questions inquiring about students perceived
324 / XIE AND HUANG
4.3 Procedure
In this study, students participated daily in online discussion activities in a
16-week duration of an instructional technology course. They were assigned to
small groups of 8 to 10. The online discussion activities invited the students
to share information and contribute to knowledge construction. The instructor
monitored and facilitated the online discussion activities. The online course was
delivered in the WebCT LMS. Asynchronous online discussions were facilitated
by an online discussion system (iDiscuss) developed by the researchers. One
special feature of this system is its easy-to-access data collection and management
functions, which has the capability to automatically track and record students
posting and non-posting participation data. Instructors and researchers can easily
download students online discussion data for analysis (i.e., time of login, total
message posts, total topics read, etc.) (Xie, 2013; Xie, Miller, & Allison, 2013).
At the end of the semester, the students were asked to complete a survey volun-
tarily. The survey was delivered online, consisting of measures of epistemic and
learning beliefs, goal orientations, self-efficacy, and perceived learning toward the
online discussion activities. Students learning analytics data were exported at
the end of the semester. Posting and non-posting participation indices were cal-
culated from the data downloaded from iDiscuss for further statistical analyses.
5. RESULTS
Three steps of analysis were performed in order to test the relationships among
epistemic and learning beliefs, achievement goals, self-efficacy, students per-
ceived learning, and their actual online participations in the asynchronous online
learning activities. The first step calculated descriptive statistics and reliability
coefficients for the instruments measuring each of the variables. In the second
step, a correlation matrix was generated to examine the relationships among
BELIEFS AND MOTIVATION IN ASYNCHRONOUS ONLINE LEARNING / 325
variables. The third step utilized Structural Equation Modeling (SEM), using
maximum likelihood techniques with AMOS version 18.
Simple knowledge: Too many theories just complicate things. 4.09 .75 1.86-6.14 .62
Certain knowledge: What is true today will be true tomorrow. 3.07 .82 1.50-5.25 .58
Omniscient authority: People who question authority are troublemakers. 4.91 .91 2.40-6.80 .61
Fixed ability: How well you do in school depends on how smart you are. 3.80 .92 1.71-6.00 .71
Quick learning: Students who learn things quickly are the most successful. 2.46 .95 1.00-5.40 .69
Mastery goals: I want to learn as much as possible from this class. 5.96 .90 2.50-7.00 .88
Performance-approach goals: It is important for me to do better than the other students. 4.38 1.49 1.00-7.00 .91
Performance-avoidance goals: My goal for this class is to avoid performing poorly. 4.61 1.24 1.00-7.00 .82
Self-efficacy: I usually think that Im good in this online class. 5.20 1.03 1.67-7.00 .86
Perceived learning: The online discussions helped me to think more deeply. 5.26 1.31 1.00-7.00 .95
Note: SD = standard deviation; a = Cronbach a coefficient.
Table 2. Correlation among Epistemic and Learning Beliefs, Motivation, Online Participation,
and Learning Perception
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
1. Simple knowledge 1.00 .18* .24** .32** .33** .01 .21* .22* .04 .06 .13 .01
2. Certain knowledge 1.00 .33** .18* .26** .11 .00 .12 .35** .06 .05 .06
3. Omniscient authority 1.00 .22* .08 .16 .06 .22* .13 .13 .05 .09
4. Fixed ability 1.00 .55** .04 .16 .16 .15 .12 .15 .09
5. Quick learning 1.00 .22* .15 .22* .05 .11 .08 .11
6. Mastery goals 1.00 .21* .05 .42** .25** .23* .35**
7. Performance-approach goals 1.00 .24** .18* .05 .02 .11
8. Performance-avoidance goals 1.00 .27** .12 .17 .04
9. Self-efficacy 1.00 .25** .27** .21*
10. Posting participation 1.00 .62** .29**
11. Non-posting participation 1.00 .22**
12. Perceived learning 1.00
*p < .05 significant level (two-tailed).
