Pagei

Church,Culture&Curriculum
TheologyandMathematicsintheJesuitRatioStudiorum

LadislausLukacs,S.J.
and
GiuseppeCosentino

TranslatedandEditedwithanIntroductionby
FrederickA.Homann,S.J.

 Pageiii

St.IgnatiusLoyola

 Pageiv

Copyright1999bySaintJoseph'sUniversityPress.
Allrightsreserved.
Nopartofthisbookmaybeusedorreproducedinanymannerwhatsoever
withoutwrittenpermission.

LadislausLukacs,S.J.,"RatioatqueinstitutiostudiorumSocietatisIesu,"generalintroductiontoMonumentaPaedagogicaSocietatisIesu,vol.5(Rome:Institutum
HistoricumSocietatisIesu,1986),pp.136.
Translated,edited,andpublishedwithpermissionofInstitutumHistoricumSocietatisIesu.

GiuseppeCosentino,"LematematichenellaRatioStudiorumdellaCompagniadiGes,"MiscellaneaStoricaLigure,2,newseries,no.2(1970),pp.171213.
Translated,editedandpublishedwithpermissionofUniversitdiGenova,InstitutodiStoriaModernaeContemporanea.

GiuseppeCosentino,"L'Insegnamentodellematematicheneicollegigesuiticinell'Italiasettentrionale:Notaintroduttiva,"Physis,13(1971),pp.20517.
Translated,edited,andpublishedwithpermissionofCasaEditriceLeoS.Olschki.

ISBN0916101304paper

Publishedby:

SAINTJOSEPH'SUNIVERSITYPRESS
5600CityAvenue
Philadelphia,Pennsylvania191311395
www.sju.edu/sjupress/

SaintJoseph'sUniversityPressisamemberoftheAssociationofJesuitUniversityPresses

LibraryofCongressCataloginginPublicationData

Church,culture,andcurriculum:theologyandmathematicsinthe
Ratiostudiorum/translatedbyFrederickA.Homann.
p.cm.
Includesbibliographicalreferences(p.).
Contents:AhistoryoftheJesuitRatiostudiorum/Ladislaus
LukcsMathematicsintheJesuitRatiostudiorum/Giuseppe
CosentinoMathematicsinstructioninJesuitcollegesofnorthern
Italy.
ISBN0916101304
1.Jesuits.Ratiostudiorum.2.TheologyStudyandteaching
History.3.MathematicsStudyandteaching(Higher)History.
I.Homann,FrederickA.II.Lukcs,Ladislaus.Ratioatque
institutiostudiorumSocietatisIesu.English.III.Cosentino,
Giuseppe,1950Matematichenella"Ratiostudiorum"della
CompagniadiGes.English.IV.Cosentino,Giuseppe,1950
MathematicsinstructioninJesuitcollegesofnorthernItaly.
English.
BX3704.Z5C551999
230'.07'32dc219929173
CIP

Coverillustration:Stainedglassmedallion,St.Barbara'sChurch,Philadelphia.

Frontispiece:St.IgnatiusLoyola,19thc.,copperengraving,ThePetersCollection,SaintJoseph'sUniversity.

 Pagev

TableofContents

Introduction 1
FrederickA.Homann,S.J.

AHistoryoftheJesuitRatioStudiorum 17
LadislausLukacs,S.J.

MathematicsintheJesuitRatioStudiorum 47
GiuseppeCosentino

MathematicsInstructioninJesuitCollegesofNorthernItaly 81
GiuseppeCosentino

 Page1

Introduction
FrederickA.Homann,S.J.

TheRatioStudiorum15991999

ThreeseminalessaysonearlyJesuiteducationandacademicfreedomintheologyandmathematics,byFatherLadislausLukacs,S.J.,andProfessorGiuseppe
Cosentino,areofferedhereinEnglishtranslationtohelpmarkthefourhundredthanniversaryoftheRatiostudiorum.ThatrenownstudyplanoftheSocietyofJesus,
promulgatedin1599,regulatedJesuitacademiesfromgrammarschooluptoseminaryanduniversitylevelworldwideuntilwellintothetwentiethcentury.Several
recentconferenceshereandabroadusedthe1999anniversarynotonlytoreviewthehistoryandpervasiveinfluenceoftheRatiostudiorumfrom1599tonow,but
mostofalltosurveythepresentstateofJesuitfoundedprograms,inparticularontheundergraduateuniversitylevel,andtoestimatetheirprospectsandvalueinthe
Society'sapostolicmissioninthenewmillennium.TheLukacsandCosentinoessayscanfostersuchefforts,byprovidingusefuldataandcriticalperspectiveonthe
recurringtasksandcontemporarychallengesforJesuitteachersandtheirmanycolleagues,besideshelpingtofilloutthelargerpictureofpostRenaissanceEuropean
pedagogyandscience.

June1999sawtheinternationalconference"JesuitEducation21:TheFutureofJesuitHigherEducation"convokedatSaintJoseph'sUniversityinPhiladelphia.The
convention,whichtooktheopportunitytomarktheRatiostudiorumanniversary,followeduppublicationofPromiseRenewed:JesuitHigherEducationfora
NewMillennium(Chicago:LoyolaPress,1999).EditedbyMartinR.Tripole,S.J.,PromiseRenewedcomprisesanimpressivecollectionofessayswrittenby
AmericanJesuituniversityscholarsfromawidespectrumofdisciplines.EachexplainedhowheansweredtheinvitationoftheSociety's34thGeneralCongregationin
1995tolocateandenergizehisownprofessionalworkrelativetoboththe

 Page2

overallJesuitmissiontodayandtosharedapostoliceffortsinuniversityteachingandscholarlyresearchthatarerootedintheRatiostudiorum.

TheirintellectualapostolatetodaycontinueswhattheSociety'sfounderandfirstSuperiorGeneral,St.IgnatiusLoyola,sanctionedintheGeneralConstitutionsthat
hecomposedfortheSocietyfrom1540to1556.AfterthedeathofSt.Ignatius,andmindfulofhispromiseoffullerattentiontothiscrucialmatter,theSociety'sfirst
fiveGeneralCongregationsregulatedtherapidlyexpandingJesuiteducationalapostolatewithaseriesofprovisionaldirectives.Thoseinitiativeseventuatedin1599in
theRatioatqueInstitutioStudiorumSocietatisIesu(ThePlanandImplementationofAcademicFacultiesoftheSocietyofJesus).Thedocument,
promulgatedfromRomebythefifthSuperiorGeneral,FatherClaudeAcquaviva,andsometimescalledAcquaviva'sRatiostudiorum,appliedtothewholeSociety.
BecauseithaditspromiseandoriginintheGeneralConstitutions,theRatiowastreasuredamongtheFundamentalsoftheInstituteoftheSociety.Itsinfluenceand
effectsinandoutofJesuitschoolswereimmediateandimmense.

BothLukacsandCosentinoconsider,thoughinsupplementarywaysandwithdifferentgoalsinmind,thedevelopmentalhistoryofthe1599Ratio.Importantly,each
onehighlightsadistinctspecialstrandagainsttheoverallhistory.Astheiressaysshow,itspublicationcameafternumerousdraftversions,innumerablecommittee
meetings,occasionaldirectivesofaSuperiorGeneral,wideconsultationoftheJesuitschoolsandprovinces,interventionsbyspecialinterestgroupsandexternal
events,closeconsiderationbyearlyJesuitGeneralCongregations,andalmostfreneticactivityintheexperienceandpracticeofcountlessJesuits,asteachers,
administrators,andstudents.TrulyapropheticparadigmfortheexperienceoftheturnofthemillenniumJesuiteducationalplansandpracticedescribedinPromise
Renewed.

AHistoryoftheRatioStudiorum

Theleadpaper,FatherLadislausLukacs'"AHistoryoftheJesuitRatiostudiorum,"isanabridgedEnglishtranslationofhisIntroductiogeneralis(pp.1*36*)to
MonumentaPaedagogicaSocietatisIesu,tom.V(Rome:InstitutumHistoricumSocietatisIesu,1986.).Lukacs,amemberoftheInstitutumHistoricumSocietatis
Iesu(InstituteofJesuitHistory)inRomeandpriortohisdeathin1998,theforemostexpertonthehistoryoftheRatio,editedthevolumetomarkthe400th
anniversaryofpublicationoftheprovisional1586textRatioatqueinstitutiostudiorum.

 Page3

Its500pagesprovidetheprincipaldocumentsinthevariousRomanarchivesoftheSocietyassociatedwiththe1586,1591,and1599draftversionsoftheRatio
studiorum.Alongwiththesixcompanionvolumes(IIV,VIVII)intheMonumentaPaedagogicaseriesthatLukacsalsoedited,itisanindispensableresourcefor
Ratiohistory.

Lukacs'IntroductiogeneralisisneitherwellknownnorreadilyaccessibletoLatinchallengedAmericanJesuiteducationalcircles.Itwasprimarilyintendedtobea
newaccountoftheoveralldevelopmentoftheRatiostudiorumasacooperativeJesuitproject.Therearestillnocomparablydocumentedstudiesofthatefforteither
inEnglishoranyotherlanguage.Buthispaperalso,necessarilyandhappily,describesaparticulardevelopmentstrandthathastobeconsideredthemostcrucialone
inRatiohistory,thatis,theintense,prolongedstruggleintheearlySocietyoverthespecificcontentofthecurriculuminspeculativetheologyandtheappropriate
academicfreedomintreatingdisputeddoctrinalquestionsandinespousingprobabletheologicalopinionsthatoughttobeaccordeditsprofessorsintheirwritingand
publiclectures.

Thestruggle,naturally,wasnotanentirelyinternalaffair.TheRomanJesuits,asLukacs'historyrelates,couldnotbutbeinfluencedintheirdecisionsbytheSpanish
Inquisition'sseizureofdraftcopiesofthe1586Ratio.Alongwithlistsofprescribedandoptionalthesesintheology,thecopieshadbeensenttotheprovincesfortheir
commentsandapproval.(AllwerelaterreturnedtotheSociety,thankstotheinterventionofPopeSixtusV.)MindfultooofSt.Ignatius'experiencewiththeSpanish
InquisitionatAlcalandSalamanca,whenhewasimprisonedandquestionedabouthisdoctrineintheSpiritualExercises,theSocietyconsultedtheHolySeeabout
theproposaltopublishinconnectionwiththeRatioamanualofThomistictheses.ExcerptedfromAquinas'SummaTheologica,thecompendiumwastogovern
Jesuitteachingoftheologicaldoctrine.(Interestingly,theRomanInquisition'sreviewerjudgedtheproposaltoprintthemanualinappropriateinsofarasthatmighthave
achillingeffectonthefreedomofothertheologianstoholdopinionsthatdifferedfromthoseofSt.Thomas.)TheSocietyhandledthequestionofacademicfreedom
pragmatically,andsomewhatuneasily,aswelearnfromLukacs,andthecontroversylaydormantbehindtheRatiochaptersthatweretoregulatetheteachingof
theologyasthecrowningpartofaJesuituniversityprogramintendedtobeaprimeinstanceofevangelizationandofservicetotheChurch.

Lukacs'Introductiogeneralisdoesnotrelatecomparabledebatesaboutthepresenceandfunctioninthecurriculumoflanguages(Greek,Hebrew,

 Page4

Syriac,etc.),oroftheclassicalmedievaltrivium(grammar,rhetoric,logic)andquadrivium(arithmetic,geometry,music,astronomy),orofphilosophy.Fortunately,to
supplementthestoryofthetheologicaldisciplines,Cosentinoaccountsforthemathematicalsciencesofthequadrivium.Analogousaccountsforgrammar,rhetoric,
logic,naturalphilosophy,andmetaphysicscanbedevelopedbyconsultingthedocumentsandreferencesintheMonumentaPaedagogicavolumes.Eachofthose
nowalmostforgottendebatesaimedatrefiningJesuitandexternacademicexperienceintoaprogramtoformbothcontemporaryJesuitandexternstudentsinkeeping
withtheIgnatianvisionandtheSociety'sprimaryapostolicmissionofservicetotheChurchandthedefenseoftheCatholicfaith,asbothLukacsandCosentino
observe.

PublicationoftheRatiodidnot,ofcourse,endthecontroversyorresolvetheunderlyingproblemsofacademicfreedomintheuniversity.TheRomanInquisition's
controversialproscriptionofCopernicusandthecondemnationofGalileointheearlyseventeenthcenturyagainraisedissuesaboutinterpretationofScriptureand
ChurchdoctrineandhowmuchfreedomJesuittheologians,naturalphilosophers,andmathematicianshadtotreatsuchmattersinthepublicforum.Similar
controversiesinvolvingthefaithandunsettleddoctrinalpositionssoonfollowed.MostnotablepriortotheSuppressionoftheSocietyin1773werethecontroversies
withDominicantheologiansandtheCalvinistsaboutpredestinationanddivineforeknowledge,aswellasthestrugglewithPascalandtheJansenistsaboutthelicitness
offollowingprobableopinionsinmoraltheologyandcasesofconscience.