**p < .01 significant level (two-tailed).
BELIEFS AND MOTIVATION IN ASYNCHRONOUS ONLINE LEARNING
/ 327
328 / XIE AND HUANG
In the third step of data analysis, SEM was used to test the relationships
among epistemic and learning beliefs, achievement goals, self-efficacy, and online
learning participation and perception from a perspective of structured framework.
SEM takes into account the modeling of latent variables and nonlinearities to
test the model from an integrated perspective, namely to test whether the overall
web of causal relationships adequately describes the data (Fox, 2002; Hatcher,
1994). SEM method has been widely used in educational research (e.g., DeBacker
& Crowson, 2006; Greene et al., 2004).
To evaluate the hypothetical model, a mixture of recommended fit indices
was used. The value of the likelihood ratio chi-square statistic (c2) indicates
whether the hypothetical model deviates from the data. The root mean square of
approximation (RMESA) estimates the lack of fit compared to the saturated
model. The goodness of fit index (GFI) represents the proportion of the variance
in the sample variance-covariance matrix accounted for by the model. According
to previous research (e.g., Bollen & Curran, 2006; Byrne, 1998; Kline, 2005;
MacCallum, Browne, & Sugawara, 1996; Tabachnick & Fidell, 2001), models
with c2/df less than 2, GFI greater than 0.90, an RMSEA less than or equal to
0.05 are considered to be a reasonable fit to the data.
For the purpose of this study, one hypothetical model was built (Figure 1)
in which epistemic and learning beliefs were related to students online learning
participation and their perceived learning, both directly and indirectly through the
mediation of motivation variables. The results indicate that the model explained
the data well and fit indices provided evidence of adequate model-to-data fit: the
Chi-square goodness-of-fit indices (c2 = 2828, c2/df = 1.693) being less than 2,
indices GFI (.911) being greater than 0.9, and RMSEA (.049) falling below 0.05.
With respect to the predicted paths, our model was partially supported. Many,
but not all, of the proposed paths were supported by the data. The significant
relationship among variables in the final model (Figure 2) supported that the
influence of epistemic and learning beliefs on learning was significant but was
mediated through motivation variables. Due to the complexity of the original
model, Figure 2 depicts only the significant paths found in the SEM.
Both learning beliefs significantly predicted achievement goals: quick learning
(b = .51, p = .026) had significantly negative effects on mastery goal, while
fixed ability significantly predicted both performance-approach goal (b = .28,
p = .043) and performance-avoidance goal (b = .12, p = .029). Out of the three
epistemic beliefs, omniscient authority (b = .33, p = .009) significantly and posi-
tively predicted mastery goal. No other relationship was found in the final model
between epistemic and learning beliefs and motivation variables.
Within the motivation variables, the relationships between self-efficacy and
goals were significant in the resultant model. Self-efficacy significantly and posi-
tively predicted both mastery goal (b = .39, p < .001) and performance-approach
BELIEFS AND MOTIVATION IN ASYNCHRONOUS ONLINE LEARNING / 329
6. DISCUSSION
This study examined the relationship between epistemic and learning beliefs,
motivation, learning perception, and students actual learning participation in
330 / XIE AND HUANG
asynchronous online learning. The SEM results suggested that the data provided
good support for the overall model, in that the fit statistics were moderately strong
and most of the proposed paths were supported by the empirical findings. More
specifically, the model indicated the following significant causal relationships:
beliefs in omniscient authority, quick learning, and self-efficacy can influence
mastery goals; beliefs in fixed ability and self-efficacy can influence both
performance-approach and performance-avoidance goals; mastery goals can posi-
tively influence all online learning variables (i.e., posting participation, non-
posting participation, and perceived learning); performance-avoidance goals can
negatively influence non-posting online participation and perceived learning;
self-efficacy can influence both posting and non-posting participation.
Previous research found that epistemic and learning beliefs were directly and
indirectly related to learning (Cano, 2005; DeBacker & Crowson, 2006; Greene
et al., 2010; Kizilgunes et al., 2009; Schommer-Aikins et al., 2005). The body
of research mainly focused on academic performance that was often reflected
by students learning outcomes (e.g., average grades) or self-reported learning
approaches, yet little attention was paid to students actual learning behavior.