Today,thequestionofacademicfreedomfortheSociety,andforCatholictheologiansgenerally,involvestheneedtodeterminewhattheologicaldoctrinesare
legitimatelyopentodebate,andatwhatpointdissentfromChurchteachingbecomesunacceptable.IntheaftermathofVaticanCouncilIIandPopePaulVI's1968
encyclicalHumanaeVitae,theSociety's34thGeneralCongregationaddressedtheissue,inanattempttoprovideguidancefortheologyprofessors,andJesuits
generally,inaveryneuralgicecclesiasticalmilieu.FaithfreedomtensionshavebeenwiththeSocietyinallitsapostolicworkfromitsveryinception,asmaybe
surmisedfromtheexplicit"RulesforthinkingwiththeChurch"thatSt.IgnatiusattachedtohisSpiritualExercises,thefoundationaldocumentfortheSocietyandits
GeneralConstitutions.St.IgnatiushadnotforgottenAlcal,Salamanca,andtheSpanishInquisition.

 Page5

MathematicsintheRatioStudiorum

ProfessorGiuseppeCosentino'sstudy,"LematematichenelleRatiostudiorumdellaCompagniadiGes"("MathematicsintheJesuitRatiostudiorum"),
MiscellaneaStoricaLigure,2,newseries,no.2(1970),pp.171213(Englishtranslation:thisvolume,pp.4779),examinesanothernotablyimportantbuttoday
virtuallyunknownstrandinRatiohistory.ThiswasthedisputeovertheroleandimportanceintheJesuiteducationalprogramthattheRatiowastoaccordthe
classicalquadriviumdisciplinesofarithmetic,geometry,music(appliedarithmetic),andastronomy(appliedgeometry),andtheirderivativesciencessuchasoptics,
perspective,andecclesiasticalcalendarcomputation(computusecclesiasticus).

Anespeciallysensitiveissuewastheplacethesedisciplinesweretohaveinthearts,orphilosophy,facultyintheSociety'sRomanCollege.(Foundedin1551bySt.
IgnatiusprimarilyforJesuitstudents,theCollegioRomanowasgranteduniversitystatusin1581andgenerouslyendowedbyPopeGregoryXIII.Overitsdoorwas
theinscription"SchoolofGrammar,Humanities,andChristianDoctrine,gratis."ItsearlyhistoryiscloselylinkedwiththatoftheRatioitoperatestodayasthe
PontificalGregorianUniversity.)InthemindofSt.Ignatius,theCollegioRomanowastobethemotherandmodelforallJesuitcollegesanduniversities,andits
practicewouldshapethatofdaughterschoolsthroughouttheworld.ButtheprestigefirstaccordedtheRomanCollege,andSt.Ignatius'choiceintheGeneral
ConstitutionsofAristotle'ssystemforJesuitphilosophicaldoctrine,gaveitsfacultyofphilosophyaplatformtomountachallengetothepresenceofmathematicsin
thecurriculumthereandelsewhere.

WithapredominantlyconservativeAristotelianorientation,andatbestreluctanttoassignintrinsicscientificvalue(intheAristoteliansenseofscience[scientia]as
knowledgethroughcauses)tomathematicalreasoning,theRomanCollegephilosopherswerealltoooftenignorantandentirelycontemptuousofthediscipline,astheir
preeminentmathematiciancolleagueChristopherClaviussadlyobserved.HeateddebatequicklyensuedamongtheCollegefacultyabouttheprominentroleforthe
mathematicalsciencesintheSociety'suniversityprogramchampionedbyBaldassarreTorres(theCollege'sfirstmathematicsprofessor),JeromeNadal,whoasrector
atMessinahaddevelopeditsmathematicscurriculum,andthescientificallyprolificClavius.

LiketheinternalRomanCollegedialogaboutacademicfreedomandthetheologysyllabus,thedebateabouttheroleofmathematicswasalso

 Page6

significantlyshapedbyexternalcircumstances,inthiscaseasixteenthcenturydisputebetweenhumanists,mathematicians,andphilosophersthatProfessorNealW.
GilbertfirstdrewmodernattentiontoinhisRenaissanceConceptsofMethod(NewYork:ColumbiaUniversityPress,1961).TheUniversityofPaduaAverroists
(radicalAristotelians)precipitatedanepistemologicalcontroversyaboutthenatureofproof(demonstratio)andthevalidityoftheconclusionsinmathematics,
especiallyingeometry.Thecontroversyintensifiedin1547withthepublicationofAlessandroPiccolomini'sCommentariumdecertitudinemathematicarum
disciplinarum(EssayonCertitudeinMathematics)toengageabroadspectrumofmathematiciansandphilosophers.PersistinginItalianacademiccircles,Jesuit
onesincluded,longafterpromulgationofthe1599Ratio,thebitterstrugglecametoinvolve,besidesClaviusandhisRomanCollegeAristotelianantagonists,
colleagueBenedictPereirainparticular,severalprominentseventeenthcenturyJesuitmathematicians.ThemostnotablewasJosephusBlancanus(GiuseppeBiancani),
whohadbeenastudentintheMathematicsAcademyClaviusestablishedattheRomanCollege.LaterasprofessoratBologna,headvancedClavius'effortsto
establishEuclideangeometryasatrueAristotelianscienceinhis1615metamathematicaltreatise,Demathematicarumnaturadissertatio(EssayontheNatureof
Mathematics).

TheDecertitudinedisputefiguresappropriatelyinthe1970paperthatCosentino,amemberoftheDomusGalilaeanaInstituteinPisa,publishedontheRatioaspart
oftheInstitute'shistoryofscienceandmathematicsresearchprogram,andwhosestudiescenteronsixteenthandseventeenthcenturyItalianinstitutionsand
practitioners,theUniversityofPadua,GalileoandtheJesuits,Bellarmine,Biancani,Pereira,theCollegioRomano,andtheRomanInquisition.

DrawingonJesuitarchivesaswellasconstitutions,syllabi,andpedagogicalpracticeofestablishedFrench,Spanish,andItalianuniversities,alongwithstandard
contemporarycommentariesandtexts,CosentinofashionedamatrixforevaluationofthesignificancethatJesuitmathematicalpractice,derivedfromimplementationof
theRatio,hadforthehistoryofearlymodernEuropeanscienceandmathematicseducation.AtthesametimehesetthecontextforthemeasureofJesuitscientistsin
thenewEuropeanintellectuallifeandscientificmethodologyoftheseventeenthcentury,theageofGalileoandtheScientificRevolution.Hisworkhasbeentakenup
byseveralAmericanhistorianswhohavelookedatJesuitscienceandmathematicsofthetime,notablybyFatherWilliamA.Wallace,O.P.,andProfessorsEdward
Grant,JohnHeilbron,SteveHarris,JamesLattis,etal.

 Page7

ManydistinguishedJesuitnamesinthedebatesabouttheteachingoftheologyandtheroleofmathematicsinthephilosophyprogramcompriseacommonelementin
LukacsandCosentino.St.Ignatius,JuandePolancoandDiegoLedesma,FrancisBorgiaandClaudeAcquaviva,FranciscoSurezandRobertBellarmine,Jerome
NadalandChristopherClavius,allarekeyfiguresinthetwoaccounts.AdmittedtotheSocietyin1555bySt.Ignatiushimself,Claviusisrememberedtoday
especiallyforhisworkontheGregorianCalendarreformof1582thatexemplifiedtheChurch'sroleinfashioningsocialstructureandreality.Bellarminethetheologian,
nowcanonizedandaDoctoroftheChurch,laterconsultedClaviusthemathematicianaboutGalileo'suseofthetelescopetosupportCopernicus'heliocentrism,as
geometricastronomypreparedtochallengetheChurch'sreadingoftheScripturesandAristotelianepistemology.EachRatioparticipantcontributedinsubstantial
measuretotheSociety'searlyintellectualapostolate,toprovidearichlegacyfortheirsuccessors,earlyandlate,Jesuitandlay,mathematician,philosopher,or
theologian,intheircrucialworkofservicetotheChurchandinculturationofthefaith.EachhelpedputintellectintheserviceofChristtheKing,inaEuropedividedby
theReformationandanticipatingtheEnlightenment,inaChinathatwelcomedMatteoRiccibearingClavius'geometryandastronomy,nolessthaninthemissionsof
theNewWorldthatneededtolearnhowtocomputethedateofEastereachyear.

TheModusParisiensis

JesuitacademicworkbeganatMessina,Sicily,asaspiritualworkofservicetotheneighborandaninculturationoftheCatholicfaithinalateMediterranean
Renaissancemilieu.ItsoonreachedSpain,Italy,GermanyandtheNorth.Cosentino,then,likeLukacs,hastoconsidertheinternalhistoryofRatiopedagogybothin
termsoftheapostolicnormsoftheGeneralConstitutionsandofthepedagogicalresourceswhichthetimesandplacesofferedthatwork.Themodusparisiensis,
the''Parisianstyle"ofeducationaladministrationwithahumanistbias,becameanespeciallyimportantresourcefortheSociety.

ParisianmethodsimpressedSt.IgnatiusandhisfirstJesuitcompanions,andJeromeNadaltoo.AllwereMastersofArtsoftheUniversityofParis,andwelldisposed
tohaveJesuitschoolsadaptfreelytheUniversity'shumanistandpedagogicaltraditionstotheirownapostolicgoals.FatherGeorgeGanss,S.J.,describedtheir
mindsetinhismonographSt.Ignatius'IdeaofaJesuitUniversity(Milwaukee:MarquetteUniversityPress,1954).

 Page8

Later,thoughlessaccessiblytoEnglishonlyreaders,FatherGabrielCodinaMir,anInstitutumHistoricumSocietatisIesucolleagueofFatherLukacs,providedRatio
scholars,CosentinoandLukacsincluded,aninvaluableresourceinhismonographAuxsourcesdelapedagogiedesJsuites:Le"Modusparisiensis"(Rome:
InstitutumHistoricumSocietatisIesu,1968).

IntheGeneralConstitutions,St.Ignatiuspromisedtheprovincesanordostudiorumfortheircollegesanduniversities.But,asLukacsandCosentinoeachobserve,
hewasatpainstoinsistthat,intheirfaithfulobservanceofitsdirectives,Jesuiteducatorsshouldadaptthemtoperson,place,andtime.Soitisnosurprisetofindthat
thisspiritofcallingonexperienceandadaptingtocircumstancesallavailableresources,themodusparisiensisincluded,andthenallowingrectorsandprofessors
discretionintheimplementationofestablishedRatiodirectives,pervadedthethinkingoftheCongregationsandcommitteeswhodraftedthedocumentthe
administratorsandteacherswhosemissionitwastoimplementtheRatioinheritedthesameIgnatianspiritfromthem.

IgnatianobedientdiscretionbecameaJesuiteducationaltradition,despitetheinclinationtoimposearigiduniformitythatLukacsnotedinsomekeyJesuitofficials.
TensionbetweenconformityandfreerangingexperimentationinteachingmathematicsnolessthantheologycontinuedtotestthatIgnatianspirituptotheSuppression.
AftertheRestorationoftheSocietyin1814,theRatiocontinuedtoregulateJesuitschools,thoughfarlesseffectivelyforlackofadaptationofitsRenaissance
curriculumtonewintellectualandsocialrealities.TherestoredSociety,stillinshockanddisarrayfromitsdispersion,wascautiousandconservativeinitsthinking.
UnliketheSocietyofIgnatius,Nadal,andBellarmine,itdidnothavethecouragetobeopentocontemporaryexperience.Itsrecoverywasslowandpainful.

Butitdidrecover.InnineteenthcenturyNorthAmerica,stillamissionaryfrontier,JesuitschoolswereopenedtohelpEuropeanimmigrantsenterthemainstreamof
Americanlife.Thestrengthofthateducationalapostolate,however,layatthesecondaryschoollevel.Notuntilthesecondhalfofthetwentiethcenturywerethereany
distinguishedJesuitcollegeundergraduateprograms.Graduateschoolprograms,withrareexception,weredismallymediocre.Onlywhensecularexternalacademic
associationssetstandardsforaccreditation,weretheJesuitschoolsmovedtoreviewtheircurricula,expandlibraryandlaboratoryfacilities,recruitqualifiedfaculty,
andrevitalizetheirintellectualapostolate.

 Page9

TheSociety's31stGeneralCongregation,convenedatRomein1965,promulgatedseveralincisivedecreesaboutJesuiteducationandtheintellectualapostolate.
MostnotablewereDecree28("TheApostolateofEducation"),Decree29("ScholarlyWorkandResearch"),andDecree30("CultivatingtheArtsintheSociety[of
Jesus]").HerewasasummonstodedicatedexcellencethemodernSocietyandAmericanJesuitsneededverymuchtohear,acalltorenewalofworkfortheChurch
thathadoncebeenadistinguishedpartofJesuithistory,asCosentinoandLukacslaterremindedus.TheCongregationdrewattentiontodocumentsoftheearly
SocietywrittenwhentheRatiowasbeingformulated,inparticulartotherecommendationsofClaviusthatlookedtothepromotionofmathematicalsciencesinthe
SocietyasameansofhelpingtheChurchinitsworkofinculturation.Citedalsowasthe"OrdinationonTrainingMathematicsTeachers''draftedbyBellarminein
1593,andpromulgatedbyFatherGeneralAcquaviva.

Significantly,the34thGeneralCongregationchallengedJesuitstodaytomaintainanddeepenthetradition,asthecontributorstoPromiseRenewedmakeeffortstodo
intheirindividualdisciplines.IfAcquaviva'sRatiostudiorumnolongergovernsschoolsoncefoundedbyJesuits,theunderlyingIgnatianspiritofprincipled
accommodationinservicetotheCatholicfaithisaliveandwellinmanyoftheircorridors,asthepagesofPromiseRenewedamplytestify.

BibliographicalNotes

Amoderncriticaleditionofthe1599RatiostudiorumisprintedinMonumentaPaedagogicaSocietatisIesu,tom.V,L.Lukacs,ed.(Roma:InstitutumHistoricum
SocietatisIesu,1986).NocompleteEnglishtranslationofthisannotatedcriticaltextispresentlyavailable.ButseetheplanographededitionTheJesuitRatio
Studiorumof1599,translatedintoEnglishwithanintroductionandexplanatorynotesbyAllanP.Farrell(Washington,D.C.:ConferenceofMajorSuperiors
ofJesuits,1970).

ThebibliographicalreferencesalreadygivensuggestthewealthofstudiesrelevanttotheearlyJesuittraditioninthemathematicalsciencesandtothehistoryofthe
writingoftheRatiostudiorum.AlthoughitisnotfeasibletolisthereacompletebibliographyevenofEnglishtitles,itisusefultoannotate,underthreecategories,
somerecentkeyreferences,especiallyEuropeanones,thatsuggesttheimportanceandplaceoftheLukacsandCosentinopapersinactivehistoricalresearch
programs,andtheconsiderableinterestaswellinPreSuppressionJesuitschoolsshown

 Page10

bygeneralhistoriansofmathematicsandculture.SystematicbibliographycompilationcanwellbeginwiththeBibliographicusConspectuspublishedyearlyin
ArchivumHistoricumSocietatisIesu(AHSI),whichlistsentriesaccordingtoindividualJesuitnames,e.g.,Clavius,countries,andtopics,suchasthehistoryofthe
Ratiostudiorum.TheconcisebibliographicalentriesinthequarterlyjournalHistoriaMathematicaarebyauthorandtitle,withkeycontentwordsappended.

ContextualStudies

Coyne,GeorgeV.,S.J.,M.A.HoskinandO.Pedersen.GregorianReformoftheCalendar.ProceedingsoftheVaticanConferencetoCommemorateits
400thAnniversary,15821982(VaticanCity:PontificiaAcademiaScientiarum/SpecolaVaticana,1983).PartIV(pp.137169)hasUgoBaldini'spaper
"ChristopherClaviusandtheScientificSceneinRome."BaldinievaluatesmathematicalactivityattheCollegioRomanopriorto1582,andthetechnicalnatureof
Clavius'workinastronomyandmathematicsthatwonhimapositionontheChurch'sCalendarReformCommittee.

Dear,PeterR.DisciplineandExperience:TheMathematicalWayintheScientificRevolution(Chicago:UniversityofChicagoPress,1995).Chapter2
("ExperienceandJesuitMathematicalScience:ThePracticalImportanceofMethodology")explainshowJesuitacademiccultureafterthe1599publicationofthe
Ratio"includedaplaceformathematicalsciencesthatinvolvedauniquemethodologicalconceptualizationoftheplaceofexperienceinthemakingofscientific
knowledge."Clavius,Blancanusetal.workedtoestablishmathematicsasascienceintheAristoteliansense,theissuethatwasatthecenteroftheDecertitudine
controversy,andtolinkmathematicswithphysics(naturalphilosophy)togenerateknowledgeoftherealworld.

Farrell,AllanP.,S.J.TheJesuitCodeofLiberalEducation:DevelopmentandScopeoftheRatioStudiorum(Milwaukee:Bruce,1938).Anold,butstill
valuabletreatment,andthelastmajorstudyoftheRatiobyanAmericanJesuit.

Ganss,GeorgeE.,S.J.TheConstitutionsoftheSocietyofJesus:TranslatedwithanIntroductionandaCommentary(St.Louis:InstituteofJesuitSources,
1970).AnapprovedtranslationoftheofficialLatintextpriortoitsrevisionmandatedbytheSociety's34thGeneralCongregation(forwhichseeinfraJ.W.Padberg,
S.J.).

 Page11

TheSpiritualExercisesofSaintIgnatius:ATranslationandCommentary(St.Louis:InstituteofJesuitSources,1992).Thecelebratedtextthatisthefoundation
oftheSocietyofJesusandJesuitapostoliclife.

Grant,Edward."InDefenseoftheEarth'sCentralityandImmobility:ScholasticReactiontoCopernicanismintheSeventeenthCentury,"Transactionsofthe
AmericanPhilosophicalSociety,n.s.,74(1984),pt.4.GrantexaminestheworkofJ.B.RiccioliandotherJesuitastronomersandmathematiciansdoneinsupport
oftheChurch's1633decisiontoputCopernicusontheIndexofForbiddenBooks.Theirbestcontributionwasaperceptivecritiqueofgapsanderrorsinthelogicof
theCopernicanswhichforcedthemtoimprovetheirtexts.TheJesuitscientists,whoweretrainedinClavius'RomanCollegeMathematicsAcademyandhisdoctrine
ofastronomicalrealism,werethemselvesconstrainedfromdevelopingheliocentricastronomy,andtheireffortstorefinethePtolemaicsystemorTychoBrahe'svariant
becameincreasinglyfutile.AdvancesinobservationalastronomyandthepublicationofIsaacNewton'sPrincipiaMathematicaultimatelymadetheirattemptsto
defendAristotelianphysics,Ptolemaicastronomy,andtheChurch'scondemnationofCopernicusandGalileoutterlyhopeless,asRogerBoscovich,Clavius'
eighteenthcenturysuccessorintheRomanCollegechairofmathematics,sawsoclearly.

Heilbron,JohnL.ElementsofEarlyModernPhysics(Berkeley:UniversityofCaliforniaPress,1982).Heilbronindicateshowintheseventeenthcenturythe
CatholicChurchwasthelargestinstitutionalpatronofexperimentalnaturalphilosophy(physics),andhowwithinthisstructuretheJesuitorderwasthesinglemost
importantcontributor.AccordingtohisreadingofSocietyarchives,JesuitsinclinedtoCopernicanastronomyandexperimentalphysicsoftenfeltmorecomfortable
working,withtheblessingofSuperiors,intheprovincesawayfromthesuspiciouseyesoftheRomanCollegeAristotelianestablishmentandtheInquisition.

Krayer,Albert.MathematikimStudienplanderJesuiten:DieVorlesungvonOttoCateniusanderUniversitatMainz(16101611)(Mathematicsinthe
JesuitRatioStudiorum:OttoCattenius'LecturesattheUniversityofMainz[16101611])(Stuttgart:FranzSteinerVerlag,1991).Thisspecializedstudyofthe
mathematicallecturesdownplaysClavius'influenceontheinstitutionalteachingofmathematics,controvertingearliermorepositiveestimatesbyFrancoisdeDainville,
S.J.,andothers.Krayernotesthe

 Page12

consequencesofthesharpdisciplinaryboundarytheAristotelianJesuitphilosophersestablishedbetweenmathematicsandnaturalphilosophy(physics)andthen
builtintotheJesuitcurriculum.

Lattis,JamesM.BetweenCopernicusandGalileo:ChristophClaviusandtheCollapseofPtolemaicCosmology(Chicago:UniversityofChicagoPress,1994).
BasedonLattis'1989UniversityofWisconsindoctoraldissertation,thebookprovidesabadlyneededbiographyofClavius,aswellasadetailedstudyofClavius'
monumentalcommentaryontheSphereofSacrobosco,amedievaltextofPtolemaicastronomy.Clavius'commentarywasusedduringhistenureasmathematics
professorattheRomanCollege,andapparentlyalsobyGalileoinhisearlyyearsofteachingattheUniversityofPisa.Ithadseveraleditions,andremainedastandard
textwellintotheseventeenthcentury.

Moss,JoanD.NoveltiesintheHeavens:RhetoricandScienceintheCopernicanControversy(Chicago:UniversityofChicagoPress,1993).Moss'accountof
Galileo'snewlyfounduseofrhetoricinpromotingheliocentrismconsiderstheRomanCollegeratiostudiorumandthemindsetoftheJesuitstrainedthere,Orazio
Grassi,ChristopherGrienberger,etal.,whodisputedwithGalileo.

Padberg,JohnW.,S.J.,gen.ed.TheConstitutionsoftheSocietyofJesusandTheirComplementaryNorms.ACompleteEnglishTranslationoftheOfficial
LatinTexts(St.Louis:InstituteofJesuitSources,1996).The33dGeneralCongregationmandatedarevisionoftheGeneralConstitutionsandSocietylawin
keepingwiththenewCodeofCanonLawfollowingVaticanCouncilII.The34thGeneralCongregationpromulgatedtherevisionsandtheComplementaryNorms.

Spence,JonathanD.TheMemoryPalaceofMatteoRicci(NewYork:VikingPress,1984).Spence,professorofChineseHistoryatYaleUniversity,analyzeshow
RicciusedastronomyandthegeometryofEuclid'sElementsthathelearnedfromClaviusattheRomanCollegeforapostolicpurposesattheEmperor'sCourtin
Beijing.RicciappealedtotheRomanCollegefortextbooksandJesuitastronomermathematicianstofollowuphisownworkofinculturationoftheGospelinChina.
FathersAdamSchallvanBellandFerdinandVerbiestwereamongthosemissionedthere.

Wallace,WilliamA.,O.P.,GalileoandHisSources:TheHeritageoftheCollegioRomanoinGalileo'sScience(Princeton:PrincetonUniversityPress,1984).
Anexhaustivelyresearcheddetectionof

 Page13

Galileo'searlyprofessorialuseoflecturenoteswrittenbyRomanCollegeprofessorsinthelate1580s,alongwithadescriptionofeducationalpracticeinthe
CollegeatthetimeofthedevelopmentoftheRatio.Afterthedemisein1612ofhismathematicalcolleagueClavius,GalileofelloutwiththeRomanCollege
Jesuits,andthebittercontroversiesoversunspotsandheliocentrismensued.

TheDeCertitudineMathematicarumControversy

ExtensiveresearchsubsequenttoGilbert's1960monographandCosentino's1970paperhasshedconsiderablelightontheDecertitudinecontroversy,andonthe
interplaybetweentheevolvingintellectualcultureandtheteachersinthenewJesuiteducationalapostolate.Anotableinstancewherethecontroversyfigureslargeis
themagisterialstudyofProfessorPaulLawrenceRose:TheItalianRenaissanceofMathematics:StudiesonHumanistsandMathematiciansfromPetrarchto
Galileo(Geneva:Droz,1975).Subsequently,OxfordprofessorAlisdairC.Crombieexaminedthedisputeinhisnote"MathematicsandPlatonisminSixteenth
CenturyItalianUniversitiesandinJesuitEducationalPolicy"thatappearedinPRISMATA:NaturwissenschaftsgeschictlicheStudien[FestschriftfrWilly
Hartner],Y.MaeyamaandW.G.Salzer,eds.(Wiesbaden:FranzSteinerVerlag,1977),pp.6394.FrederickA.Homann,S.J.,setthedebateintermsofClavius'
celebrated1574textCommentaryonEuclid'sElementsin"ChristopherClaviusandtheRenaissanceofEuclideanGeometry,"AHSI52(1983),pp.23336.

G.C.Giacobbestudiedindividualdisputantsinpapersfrom1972onwards.Twoareespeciallypertinent:"Epigoninelseicentodella'Quaestiodecertitudine
mathematicarum':GiuseppeBiancani,"Physis18(1976),pp.540,and"Ungesuitaprogressistanella'Quaestiodecertitudinemathematicarum':BenitoPereyra,"
Physis19(1977),pp.5186.AdditionaldataonBiancani(Blancanus)canbefoundinthecollectionofpapersbyUgoBaldini,Legemimponesubactis:Studisu
filosophiaescienzadeigesuitiinItalia15401632(Legemimponesubactis:StudiesinthePhilosophyandScienceofJesuitsinItaly15401632)(Rome:
Bulzoni,1992),ch.6,andpassim.(AnEnglishtranslationhasbeenannouncedbytheUniversityofChicagoPress.)Pereyra(Pereira),Clavius'RomanCollege
antagonist,figuresintherecentcomprehensivetreatmentofProfessorAnnaDePace,Lematematicheeilmondo:RicherchesuundibattitoinItalianella
secondametadelCinquecento(MathematicsandtheWorld:StudiesonaDebateinItalyintheSecondHalfoftheSixteenthCentury)(Milan:Francoangeli,
1993).