This study made use of learning analytics as a means to examine the relation-
ship between epistemic and learning beliefs and students learning behaviors
in an online learning context. The results indicated that epistemic and learning
beliefs did not directly influence online learning participation and perception,
but indirectly through the mediation of achievement goals. These results are
supported by the existing literature. For example, Buehl and Alexander (2005)
suggested that learner epistemic beliefs can be indirectly associated with their
achievement and academic performance through motivation. Hofer and Pintrich
(1997) and Muis (2007) further contended that epistemic beliefs may function
as implicit theories that influence the adoption of goals for learning, and these
goals can serve to mediate the relations between epistemic beliefs, cognition, and
learning performance, as well as learning approach and achievement (Kizilgunes
et al., 2009; Muis & Franco, 2009). Therefore, this study suggested that the
influence of epistemic and learning beliefs on online learning participation is
indirect and implicit, while achievement goals may play more direct roles in
students participation in online learning.
It is important to note that the learning participation measured in this study
does not necessarily reflect the quality of students participation. Nonetheless, the
participation data served as quantitative indicators of students learning engage-
ment in online learning settings. Hence, examining students participation behaviors
and patterns provides researchers with a new angle for looking into a facet of
online learning which may have important bearings on students performances.
BELIEFS AND MOTIVATION IN ASYNCHRONOUS ONLINE LEARNING / 331
results challenge this general assumption and suggest that not all nave epistemic
beliefs will lead to lower levels of motivation. This finding supports Greene
et al.s (2010) suggestion that the utility of beliefs may be context-specific.
In some cases nave beliefs about the source of knowledge may be helpful to
learning. Although the tradition of epistemic beliefs research usually associates
nave beliefs with negative learning approaches and outcomes, this study suggests
that in the context of online learning, a belief that knowledge comes from authority
may actually lead students motivation toward mastery and learning, rather than
performance. To explain this finding, we make the following propositions: as
students beliefs about the source of knowledge grow from nave to mature, it
is possible that their interpretation of the meaning of mastery also evolves from
simple to complex, thereby the mastery goals they adopt also vary from simple
to complex. When students hold the belief that knowledge is handed down
from authority, their understanding about mastery can be simple. In the case of
this study, that is, as students learn in online classes, the beliefs of omniscient
authority may have promoted students perception that mastery means learning
from authority sources. Adopting a mastery goal with such a simple under-
standing, students participated in the class activities because they expected to learn
from their instructor or the learning materials (e.g., the book). Together, the nave
omniscient authority belief and the associated simple mastery goal may have made
the relationship between these two constructs relatively simpler, clearer, stronger,
and easier to establish. On the other hand, when students hold the belief that
knowledge comes from personal experience and experiment, their understanding
about mastery can become sophisticated. In the case of this study, that is, with a
more sophisticated mastery goal, students participated in the class activities
because they expected to gain competence and master the learning content from
their own knowledge construction by interacting with peers in class. The mature
epistemic belief and the associated sophisticated mastery goal orientation may
have made the relationship between these two constructs relatively more com-
plicated and also ambiguous. Our propositions raise some questions: Does
mastery goal orientation always lead to deep learning strategies and positive
learning performance and outcomes? Will simple or sophisticated mastery goals
impact learning differently? These propositions warrant investigation in future
research on the effects of simple and complex mastery goals on learning variables.
In addition, our study did not find any significant relationship between
epistemic and learning beliefs and self-efficacy, although literature suggests
that several epistemic belief dimensions can influence students self-efficacy
(e.g., Paulsen & Feldman, 1999). A possible explanation lies in the difference
in the extent to which the beliefs were contextualized. In the case of this
study, students epistemic and learning beliefs were measured at a general level
(i.e., students general beliefs about knowledge and learning without a connec-
tion to specific domains or tasks), while self-efficacy measures were tied to the
context of particular academic tasks (i.e., their confidence in completing learning
BELIEFS AND MOTIVATION IN ASYNCHRONOUS ONLINE LEARNING / 333
tasks in the online class). This difference may have caused the non-significant
results. Previous studies that found associations between epistemic and learning
beliefs and self-efficacy were both tied to a particular domain, for instance,
science learning (Chen & Pajares, 2010; Kizilgunes et al., 2009). Yet in this
study students general epistemic and learning beliefs might not be powerful
enough to directly influence their self-efficacy in the specific learning activities
in these online classes.