 Page14

JesuitCollegeMathematicsPrograms

Cosentino'snextpaperintheDomusGalileanaInstitute'sprogram,"L'Insegnamentodellematematicheneicollegigesuiticinell'ltaliasettentrionale:Nota
introduttiva"("MathematicsInstructioninJesuitCollegesofNorthernItaly.IntroductoryNote"),Physis13(1971),pp.20517(Englishtranslation:thisvolume,pp.
8195),emphasizedtheneedtostudytheactualteachingofmathematicsinJesuitcolleges,especiallyItalianones,duringandafterthedevelopmentoftheRatio.He
listedbrieflysomeavailableresourcesthatcanillustratetheeffetsofimplementingtheRatiointheseventeenthcentury.ThesearefoundmostofallinSocietyprovince
cataloglistsofmembersaccordingtohouseandassignment,andinindividualcollegeorhousediaries,butalsointheschooltextbooksandresearchpapersthatJesuit
mathematicalscientistsproduced.Thattheytookupmathematicsenthusiasticallyadmitsnodoubt.PerusaloftheDictionaryofScientificBiography(C.C.Gillespie,
ed.,NewYork:VanNostrand,1974etseq.)showsthatby1650twentysevenJesuitshadachievedappropriatescientificeminencetomeritentrythere.Sixteenwere
professorsofmathematicssevenmoreatotherpostswroteonthemathematicalsciences.

KarlA.F.FischersoonfollowedupCosentino'slead,andcatalogedJesuitmathematiciansintheGerman,French,andItalianAssistanciesoftheSocietyuptothe
1762SuppressioninFrance,and1773elsewhere:"JesuitenMathematikerinderdeutschenAssistanzbis1773,"AHSI47(1978),pp.159224,and"Jesuiten
MathematikerinderfranzosischenunditalienischenAssistanzbis1762bzw.1773,"AHSI52(1983),pp.5292.ThiscomplementedtheworkofFranoisde
Dainville,S.J.,"L'EnseignementdesmathmatiquesdanslescollgesjsuitesdeFranceduXVIeauXVIIIesicle,"Revued'histoiredessciencesetdeleurs
applications7,nn.12(1954),pp.621,10223.Similarly,FatherOmervanderVyver,S.J.,consideredGregoryofSt.VincentandthedistinguishedAntwerp
schoolofJesuitgeometersthathaditsrootsinClavius'RomanCollegemathematicsacademy:"L'coledemathmatiquesdesJsuitesdelaprovinceFlandroBelge
auXVIIIesicle,''AHSI49(1980),pp.26578.

MorelocalizedisthestudyofR.Gatto,TraScienzaeImmaginazione:LeMatematichePressoilCollegioGesuiticoNapoletano[15521670ca.](Between
ScienceandPoetry:MathematicsintheJesuitCollegeofNaples[1552c.1670])(Florence:Olschki,1994).Cf.alsoStevenJ.Harris,"Leschairesde
mathematiques,"inLesJsuiteslaRenaissance,L.Giard,ed.

 Page15

(Paris:PressesUniversitairesdeFrance,1995),pp.23961,and"TransposingtheMertonThesis:ApostolicSpiritualityandtheEstablishmentoftheJesuitScientific
Tradition,"ScienceinContext3(1989),pp.2965.

TheEncounterbetweenCatholicismandScience

CrucialastheywerefortheSociety'sapostolateofintellectualinculturanon,implementationoftheRatiostudiorum,academicfreedomforJesuittheologians,and
decisionsabouttheroleofmathematicsintheJesuitcurriculum,allinevitablyfiguredinthespreadofCopernicanismandthecondemnationofGalileo.Todaythe
amountofliteratureonthetopicisexperiencingexponentialgrowth.Goodexamplesarethepapersfroma1981internationalconferenceheldattheUniversityof
Wisconsin,Madison,thatareprintedinGodandNature:HistoricalEssaysontheEncounterbetweenChristianityandScience,DavidC.LindbergandRonald
L.Numbers,eds.(Berkeley:UniversityofCaliforniaPress,1986).OfspecialinterestforJesuitstudiesareRobertS.Westman,"CopernicansandtheChurch,"pp.
76113,andWilliamB.Ashworth,Jr.,"CatholicismandEarlyModernScience,"pp.13666.

ValuabletooisTheCambridgeCompaniontoGalileo,PeterK.Machamer,ed.(NewYork:CambridgeUniversityPress,1998).SeeespeciallyRivkaFeldhay,
"TheUseandAbuseofMathematicalEntities:GalileoandtheJesuitsRevisited,"ch.3,pp.80145,thattakesupquestionstreatedintheauthor'stextGalileoand
theChurch:PoliticalInquisitionorCriticalDialogue?(NewYork:CambridgeUniversityPress,1995).FeldhayfirstexaminedthewallofseparationtheJesuit
Aristotelianserectedbetweenmathematicsandnaturalphilosophy(physics),andtheneedtomaintainit,inheressay"KnowledgeandSalvationinJesuitCulture,"
ScienceinContext1(1987),pp.195213.IftheJesuits'culturalorientationpositedthevitaactivaatthecenteroftheirworldview,theyalsosawtheireducational
enterpriseasakindofapostolicactivityhelpingtoachievesalvation.Nonetheless,fromFeldkay'spointofviewofthehistoryofWesternscience,the1599publication
oftheRatiostudiorumwasthe"lostmoment''oftheJesuiteducationalprogram.Clavius'attempttomodifytheAristotelianThomisticprinciplesoftheorganizationof
knowledgewasthwarted.Thelanguageofconformityprevailedeventhoughthetextbetrayedthehistoricalpossibilityofabreakthroughtomodernity,apossibility
thatremainedlargelyunactualized.

 Page17

AHistoryoftheRatioStudiorum
LadislausLukacs,S.J.

PartI
TheOriginandProgressoftheJesuitOrderofStudies

Chapter1
TheStartofCollegesandExternMinistry

1
CollegesforJesuitScholastics

St.Ignatiusandhisfirstcompanionsproposedtofoundanewapostolicreligiousordertomeettheneedsofthetimes.Preachingthefaithininfidellandsandits
defenseagainstheresyeverywherebecametheirtoppriority.Theorderwantedtorecruitonlymaturemen,learnedandstronginthefaith,butsoonrealizedhowfew
therewereavailable.Itbecamenecessarytoadmityoungmenandassignthemtohousesnearprestigiousuniversitieswheretheycouldlearnthenecessarydisciplines,
asotherreligiousordersdid.Jesuithouses,however,werenotlikethoseofotherorders.Theywerecompletelyindependent,neitherattachedtonorincorporatedinto
theuniversities.AlthoughJesuitscholasticsalonewereadmittedtothem,thesehouses,nevertheless,didnotsponsoranyspecialorgeneralacademicprogramsforthe
scholastics,whoinsteadheardtheuniversitylectures.By1544thereweresevenofthesehousesorcolleges,atParis,Coimbra,Padua,Louvain,Cologne,Valencia,
andAlcal.

2
TeachingMinistryStarted

Collegepracticewassoonmodified.First,Jesuitswerequicklyforcedtodropthepolicythat"nolecturesaretobeheldinthehouse."Universitylectureswerefew,
prolix,andwithoutappropriatestudentexercises.Toavoidmakingthescholastics'studiesundulylong,theJesuitsbegantoteachsomedisciplinesintheirownhouses.
Atthesametime,anotherinnovation,perhapsofgreatermoment,occurredinIndia.InGoa,in1542,thebishoparrangedfortwoJesuitstoteachboysinhisdiocesan

 Page18

seminarytoreadandwrite,andelementsofLatinaswell.WiththisbeganaJesuiteducationalministrythatwastoevolvegloriouslyovertheyears.Thoughteaching
wasnotexpresslylistedintheSociety'sFormulaInstituti,itisappropriatelycountedamong"worksofcharity,"sothattheinnovationinnowaydeviatedfromthe
originalspiritoftheInstitute(assomeJesuitslaterfeared),butshouldonlybeseenasanapostolicdevelopment.

3
ExternSchoolsApproved

AftertheseinnovationsnothingpreventedSt.Ignatiusin1548fromacceptingendowmentsforhousesinGandia,Spain,andMessina,Italy,thatsponsoredpublic
lectures.ThesewerethefirstonesestablishedforbothJesuitsandexterns.TheMessinacollegeenjoyedextraordinaryimportance,andnotjustasanewapostolate
forinstructionofyouth.Itsplanofstudies,devisedbyFatherNadaladmodumparisiensem,"accordingtothemodelofParis,"reachedouttothewholeSociety.

Chapter2
OrderandImplementationofStudies

St.Ignatiusandhissuccessorscontributedagreatdealtothedevelopmentofaprogramofstudies.SopriortoahistoryoftheRatiostudiorumitself,asurveyof
whatFatherAcquaviva'spredecessorsaccomplishedisinorder,alongwithareviewofthemoreimportantpreparatorydocumentsandversions.

A
ActsandDecrees:
15411556

a
StudiesforJesuitScholastics

OnceSt.Ignatiusdecidedtoadmityoungmenwhoweretobeeducatedintheappropriatedisciplines,hehadtodetermineanacademicprogramfortheirformation.

1
FundacindeCollegio

Thebasicnormsofthatacademicprogramweresketchedinthe1541documentFundacindeCollegio,Paragraph13,insistedthatthegoalofstudiesinthe
Societywasasupernatural,apostolic,andpracticalone:itwastoinstructmembersinthesacredsciencestheyneededtoevangelizeeffectivelyandtodefendthefaith.
Firstneededwasasolidfoundationin

 Page19

"litteraehumaniores."Afterthatthemenweretobethoroughlytrainedinphilosophyandtheology.Thebetterstudentscouldbeawardedacademicdegreesformore
authoritativeexerciseofministry.Theprogramcouldbemodified,withfeaturesaddedorremovedtomeettheneedsoftime,place,andpersons,fortheserviceofthe
Church.Notsurprisingly,thesebasicnormsrecurredinalmostalllaterdecreesonstudies.

2
PaduaCollegeConstitutions

Writtenasitwasforprospectivecollegebenefactors,FundacindeCollegioprovidedwise,evenifjejune,norms.Academichouserectorsneededamoreexplicit
documentonprogramimplementation,whichin1545St.Ignatiuspromisedthem.InSeptember1546,somescholasticssentfromRometoPadua,brought
constitutions,writteninItalianandadaptedforuseinthathouse.Theywereinfourparts,thefirstparttreatingtheprogramofstudies.Itssixthparagraphspecifiedthe
studiesrequired,and,importantly,thestudentexercises,sinceSt.IgnatiusandhiscompanionsadmiredtheParisiancolleges,andproposedthemasmodelsinthe
GeneralConstitutions.

3
Polanco'sIndustriaeandConstitutionesCollegiorum(15471550)

In1547St.IgnatiuscalledFatherPolancotoRomefromPadua,wherethatyearhehadcompletedhisstudies,toassisthimwiththeGeneralConstitutions.The
projectbegantomovewell,andSt.Ignatiuscouldnothavefoundamoreindustriousanddocileaide.Butbecausethewritingtookmoretimethanallowedforan
earlymailingtotheprovinces,St.IgnatiusinstructedPolancotodraftaninstructionfortheinterimregulationofthescholastics'formationandliterarystudies.

Polancorespondedwithtwovaluabledocuments,theIndustriaeandtheConstitutionesCollegiorum.Bothlistedstudytopicsimportantforscholastics,andgave
newnormsfortheiradmissiontostudies.Fundacinconsideredonlythescholasticsdestinedforliterary,philosophical,ortheologicalstudies.Industriae,onthe
otherhand,dividedthescholasticsintotwogroups:thosegivingpromiseofacademicexcellence,andtheothers.Thefirstgroupweretostudyphilosophyand
theologyindepth,thesecond,notsomuch.ConstitutionesCollegiorum,inturn,classifiedscholasticsas"distinguished"or"mediocre,"andbarredthelatterfromthe
studyofphilosophyortheology.ThisnormfounditswayintotheGeneralConstitutions.

 Page20

4
ScholasticStudiesintheGeneralConstitutions

AlthoughSt.Ignatiuspromisedthemconstitutions,andforthatreasonthecollegesverymuchwantedthem,muchtoeveryone'ssurprise,theConstitutiones
Collegiorumwereneversenttothecolleges,evenafterPolanco'scarefulrevision.Perhapstheprincipalreasonwasthatin1550theoldesttextoftheGeneral
Constitutionshadalreadybeenwritten,andSt.Ignatiusaimedtopromulgateitsoon.Also,therewasbythattimeanewkindofcollege,onethathadlecturesopen
toall.IncomposingConstitutionesCollegiorumPolancohadinmindonlycollegesdesignedforinstructionofJesuits.Newcollegeshadbeenopenedin1546at
Gandia,andin1548atMessina,andbecauseofthelargenumberofexternstudentsenrolled,theyneededdifferentconstitutionsandrules.

ThattheIndustriaeandConstitutionesCollegiorumreallyachievedPolanco'sgoalisclearsincetheirprovisionsmadetheirwayintotheGeneralConstitutions.
Theirtopicsarecommon:howtofindcandidatesfortheSociety,theirrequisitequalities,howtofostertheirspiritualgrowthandphysicalhealth,instructionindoctrine
andletters,preparingthemforfruitfulapostolicministryandassignmentintheLord'svineyardoncetheyhavefinishedstudies,and,finally,thegovernanceand
preservationoftheSociety.

b
StudiesinJesuitSchoolsforExterns

WhenanewcollegewithpubliclectureswasstartedatMessinain1548,FatherJeromeNadal,thecollegerector,askedforadirective,orconstitutionsfor
supervisionofitslectureprogram.FatherOrviedo,therectoratGandia,didlikewise.St.Ignatiusinturnaskedbothtocomposedirectivesandtosubmitthemto
Romeforapprobation.

1
UniversityofGandiaStatutes(15491550)

FatherAraoz,theSpanishprovincial,FatherMiron,therectoratValencia,andFatherRojas,thesuperioratZaragoza,allcollaboratedwithOrviedotodraftstatutes
basedforthemostpartontheUniversityofValenciaconstitutions,butadaptedadmodumparisiensem.Whattheywrote,however,didnottreatpedagogical
practice,butalmostonlyexaminationmethodsandtheconferralofacademicdegrees.

2
TheMessinaConstitutions(1548)

AtMessina,Nadalalsofinishedworkin1548.Histext,lookingonlytopubliclecturesandexternstudents,hadtwosections.Thefirstgavegeneralprinciplesand
methodsoffosteringdevotioninyoungstudents.

 Page21

Theothersectionoutlinedlectureschedulesandthedistributionofstudies:thevariousclassesofgrammarandliterarystudies,GreekandHebrew,philosophyand
mathematics,andthenscholastictheologyandSacredScripture.Casuistryclassesandsomescholasticexerciseswerealsoincluded.HisMessinaconstitutionswere
harbingersofallsubsequentstudyprograms,andforthisreasontheirinfluenceontheRatiostudiorumisallthemorepervasive.In1549Nadaltranscribedthemfor
useofanewcollegeatPalermo.WhenthisnewsreachedSpain,Aroazwroteforacopy.St.Ignatius,too,wantedtheMessinaconstitutionssubmittedtothescrutiny
oftheJesuitshehadsummonedtoRomein1550tostudytheGeneralConstitutions,andontheirapproval,senttotheotherJesuitcolleges.WhentheSociety
startedpubliclecturesinRomein1551,St.IgnatiusthoughttomodelRomanpracticeafterthatofMessina.SoNadaltookpainstodescribetheMedinapracticeand
reportedittoRome,whenceitwassoonwidelydiffused.ThemodusmessanensisbecamearesourceforthewholeSociety,andtheMessinacollegetheprototype
ofalltheSociety'sexterncolleges.

3
TheModusParisiensisModel

ToNadal'scredit,headaptedtotheSociety'spurposesatMessina,andthereimplemented,themodusparisiensisthatearlyJesuitsthoughtsofarsuperiortothe
modusitalicus.InParisthefacultywasthendominantintheuniversityinItaly,thestudentbody.LectureswereheldinuniversityaffiliatedcollegesinParisinItaly,in
theuniversityitself.ParishadeffectivestudentsupervisionItalyallowedstudentsgreatfreedom.Acarefullydeterminedcurriculumboundprofessorandstudentalike
inParis,withfrequentprofessoriallecturesfollowedbyappropriatestudentexercises.Distinctgroupsweredesignated,andstudentsenrolledbyacademicdiscipline.
Eachclasshaditsproperprofessorandsyllabus.Studentswerepromotedonlyaftercarefulexamination.Studentsandinstructorswereclose:theprofessorcould
monitorastudent'sprogress.TheSocietyprizedthesefeaturesofthemodusparisiensisabovewhatthemodusitalicusoffered.Youngpersonsprogressedbetter
andfasterintheParisiansystem.

4
TheRomanCollege:
AlmaMaterofAllJesuitColleges

FromitsverybeginningtheRomanCollegeplayedaspecialroleinJesuiteducation.St.IgnatiussawitasthesourceofSocietyteachers:"FromtheRomanCollege,
likeaspring,toquoteFatherLedesma(itsfirstdean),thereshouldemanateteachers,andschools,andfacultiesforother

 Page22

places.Menshouldbefosteredandtrainedhere,sotheycanteachandsharethegoodthingstheCollegehasgiventhem."Andso,eveninSt.Ignatius'lifetime,
instructionsforJesuitsmissionedtoneweducationalapostolatesofteninsistedthattheytakeRomanCollegepracticeastheirmodelforstudiesandacademic
procedure.TherulesPolancowrotein1551fortherectoroftheRomanCollegewereimmediatelysenttotheprovinces,andtheConstitutionsrecommendedtheir
use.

5
UniversityStudiesintheConstitutions

PromotionoftheGandiaandMessinaprogramstouniversitylevelmovedSt.Ignatiustothinkofpreparinganorderofgeneralstudies,i.e.,universitylevelwork.Such
aplanhadalreadybeenpromisedforbothcollegesanduniversitiesintheoldesttextoftheConstitutions,writtenin15471550.However,nothingofthesortis
foundintheearlierorsecondtextoftheConstitutions.Onlyattheendof1553,orearly1554,werethesevenchaptersdealingwithuniversitieswrittenbySt.
IgnatiusandinsertedafterthetenchaptersoftheFourthPartoftheConstitutions.Hewantedtolearntherightpathfromexpertsandexperience.Sohedecreedthat
theGandiaandMessinarectorsshoulddevelopguidelinesandfollowthem"untiltheSuperiorGenerallegislate[s]foralltheuniversities."HeaskedtheGandiarector
tostudytheconstitutionsoftheuniversitiesatValencia,Alcal,Salamanca,andCoimbra,andtoforwardthemtoRome.Hewantedcopiesoftheconstitutionsofthe
universitiesatParis,Louvain,Cologne,Bologne,andPadua,"toseewhatotheruniversitiesdo,howtoimproveourprocedures,howtheywritegeneralconstitutions,
andhowthiscouldservetheSociety'suniversitiesandcolleges."DocumentsofFathersOlaveandNadal,bothseasonededucators,alsoproveduseful:Olave'sOrder
ofLecturesandExercisesFollowedintheJesuitUniversity,andNadal'sOrderandArrangementoftheStudiumGenerale.Onlyafterhestudiedtheirtexts
didSt.Ignatiuswrite,withPolanco'shelp,theuniversitychaptersthatprescribedthedisciplinestobetaught,theirorderandmethod,thebooksused,curriculaand
academicdegrees,thereligiouslifeofthestudents,anduniversityadministration.Althoughtheytouchedallbasicandnecessarymatters,thechapterswerejuridicalin
nature,andsaidlittleaboutprogramimplementation.TheConstitutions,however,promisedfulltreatmentofthesetopicselsewhere.

 Page23

B
ProgramDifficulties:
15571580

1
TheRomanCollegeRatioStudiorum(1558)

SuccessorstoSt.Ignatiusdidnotoverlookhispromiseofaprogramofstudies.TheobligationfellmostofalltotheRomanCollegewhoseprofessors,mindfulofit
andatthebehestofsuperiors,in1557summarizedtheirclassordersandpedagogicalmethods.TheydraftedatthesametimeanewratiostudiorumfortheCollege
thatmembersoftheFirstGeneralCongregation(1558)copiedforuseintheirownschools.Yetitstracesweresocompletelyerasedthatitwasnosimplemattereven
toproveitsexistenceorlocateacopy.Althoughquitebrief,andsketchyinparts,thatRomanCollegeRatioforeshadowedlaterformulations.Foralongwiththe
orderofclassestherewererulesfortheprefectofstudies,theteachers,andthestudents.FatherNadal,VisitortotheGermanAssistancyin1562,adaptedittothe
situationthere.Heelaboratedtheorderofclasses,andamplifiedtherulesfortheprefectofstudies.NorthernJesuitschoolswereheldtothisOrdountil1570,when
RomesentthefirstRatiostudiorum,preparedatFatherGeneralBorgia'srequest,andpromulgatedinhisnameforthewholeSociety.

2
Borgia'sRatioStudiorum(15651572)

In1563/4theRomanCollegemetatlengthtoevaluateitsstudyprogram.FatherLedesma,Collegeprefectandchairmanofthesessions,meticulouslyinformedFather
GeneralLanezabouttheproceedings,andproposedaction,recommending"thattherebeabooktocontainexplicitlyandindetailthecompleteprogramofstudies,
bothforthisandfortheothercollegesthathavegrammarclasses,orlecturesinotherfaculties,andthattheprogrambedescribedexplicitlyandspecificallyforeach
classandfaculty,foreachofficeandoperation,foracademicacts,disputations,andliteraryexercisesandthatwiththediscerningjudgmentofsuperiors,itbe
implemented,withnochangeswhatever,unlessmadebythehighestcounciloftheSociety,sothatatlastwehaveadefiniteprogramthattheprefectofstudiesandthe
professorsmustfollow."

FatherLanez,St.Ignatius'immediatesuccessor,onhisreturnfromTrenttoRomeinearly1564,toldtheRomanCollegeprofessorstodraftsucharatiostudiorum.
NeitherthesuddendeathofLanezinJanuary1565,northesubsequentGeneralCongregationdelayedtheirwork,sothatbytheendof1565theparttreating"litterae
humaniores"wasalreadycompleted.Acommissionthenrevisedit,andattheendof1569itwas

 Page24

distributedtotheprovinces.Thefirstcommon,comprehensiveratiostudiorum,itwaspromulgatedbyorderandauthorityofFatherGeneralFrancisBorgia,and
appropriatelycalledBorgia'sRatiostudiorum.Thedocument'simportancecomesfromitsuseuntil1591whentheSocietyreceivedthetemporaryRatiostudiorum
ofFatherGeneralClaudeAcquaviva.BorgiaallowedlocalsuperiorsconsiderableleewayinimplementinghisRatio.ItsprefaceechoedtheConstitutions:
"Everythingprescribedheremustbeadaptedtoplace,time,andpersons,althoughtheprogramshouldbeobservedasmuchaspossible."

Borgiahadrulesfortheprefectofstudies,preceptors,Jesuitscholastics,externstudents,andthecorrectororbeadle.Alongessayfollowedtherules,listingthe
gradesofeachclass,thedisciplinestaught,miscellaneousexercises,examinations,andschedules.AlthoughBorgia'sRatioforeshadowedthefinalformoftheJesuit
program,Ledesma,whogotthetextforcriticism,neverthelessthoughtitwasinadequate.True,itspecifiedwhat,where,when,andbywhomthingsweretohappenin
theschool,butitdidnotexplainhowallthatwastobedone.Hisremarksareofinteresttoteachers:"Idon'tthinkitissufficienttoprescribeaprogramofstudiesin
vagueandgeneralterms.Itshouldspecifyforeachclassandexercisethebestplanandmethodfortheinstructortofollow."Yetnoteventhedefinitive1599Ratio
studiorumescapedthedefectLedesmabemoaned.

AtthissametimeRomedevelopedbotharatiofor"litteraehumaniores"andoneforphilosophy(Deartiumliberaliumstudiis),andtheyweresentatleasttoafew
provinces.Thereis,however,noevidencethattheprovincesalsoreceivedatheologicalsection(Desacraetheologiaestudiis).WeknowonlythattheRoman
Collegeexperimentedwithit.

3
LibertasOpinandiandDelectusOpinionum

In1571thepartofBorgia'sRatiothattreatedscholasticphilosophywasreadytobesenttotheprovinces.NeverthelessthatdidnothappenbeforeBorgia'sdeaththe
nextyear.Notsurprisingly,theprovincesin1573petitionedtheGeneralCongregationtogetthisimportantpartfinishedandpromulgated.TheRomanprovince
congregation,forexample,wrotethat"Experienceshowsthegreatadvantageinkeepingallpossibleuniformityintheologyandphilosophy,sofarascircumstances
allow,andintheteachingmethodsofourSociety'scollegesaswell.WeasktheGeneralCongregationthatacommonFormulabeimposed,orthatsomemethod,
developedcarefullyatRomeandtakingintoaccountothers'opinions,bedraftedandgivenofficialsanction."FatherEdward

 Page25

Mercurian,thenewGeneral,reportedthat"UniformityandmethodinphilosophyandtheologyhavebeencarefullystudiedhereatRome.Theworkdonewillbesent
firsttotheprovincesfortheircomments....Afterthat,aratiostudiorumcanbeprescribedwithconfidencefortheSociety."

FatherGeneral'swishtohearthewholeSocietybeforedecidingthiscomplexanddifficultmatterissomethingquitenew.YetduringMercurian'sgeneralatetherewas
neitherconsultationofthewholeSocietynorwasthescholastictheologypartofBorgia'sRatiodistributed.In1579,shortlybeforehisdeath,Mercurianrepliedtothe
Peruviancongregationthat"Withthedivinehelp,itwillsoonbepromulgated."Thechief,ifnotonlycauseofthelongdelayaroseintheRomanCollegewhereonce
againbittercontroversiesragedaboutfreedomofchoiceinspeculativetheology.