The study results suggested that motivation, being manifested through achieve-
ment goals and self-efficacy, played a significant role in predicting students
perceived learning and their actual learning participation in asynchronous
online discussions.
Mastery goals positively predicted all of the learning participation and per-
ception variables. Previous research has well documented the evidence that
mastery goals can have positive influences on students learning strategies, cog-
nitive engagement, learning outcomes, academic achievement (e.g., Eppler &
Harju, 1997; Graham & Golan, 1991; Licht & Dweck, 1984). This study found
new evidence that students with mastery goals were motivated to participate
in asynchronous online learning activities. They had frequent participation in
online discussions (including both posting and non-posting activities), and per-
ceived that they had learned a great deal from the online learning activities. On
the other hand, performance-avoidance goals negatively predicted students
non-posting behavior and perceived learning in online classes. Students with
performance-avoidance goals tend to focus on avoiding normative incompetence
and its associated unfavorable judgment of potential failure (Elliot & Church,
1997). Research shows that performance avoidance is negatively associated with
academic achievement, and can often lead to avoidance behaviors such as strategic
withdrawal of effort, self-handicapping, and procrastination (Rhodewalt, 1990;
Rothblum, 1990). Therefore, in the case of this study, students who were driven by
the fear of performing poorly in the class would only actively engage in posting
participations so that they wouldnt show their incompetence or receive a bad
grade in their classes, yet they were less likely to actively engage in non-posting
activities (e.g., reading, evaluation, etc.) because such participations were not
required, not visible to, nor could be graded by teachers or peers. Further,
participating in non-posting activities would not help them to avoid normative
judgment. Consequently, they reported less perceived learning in these online
classes. The study results revealed a significant impact of beliefs on motivation,
therefore suggesting that research should examine the collective impact of beliefs
and motivation on learning, instead of studying them in isolation.
In addition, self-efficacy beliefs played a critical role in these online classes.
They influenced students goal adoptions as well as their learning participation.
334 / XIE AND HUANG
difficult to intervene and promote changes in their beliefs within a class session,
a week, or even a semester (Kienhues, Bromme, & Stahl, 2008; Muis, Bendixen,
& Haerle, 2006). On the other hand, students motivation can be contextualized
and malleable. For example, research suggests that students motivation toward
academic activities often changes across a semester or academic year (e.g., Stipek
& Ryan, 1997; Wigfield & Eccles, 2000; Xie et al., 2006), and motivation
generally is specific to learning tasks (e.g., Anderman & Wolters, 2006; Schraw
& Lehman, 2001). Hence, while recognizing that students often hold different
beliefs about knowledge and learning, instructors can focus on fostering students
motivation, which may be more efficient and effective in achieving positive
impact on student learning.
This study has a few limitations. First, in alignment with other similar studies
(e.g., Braten & Strms, 2005; DeBacker & Crowson, 2006; Kizilgunes et al.,
2009), this study adopted the trichotomous framework of achievement goals.
Elliot and McGregor (2001) further differentiated mastery goals according to their
valence, thereby creating a 2 2 achievement goal framework with approach
and avoidance dimensions for both mastery and performance goals. With the 2 2
framework, a replication of this study might be able to explain the relationship
between beliefs and motivation in some learning contexts where mastery approach
and avoidance goals were more prominent. Secondly, this study represents an
initial exploration to utilize learning analytics to explain learning behaviors. This
preliminary exploration only involved the frequencies of posting and non-posting
participation as indicators of students learning engagement. Future research may
involve more dimensions of learning analytics (e.g., sequential information and
interaction quality) in order to identify and model learning engagement patterns.
Finally, the learning analytics data from online discussion forums could only
partially reflect students interactions yet did not represent their engagement
through face-to-face meetings or offline interactions. Future research should
examine the role of beliefs and motivation in both online and offline engagements
in asynchronous learning settings.
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