TheproblemfirstarosetherewhenLanezwasGeneral,andlaterelsewhere.Becausetherewasnoofficiallysanctionedtheologicalauthor,eachprofessorchosehis
owndoctrine.AgravecrisisarosefortheunityoftheSociety'steaching.TheRomanprovincecongregationin1568openlyfacedthedanger:"Thegreatestcauseof
ignoranceandconfusionisthatsoliddoctrineisnotexplainedintheliberalartscurriculum,butinsteadyoungandinexperiencedinstructorsdeveloptheirown
doctrine."Twovaluesclashed:doctrinalorthodoxyandprofessorialfreedominresearch.Controversyherecouldundermineunionofmindsandhearts.AndsoJesuits
oftenaskedprofessorsnottointroducenewdoctrineswithoutthepermissionofsuperiors.Fearandaversiontoanythingnewintensifiedthestruggleformanyofthem.

FatherToledowasthefirstRomanCollegetheologiancriticizedbyotherJesuitsforhisviewsonpredestination.In1561,however,herecurredtoLanez,thenatthe
CouncilofTrent,whodidnotforcehimtorevisetheopinionsthathadbeenchallenged.Thequestionwasopen,andtheChurchhaddefinednothingtothecontrary,
sothatFatherGeneralcouldreplythat"TheSocietyshouldnotprescribeparticularopinions(asonpredestination)sorigorouslyastocondemnothers,weaken
charity,orgivescandal."FatherBenedictPeirerawasseverelycastigated,especiallybyLedesmaandGagliardi,forhisphilosophicalAverroism.Bittercontroversy
brokeoutintheupperGermanprovinceaboutdoctrinalorthodoxy.FatherPisa,aSpaniard,wasaccusedoffosteringnewopinions.Theprovincial,FatherHoffaeus,
onmandateofFatherGeneral,wasobligedtowriteanextensivedirectiveaboutobligatorydoctrinetoeffectatroubledpeaceamongtheJesuits.Another
distinguishedprofessorintheprovince,GregoryofValencia,honoredfor

 Page26

defenseoftheCatholicfaiththereinGermanywasdenouncedasunorthodox,andHoffaeushadtodefendhimtotheGeneral.EventhepreeminentJesuittheologian
Surezstoodaccusedofthecrimeofrenovation.InalettertotheGeneralin1579,heprotestedhisinnocenceofthefault,andindicatedhowheheldcommon
positions,andinmethodologydifferedonlyinsignificantlyfromcommonpractice.

Hoffaeusknewhowdifficultitwasfortheologianstoworkamidrabiddemandsfordoctrinaluniformity.In1578heproposedtoFatherGeneralthat''inspeculative
matters,whereonecanmakeachoicewithoutdangertothefaithorscandalizingothers,professorsshouldbeaccordedgenuinefreedom,forifwesqueezetheir
brainstoomuch,wemaydrawblood."FatherGeneral'sresponsesupportedHoffaeus'spaternalbenevolence"withinreason,"notingthat"itseemsagoodideathat
theirworkisnotsorestricted,andthattheybegivensomespaceIapprove,butwithinreason(intramodum).Becarefulwhenyouletthemmoveandworkinso
manydirectionsthattheydon'timprisonthemselvesinabstruseandinaccessibletopicsfromwhichtheycan'textricatethemselves."Nadalhadawisesolutiontothe
problem:accordingtohisnorm,thePortugueseprofessorscouldstudyprobableopinionsprivately,butinpubliclecturestheyshouldprofessmorecertainand
approveddoctrine,astheSociety'sConstitutionsprescribed.

Intheologytheclashbetweendoctrinalcertaintyandintellectualfreedomisfraughtwithgreatdanger,sinceherefaithisatrisk.Ledesma,whotriedeverythingto
restrictfreedom,wasthefirstJesuittocompilealistofthesesthatprofessorshadtoteach.In1564hewrotetoFatherGeneral:"Amongtheopinionsthattouchthe
faith,lettheprofessorsdefendthosewehavelistedonaseparatesheet,andletthemopposetheircontraries."FatherGeneralBorgia,promptlyadoptingLedesma's
positiononobligatoryquestions,publishedin1565adecree"Thesesthataretobetaughtanddefendedinphilosophyandtheology,"thefirstdocumentofitskindin
theSociety.Ledesma,itssourceandguidinglight,uphelditvigorously,evenafterBorgia'sdeath.Ina1574memorandumtoFatherMercurian,thenewGeneral,he
arguedatlengththat"itisnotonlyforbiddentoteachanythingagainstorevenlessconsistentwiththefaith,butevenmore,certainspecificopinionsarebanned
opinionsthatseemneededorusefultofostersounddoctrinearemandated."Ledesmadiedthefollowingyear.HefoundinFatherTucciaworthysuccessorfor
defenseofdoctrinalorthodoxy.Tuccialsocompiledalistoftheseswhichwillbereviewedattheappropriatetime.

 Page27

PartII
PreparationoftheRatioStudiorum15811599

Chapter1
ResultsandDecisions:
15811582

A
TheRatioStudiorumandtheFourthGeneralCongregation(1581)

AfterFatherGeneralMercurian'sdeath,theprovinceswantedevenmoretheratiostudiorumpromisedthem.ThePolishcongregationspokeforthewholeSociety:
"Thecongregationrequeststhatthispostulatebeamongthoseaccepted:thatRomefinallyissuearatiostudiorumcommontothewholeSocietyasfaraspossible."A
Neapolitanprovincepostulateisalsonotable:"ThecongregationwishestheGeneralCongregationtodecidewhichphilosophicalandtheologicalthesesofthose
ReverendFatherBorgiamandated,Oursaretoholdinthefuture."Clearly,thequestionofintellectualfreedomwasnotatalldormant,butamattertheGeneralthey
weretoelectwasexpectedtohandleforthrightly.AlthoughtheFourthGeneralCongregationestablishedaspecialtwelvemancommissionto"determinearatio
studiorum,"yetbecauseofmanydifficultiesinherentintheprogramandlackoftime,thecommitteeaccomplishedlittle.

B
ConsultationsandtheDecreeofObligatorySocietyDoctrine(1582)

FatherAcquaviva,thenewGeneral,thoughtthequestionofobligatorydoctrineshouldbeoneofthefirstresolved.HisresponsetotheNeapolitanprovincereflected
hispriorities:"Acompleteratiostudiorumnowinpreparationwillprescribepolicyabouttheologicaloptions.Inthemeantimetheprovinceswillgetaninstructionthat
explainsproceduresforunityandsolidityofdoctrineandopinion."Hisfirststatementalsogivesussomefreshdata.Scholarscommonlyheldthatnothinghadbeen
doneaboutaratiostudiorumfrom1581to1583,whenAcquavivaestablishedaspecialcommission.TherevisionissupportedbyaletterofAcquavivain
September1582withadirectiveaboutthedoctrineJesuitteacherswereexpectedtoprofess:"Aratiostudiorumisnotyetcomplete,thoughworkonitbeganafter
thegeneralcongregation."HedirectedFatherDeca,aSpaniardandaneminenttheologyprofessor(who,aselectorofhis

 Page28

province,wasamemberofthegeneralcongregation'scommissiononstudies),thatonreturntohisprovinceheshouldevaluatethedoctrineofitsprofessors.

Decareportedthat"IneverrealizedtheimportanceofwhatYourReverenceaskedofmeaboutthedoctrineofOursuntilIcametoSpainandthiscollege.Fromthe
momentIsetoutforRomeIrealizedIcouldexpectnothingelsethanthatthosewhotaughtherewouldcompletelyabandonSt.ThomaswereItoturnmybackonthe
situation."Asaneffectiveremedy,heurged"nothingotherthantoreturnentirelytothedoctrineofSt.Thomas."Hewroteanessayinsupportoftheidea,andasked
Acquavivatosendittosomeexpertsfortheiropinion,whichhedid.FatherRobertBellarmine,inRome,thoughtthatDeca'sproposal"tostrikefromSt.Thomas'
thesesonlytheoneabouttheBlessedVirginMary'sImmaculateConception,andtokeeptheothers,doesn'tseemtobeagoodidea,butadifficult(oreven
impossible)task,andquiteunnecessary."Butintheendheconcededthat"St.Thomasshouldbechosenastheapprovedandcommonteacher,providedthatsomeof
histhesesareomitted."

In1582AcquavivaalsoaddressedRomanCollegeprofessorsaboutdoctrineintheSociety:"Arethereanythesesthatshouldbeproscribed,orothersweshould
teach?Orwoulditsufficetosetrulesthatregulateprohibendaandpraecipiendainageneralway?"LedesmalobbiedvigorouslyforthefirstoptiontheRoman
Collegebackedtheother,thoughsometeachersthoughtthattoavoidscandalafewopinionsshouldbeproscribed.Tworuleswereneeded:first,professorsshould
notdeviatefromSt.Thomas,saverarelyandforseriouscause.Second,ifreputablescholarsdonotendorseanopinion,professorsshouldconsultthesuperiorwho
willreviewthematter,andeitheralloworforbiditsteaching.

AcquavivachosealsotoconsultFatherSalmern,theninNaples,becauseofhisreputationintheology.Tohisquestion"whatratiostudiorumshouldwefollowfor
philosophyandtheology?,"SalmernrepliedthathesawlittleadvantagefortheSocietytochooseaspecificdoctorasitsguide,andtobindallJesuitstohistextand
theses.True,St.Thomaswasadistinguishedtheologian,andIgnatiuswiselycitedhimasanauthorJesuitsshouldreadintheuniversity.Yet"shouldoneofOurs,sent
byGod,explaintheologicaldoctrinefromanewperspectiveandwithgreaterintelligibility,aswasBlessedIgnatius'hope,thenheshouldnotbeimpeded,butthe
wholematterreferredtoFatherGeneral."SalmernvetoedanylistofprescribedthesesforJesuitprofessorssince"theresults

 Page29

werenothappywheneveritwastriedbefore."TheSocietyshouldtryhowevertohaveitsprofessorslimitedtowhatSacredScriptureandtheChurchteach.

ThelastJesuitAcquavivaconsultedaboutSocietydoctrinewasFatherMaldonato,electedbytheFrenchprovinceasamemberoftheFourthGeneralCongregation.
Maldonatothoughtthematter"ofsuchgreatmomentthatitisneitherpossiblenordesirabletoresolveitinashorttime."Fornow,somepeopleshouldcollectallthe
argumentsforbothsides,andothersrecordlesspromisingideas.Theyshouldspendconsiderabletimebeforetheydecide"whatcanbedefendedasprobable,butas
lessprobablethanthecontrary,andwhatcannotbedefendedevenasprobable."Finally,"thereshouldinthemeantimebeaforumfornewideas,oncethesefewrules
wehavebeendebatingaresenttotheprovinces."

Acquavivaagreedthatthequestionofdoctrinalregulationcouldnotberesolvedinashorttime.Healsotooktheadvicethatwhileaplanforhigherstudieswasbeing
readied,hehimselfshouldpromulgaterulesforstudies,andinSeptember1582issuedsixnormsaboutteachingthedoctrineofSt.Thomas.Maldonatowaskeptat
Romeafterthegeneralcongregation,notastheologyteacherintheRomanCollege(SurezhadalreadybeencalledtoRomeforthatpurpose),buttosupervise
writingaratiostudiorum.Athisprematuredeathinearly1583,FatherTuccisucceededhiminthetask.AccordingtotheFacultyList,TucciwasaRomanCollege
theologyprofessorforthescholasticyear15811582.Afterwardshewasnotlistedasateacher,nodoubtbecausehewaspreoccupiedwithdraftingaratio
studiorum.

Chapter2
The1586RatioStudiorum

A
TheCommissionDraftsDelectusOpinionumandPraxisEtOrdoStudiorum(15831586)

Inearly1583FatherGeneraldeterminedtoappointaspecialcommitteetodraftanordostudiorum.HecalledtoRomeexperts"todrawupasingleplanofstudies
toprovideuniformityinspeculativematters,aswellassolidandusefuldoctrine.[Thecommittee]shouldprescribepracticalwaystotreatthevarioussciencesand
facultiesforthegoalanddevelopmentourInstitutehassetforitself."

 Page30

TheexpertswereinRomebyautumn1583,andon8DecembertheHolyFatherreceivedandblessedthemastheybegantheirwork.First,theyhadtofacethe
thornyquestionofchoiceofopinions(dedelectuopinionum).TheyexaminedeachandeveryquestionofSt.Thomas'SummaTheologica,andothersabout
Scripture,Church,andTraditionnotfoundthere,butmatternonethelessfordebatewithheretics.Howtheydidit,methodicallyandcarefully,isrecordedintheActa
Congregationis.TheresultwastheDedelectuopinionum,i.e.,thepropositionsdrawnfromSt.Thomas'Summa,boththosethecommissiondecidedJesuit
professorsshouldteach,andthosetheyleftoptional.Thoughitstextismissing,agreatdealcanbesurmisedfromtheIudiciumoftheRomanCollegeprofessorswho
studieditatFatherGeneral'srequest.Ofcourse,thiswasnottheDelectusopinionumthatlaterappearedinthe1586Ratiostudiorum,butaprovisionaldocument
with597requiredandoptionalpropositions.TheDelectusopinionumofthe1586Ratiohadafarfewer126propositions.ThecompilersofthisfirstDelectuslisted
thepropositionsundersuchheadingsasTheology,DivineSimplicity,Predestination,etc.,whichwereomittedinthe1586Ratio.Accompanyingthetextwasa
Commentarywheretheyexplainedwhytheyclassifiedthesesasobligatoryoroptional.TheRomanCollegereviewersmentionedthisCommentaryintheir
hypercriticalIudiciumwhichtotallyrejectedthetext.Doctrinalsolidityandunityofminds,itswholepurpose,couldhardlybeachievedwithalistof597theses.To
imposethatmanypropositionswas"useless,andlikelytocausegraveproblemsbothforteachingandforthepeaceandharmonyoftheSocietyimplementationwill
beatbestdifficult,and,morelikely,impossible."Decisionsshouldbemadeaccordingtothesecriteria:thesesthathavenoconnectionwithreligionordevotion,orare
notconcernedwithgravematters,orarenottheopinionsofleadingtheologians,shouldnotbemandated.Thereviewboardthoughtsomecommitteethesesfalse,and
othersindefensibleandbetterproscribedthanimposedtherewasnoreasonfortheinclusionofmanyothersthatweredefidedefinitaoralmostso.Stillothers
seemedobscureorambiguoussomeoptionalthesesweremoreimportantthanonesthatweremandatedtherewasnoreasontoincludethemratherthanother
optionalones.AccordingtoBellarmine,"thereare77thesesinthecollectionthatwethinkareagainstthemindofSt.Thomas."Finally,thereviewersobjectedthat
althoughthe597propositionsofDelectusopinionumsurveyedalltheology,theresultwasnotacoherentdoctrinalcorpus,buta"scatteredandconfusedcongeries
ofopinions."TheyexaminedonlythepropositionsfromthePrimaParsoftheSumma,130

 Page31

oftheentire597,withtheideathatanegativejudgmentherewouldbeaclearmessageofwhattheythoughtaboutthewholething.

AcquavivatoldtheRomanCollegetoreviewPraxisetOrdoStudiorumaswellasDedelectuopinionum,buttheirreportonitdidnotaskforextensivetext
revision.Thecommittee'sdocumentswerereadyandsenttohimafterAugust1584,andtheRomanCollegeIudiciumsubmittedattheendof1584orearlyin1585.
However,astheActaCongregationisnoted,theGeneralcouldnotstudythemuntiltheendof1585.Onreview,hedirectedthatPraxisetOrdoStudiorumbesent
totheprinter,butthespeculativetexthadtobereconsidered,atleastinpart.Therewouldbemoreprofoundrevisionatanothertime,afterRomereceivedthe
provincialcomments.

ThreecommitteemembersinRome,Tucci,Azor,andGonzales,revisedthe130SummapropositionstheRomanCollegefacultyexamined,sothatthispartcould
takeitsproperplaceaheadofthePraxisetOrdoStudiorumintheprintedtextoftheRatio.Whileitwasinpress,thecommitteeandtheprofessorsmettoreview
propositionsdrawnfromotherpartsoftheSumma.Thesecouldonlyappearasanappendix.ThiswaytheSociety'sfirstRatiostudiorumwaspromulgatedandsent
totheprovincesinApril1586.

B
The1586PrintingoftheRatio

1
Remarks

Remarksareinorderaboutthenotablerarityofcopies.First,fewweremadesincethebookwaspublishedasamanuscript"forgreatereaseingettingagenerous
supplyofexemplars"outtotheprovinces.Forthetimebeing,collegesandschoolsdidnotgetcopies,butcommitteeswereappointedineachprovincetoexamine
andevaluatethetext.TheSocietyhadtwentyprovincesin1586.Iffivecopiesweresenttoeachprovince,100,oratmost120,copieswouldsuffice.Veryfewhave
beenpreserved,toourknowledge,notablyinRome,Milan,London,Dublin,Berlin,andTreves.Toexplainthispaucity,Sommervogelsuggestedthattheexemplars
weredestroyedbecausePopeSixtusVorderedanewandcorrectededition.Hissheerguesshasnodocumentarybasis.Infact,Sixtususedhisauthoritytoreturnto
theSocietythebooksinterceptedbytheSpanishInquisition.

Therealexplanationismuchsimpler.TheAquataineprovince'sreportonthe1586RatioaskedFatherGeneralthat"WhentheentireRatiostudiorumhasbeen
finished,heordertheprovincestoburnalltheseexemplars."Acquavivawasofthatmind.Inalettertotheprovincesthat

 Page32

accompaniedthe1599Ratiostudiorumheorderedthat"WhenYourReverencereceivesthisbook,collecttheoldcopiesoftheRatiosenttotheprovince,andburn
themall.Theyhavenofurtheruse.Makesureyoudothis."

2
TheAuthors'Purpose

Acquavivaexplicitatedthegeneralaiminaletterof24August1583totheAustrianprovincial:"Wehavedecided,asmanywishandthesituationitselfdemands,to
establishastudyprogramthattheSocietycanusefromnowon.Thishasbeeneffectedaftermatureanddeliberatereflection,sothatasfaraspossible,itshalladmit
nochangeorvariation."Hisgeneralprinciplewas"tosettlenothinguntilinstructorsinallprovincescangivetheiropinionsoftheentiredocument."Thisway,"whatwas
draftedforcommonusewillhavecommonsupport."Thecommissionmembershoped"thatfromthecomments,reports,andcriticismsreceivedfromtheprovinces,
consensuscouldbehadwithgreaterconfidence."Andsotheyexpectedthat"Oncetheknewpracticesandprogramsinthevariouscountries,theycouldunanimously
draftaprogramappropriate,asfaraspossible,forallofthem.''ThecommissionpaidcloseattentiontotheproblemofmandatorySocietyteaching,explainingthat"it
hasalwaysseemedbestifvariationinteachingnolessthanintellectualfreedomwereconstrainedbylaw."

ToevaluatethisRatiocorrectly,onemustlookatboththewriters'intentionandthenatureoftheproject.TheActaCongregationisshedslightonthelatter:"Thesix
committeemembersexploredwhattheythoughtwouldbesteffectthetotalstudyprogram."Theyproducedpapersandtreatises,butnotrules,statutes,ordirections
aboutthesubjectstobetaught.Thetreatisesproposedprogramtopics,theological,philosophical,andliterary,forreviewbygroupstheprovincesweretoappoint.
Thecommitteeevolvedparticularargumentssothat"anythingthoughttotouchtheemendationorillustrationofaspecificitem,isenteredatthatpoint,andeverything
canbeseencoherentlyandatoncebythereviewers."Afterthat,"thecorpusmustbebrokendownintoindividualparts,i.e.,intonormsforstudents,professors,
deans,rectors,provincials,etal."

3
TheSources

ThefirstRatiostudiorumreflectedestablishedpracticeandtradition.Itwasneitherthetasknorthegoalofitsauthorstoproducesomethingnew.Theyleftcopious
referencestotheirsources.AccordingtotheActa

 Page33

Congregationis:"Toplanthedisciplinesandfacultiestodevelop,theyrestudiedthefourthsectionoftheConstitutions,andtriedtoobserveitdiligentlythedecrees
ofthecongregations,therulesandstatutesoftheschools,andespeciallypublishedRomanCollegecustomsandpractices,werelikewisereviewed.Attentionwas
directedtotheRomanCollege,aswellastootherprestigiouscollegesanduniversities,bothJesuitandnonJesuit."Abitlater:"Therewasareviewoftherecorded
deliberationsonthematter,whetherheldatRomeorinthemorenotableSocietycolleges.Reportswereanalyzed,aswereuniversitydecreesandlaws,andother
documentsofsimilarnature,someearlier,otherslatelysenttoFatherGeneralfromItaly,Spain,France,Germany,andPoland....Fromthesemanyvenerable
practiceswerekept,somemorerecentonesadopted,andstillothersabrogated.Ifdoubtsarose,eachmemberrecountedtheprivateorcommonpracticesinhis
province,theusagesandprecedentsoftheschools,theircustomsandresults.Weusedtheseresourcestomeetmanydifficulties,andwholeheartedlyagreedthat
nothingwouldbemoreusefulfortheschools,orourreputationandacceptance,thanthatallfollowasinglenormindevelopingtalentandadministeringacademic
enterprises."(ThesourcesareallreprintedinMonumentaPaedagogica,volumesIIV.)Inshort,thecommissiondiligentlycollected,studied,andchosethebetter
thingstraditionandcopiousexperienceofferedforaratiostudiorum.

4
ProvinceResponses

Acquaviva'sletterof21April1586gavepreciseinstructionsabouttheprovincecommissionsandhowtheyweretoproceed.Hehopedtheirresponsescouldbesent
toRomebytheendof1586,andevaluatedsothatbytheendof1587anewRatiocouldbepresentedtotheProcuratorsCongregation.Eventsturnedoutquite
otherwise.

TheRatiostudiorumtextwassentoutattheendofApril1586.Fiveprovinces,Castile,Belgium,Aragon,Spain,andupperGermany,gotthetextinJune,Austria
andMilaninJuly,PolandinAugust,andFranceinSeptember.AquatainehadnotreceiveditbyOctober,andCampagneonlyinJanuary1587.Bythattimemostof
theotherprovincecommentswerealreadyinRome.OnlyCastile'sresponsewasmissing,nevermadebecausetheSpanishInquisitionorderedthecopiesoftheRatio
studiorumtextimpounded,andkepttheJesuitsfromexaminingit.

 Page34

Chapter3
TheRatioStudiorum1586B(15871588)

A
The1588RatioStudiorumTextRevisedatRome

ProvincecommentscametoRomebytheendof1586.AlthoughTucci,Azor,andGonzalesbegantostudythemrightaway,theattentivereadingofalmost30files
neededaboutanentireyear,asTucciwrotetoAcquaviva.Readingfinished,theythendraftedanewtext,theRatiostudiorum1586B,which,however,wasnever
printed,orevensenttotheprovincesinmanuscriptform.Itwasinfactjustaneditedearliertext,andonlyaguideforatrueRatiostudiorumcompletewithrules.For
thatreasonitwasforgottenuntilnow.Itstextappearedintwocompactbooklets,thefirstdetailinghigherstudies,theother,preparatoryclasses.Thefrontpageofthe
firstborethetitleDeScripturis.ApreSuppressionSocietyarchivist,seeingthattitle,andwithoutfurtherinvestigationthinkingthebookdealtentirelywithScripture,
catalogueditasthat.Inthebooklets,wefindalongwiththeScripturetreatisealltheotherdisciplinesthatthe1586Ratiostudiorumtreated.Thetwotextsare
howeversodifferentthatthesecondisreallyarevisededition.Noraretheyofthesamelength.Thehigherstudiessectionwasshortened,butthepreparatorystudies
textunderwentgreaterchange.Somechapterswereentirelynew,othersomitted.Acquaviva'slettertoFatherMaggioof18October1587notedthat:"Althoughthere
wasademandthattheprocuratorspromulgateastudyplan,thatwasnotpossiblesinceanewplanhadtobedevised."ArrangementofmaterialstayedfixedinRatio
studiorum1586B,buttheDelectusopinionumanditsCommentariolusweredropped.

AfterthesectionontheimportanceofScripturestudy,theeditorsaddedtothetreatiseanentirelynewchapter,IncitamentastudiorumScripturarum,thatlistedat
lengthsevensuchmotives.Completelyredonewerethefirstandthirdofthetenchaptersinthescholastictheologysection,treatingthetimefortheologyandthe
numberofprofessors,andthelecturesthemselves,respectively.Therestwereessentiallyunchanged.InDehumanioribuslitteris,thefirstchapter,separatingthe
literaturefacultyfromthoseofhigherstudies,wasdropped.Chapters5,6,8,9,and12werecompletelynew.

 Page35

B
PreparationofaNewDelectusOpinionum

ProvincereactionstotheRatiostudiorumarrivedinRome.FatherGeneral,lookingtoaprocuratorscongregationscheduledfortheendof1587,hadaskedthe
provincecongregationstorecommendwhetherageneralcongregationshouldbeconvokedtoapprovetheRatiostudiorum.Practicallyallsaidno,andforthesame
reason.TheRomanprovince,forexample,allowedthatageneralcongregationcouldlendweighttoanordostudiorum,butthatwasnotimportantenoughtojustify
theinconvenienceandworkofconveningthedelegates.Theprojectwouldneedmoretimethanwasproperlyallottedageneralcongregation.Thestudyprogram
shouldfirstbeimplemented,andexperienceallowedtouncoveranydefects.Afterthat,ageneralcongregationcouldbetterandmoresurelyconferitsauthority.That
infacthappenedwiththe15931594FifthGeneralCongregation.

TheDelectusopinionumwaswrittenbyacommission,rejectedbytheRomanCollegefaculty,redone,andprintedintheRatiostudiorum.Understandably,on
beingsubmittedtotheprovinces,itreceivedadversejudgment,andtheneedforrevisionbecameevenclearer.In1588,FatherTucci,principalrevisioneditor,went
toTusculum,byhimself,todevelopanewtext.Hislongletterof6SeptembertoFatherAcquavivaprovidesvaluabledataforthehistoryofhisrevision.Tucci
describedhismethodologyinPrefatioinduospropositionumcatalogosintheCommentariolusthatdiscussedtheoptionalpropositionsofthefirstpartofthe
Summa:"Manypropositionshaveanexplanatoryscholiontopreventthetersenessusefulforschematiclistingfromobscuringwhichonesareoptional,andwhichnot.
Everythingisexplainedclearlyanddistinctly,sothatasfarascanbe,noonecanthinkheisgivenaoptionwhenheisnot,orthatheisbound,whenfree....Each
propositionhasascholion.Sothatthesesdonotseemproposedarbitrarily,thebasicsofallthesetopicsareexplainedbriefly,andtheChurchDoctors'argumentation
transcribedadverbum."Finally,"Itisimportantthatthescholiahavethesameauthorityandweightasthepropositionstheyelucidate.Yettheyweredevelopednot
bydeliberationofthewholeSociety,butbyasingleteacher,andnottoobligateOurs,buttoaffordcredibleevidencethatwhatisobligated,orleftoptional,canbe
supported,eitherdefinitivelyorarguably,andrestsongoodauthority,andreasonwiththis,noonecanclaimthisthesisselectionandevaluationisintellectual
coercion."

 Page36

C
TheRatioandtheHolyOffice

ThespeculativepartoftheRatiothatTuccicompletelyredid,wassubmittedtoPopeSixtusVinlate1589orearly1590,perhapstoforestallanewconfrontation
withtheSpanishInquisition.ButdifficultiesremainedafterthePope'sdeath.ShortlythereafteritwassubmittedtoPopeGregoryXIV,whoaskedtheCardinalsofthe
HolyOfficetoevaluateit.Thereadertheappointedforthatpurposewroteareport,preservedinRome,intwoparts:first,theParsspeculativasubmittedbythe
Society,thenhisresponse.TheParsspeculativahadAcquaviva'spreface,alistofoptionalthesesandananimadversio,plusapartonchoiceofopinionsfor
professorsofScriptureandApologetics.TheHolyOfficedidnotreceivethelargesetoftreatisesandcommentariesontherules,orthescholiafortheListofTheses.
Remarkably,alsomissingweretherulesforchoiceofopinions.

Thereader'sresponsebegan:"TheJesuitsaskwhetheritisappropriatetofixabookofthesesfromSt.Thomas,sothattheirteacherswouldbeheldtoscholastic
doctrine,especiallythatofSt.Thomas,andthatscholarsandstudentswouldnothavetheoption,asisnowthecase,torangewidelyindoctrinalmatters(whichseems
tobedonewithgreatharm),norwouldtherebeanyambiguity,andallwouldknowclearlywhattoholdandteach."TheHolyOfficereaderthenjudgedthat"thereis
noneedtoprintthisbook,ortocallattentioninanyotherwaytoitsthesesandpropositions.Otherwisethebookcouldseematacitjudgmentandcondemnationof
otherandprobablethesesandcriticismsofSt.Thomasthatareacceptedandproperly,approvedinschoolsandacademies.Thoseideasshouldnotbecastigatedand
putinthestocks,aswesay."Moreover,theinnovationofreducingSt.Thomas'doctrinetoahandbookisdangerous,andwouldposegreatproblemsforserious
scholars.Henotedthat"Somepeoplewantedtosubmitthebooktotheuniversities,andletthemdecideaftercarefulscrutinywhetherornottoprintit.Idon'tlikethat
idea.Lutherusedtosendhisbookstotheuniversitiesforgreaterclout,andhededicatedonebooktoLeoIXwiththatinmindtocoverhisownintransigence.St.
Thomas'doctrineshouldnotbesummarizedortruncated,butpresentedwholeandentire.Ifhisteachingcontainsdoctrinesthatareonlyprobable,orlesscommonly
held,orevennotnowapprovedbytheChurch,thenprofessorsshouldadvisetheirstudentsofthis,andindicatewhatthesestokeep,andwhattodiscard."

ThePope'sillnessandsubsequentdeathinturnpreventedresolutionofthematter,andthespeculativepartoftheRatiostudiorumwasnotreturnedtotheSociety
untillate1591.Itwasunchanged.TheHolyOfficedecreeread:"TheEminentCardinalsjudgethatthebookthe

 Page37

FathersoftheSocietyhavesubmittedistobereturnedtothem.TheytrustthatFatherGeneralandtheFathersoftheSocietywillmakediligenteffortsintheir
apostolateofpublicservicesothattheirlecturersandadministratorswilleverywhereremainunitedinsoundteaching."

Chapter4
The1591RatioStudiorum

A
PreparationandDistributionofRules(15891591)

Aftercarefulstudyoftheprovinceresponses,thecommitteefirstrevisedRatiostudiorum1586AtoproduceRatiostudiorum1586B.Thentheybegantodraftrules
fortheacademicofficials,accordingtoRatio1586A'snotethat"Thecorpusmustbebrokendownintoindividualparts,andspecificrulesordirectivesdraftedfor
each."Thathappenedfrom1589throughout1590.Acquaviva'slettertoTucciof12August1590mentionedtherevisedrulesfortheprofessoroftheology.Inaletter
of16September1590,alsotoTucci,theGeneralnotedtherulesfortheScriptureprofessorthathereceivedandwouldsubmittotheFathersAssistantreceived
review.Therulesforteachersofthelowerclassesarrivedon1December,andby15January1591hehadtheevidentsatisfactionthat"Thelastruleshavebeen
delivered,andwearegladthewholetaskisdone."

AsTucciandhiscolleaguespreparedrulesfortheschools,AcquavivahadthemexaminedbythreeFathersAssistant,asmaybeinferredfromhis12August1590
lettertoTucci:"IsendYourReverencethereportsofthethreeAssistantsontheordostudiorum,buttosavetime,theywerenotreadtogether.IfYourReverence
findsanyinconsistenciesordifficultiesinthis,pleasenoteandforwardthemtome,andIwillresolvethematter."TheFathersAssistantweresentforreviewnotonly
rulesforofficials(ofthe1591Ratio),butalsoRatio1586AandRatio1586B.TheycalledthefirstLiberExcususandthelatterRatiostudiorumpractica.
Nevertheless,theydidnothaveathandthetextoftherulesthatwaslaterproduced,butonlyapreliminaryversionthatTucciandAzorlaterrevised.

ThesamesizeasRatiostudiorum1586A,thenewbookhadashortertitle:Ratioatqueinstitutiostudiorum.Fewcopiesareextant,for,asnoted,Acquaviva
orderedallthoseofearliereditionsburnedoncethedefinitivetextreachedtheprovincesin1599.Thebookshowedmorethanoneinnovation.Firstandmost
importantwasthewaythematterwaspresented.Ratio1586A/Bcomprisedtreatisesonseveraldisciplines,butRatiostudiorum1591includedrulesforacademic
officials.Intheformer

 Page38

edition,theauthorssetinoneplaceeverythingtheywantedtoexplain,propose,orregulateforaspecificdiscipline,say,Scripture.InRatio1591,regulationsfor
Scripturestudywerescattered(andhadtobesearchedout)amongtherulesforprovincial,rector,dean,andprofessorofScripture.Soalsoforallthedisciplines.
TheabsenceofaDelectusopinionumwasanothermajordifference.UnderthetitleParsspeculativa,thatsection,extensivelyrewritten,wassubmittedunder
separatecoverandinmanuscriptformtotheprovincesin1592.TherewerenorulesfortheprofessorofApologetics.Thefewwordsaboutthedisciplinearefoundin
partamongtherulesfortheprofessorsofscholastictheologyandScripture,aswellasamongtherulesUltramontanispropriae.

Following332pagesofrulesforvariousofficialsareAppendices,somewithrulesforparticularcountries,somewithparadigmlecturesinthehumanities.Whatwas
theirorigin?Afterstudyofthe1586Ratio,theprovincesnoteditemsintheprogramthatneededtobemodifiedfortheirregions.RomeenteredtheseinRatio1586B,
buttheywerelaterremovedandsentoutasappendicesofRatio1591.Similarlyforthelectureparadigms.ThefirstoftheSixSupplementaryChaptersSenttothe
Provincesin1586askedthem"togiveparadigmsandexamplesforindividualschoolsofthewaytoexplainpreceptsandauthorsforstudentcomprehension."Many
provincescomplied.TheRomancommitteetooktheUpperGerman,Aragon,Polish,LyonsandAustrianprovincereportstocomposeParadigmsorTeaching
MethodsforRhetoricandHumanitiesClasses.Ratio1586Bpromisedparadigms:"exegesisproperforthe(rhetoric)classeswillbeillustratedelsewherewith
appropriateparadigmsthattheinstructorshouldfollowclosely."Thatpromise,repeatedverbatimintheRatio1591rulesfortherhetoricprofessor,wasfulfilledinthe
Appendices.Therulesappearedasseparateprintedfasciculeswiththeirownpagination,butarefoundinonlythreeoftheextantcopies.The1599Ratiostudiorum
droppedthem.

The1591RatiostudiorumwasdefinitiveandmandatoryforallcollegiatehousesoftheSociety.NeverthelessAcquavivasetatrialperiodtoseewhatneeded
improvement,accordingtothepreface:"ExperienceoverathreeyearperiodshouldbereportedtoFatherGeneral,sothatoncetheRatiohasbeenamendedwhere
neededbyhisorder,itmayatlaststandfirm."

ThelongsoughtRatiostudiorumfinallyarrived.Howwasitreceived?Astobeexpected,therewasneithercompleteconsensusnoruniversaljoy.Hoffaeus(wholeft
Romeforhisprovincein1591)spokefranklytoAcquaviva:"AbouttheRatiostudiorum,eventhoughit'snoteasyforme

 Page39

tocriticizemysuperiors'administrativepolicies,nevertheless,andIsayitonlyforthecommongood,IfearthatunlessYourReverenceprovidesgreaterincentivesto
Ours,theprojectwon'thaveahappyending.WeareusedtooldwaysverydifferentfromthenewRatioweclingtothemsocloselythatIdon'tthinkwetryto
overcometheobstacleswemeet.Wedebateratherthanexperimenttoseewhattokeep,discard,orignore.YourReverenceshouldwritealetterforeveryone(soI
don'tseemtobeitsauthor),urgingourmentosolvetheirproblems,and,iftheywanttodebate,todosoabouthowtosolvethem.Theyshouldnotworkcounterto
theRatiounlessinduetimeafterlongexperiencetheyreporttoRomeaconsensusofteachersandadvisors.ManymenhereliketheRatio,butothersdon't,andare
unwillingtoovercometheirdifficulties.Enough!It'salreadytoomuch."

AcquavivahadtousehisauthorityintheAustrianprovince,orderingtheprovincial:"YourReverenceshouldscotcharumor(supposedlyrampantinsomeplaces)that
theRatioisnottobeobservedthesamewayeverywhere.Untiltheydesist,rumormongersaretobeconfrontedopenly.Iamsureyouwilldoso,andtheywillrealize
therumorisfalse,especiallysincetheRatiohasbeenreceivedandputintopracticeinmanyprovinceswithnodelayandwithgoodresults.ItisYourReverence's
tasktoeffectthesamethinginyourprovince,andtoovercomeallobstacles,which,infact,youwillfindarefewerthanyoufear."

B
TheSpeculativePartoftheRatioStudiorumPublished(1592)

TheHolyOfficereturnedtheSpeculativePartoftheRatioattheendof1591.About20manuscriptcopiesweremadeandsenttotheprovincesbyJuly1592.Its
partscomprisedAcquaviva'sIntroduction,RulesDedelectuopinionum,aCatalogofobligatorypropositions,aDelectusopinionumforScriptureandApologetics
professors,andaCatalogofoptionalpropositions.Tucci'sdetailedscholiawereomitted.ThereweresixrulesaboutobligatorySocietydoctrineasinAcquaviva's
1582directive,withtextandsensesomewhatchanged,eventhoughthe1586Ratiohadeleven.Thenumberofpropositionsincreasedinbothcatalogs:thelater
(1592)oneshad87and67,theearlier(1586)catalogs78and49.TheprefacetotheCatalogofoptionalpropositionsthatwasprintedasanappendixexplainedits
unusualpositionabitsurprisingly:"Forgoodreasonswedecidednottoprintthecatalogofoptionalpropositionsintheorderofpropositionsgivenabove.However,
wewantrectors,deans,and

 Page40

lecturerstohaveitathand,andtoknowthattheyshouldfollowSt.Thomas,butiftheychoosetofollowanotheropinion,thatitisinthesepropositionsonlythatthey
arefreetodoso.""Goodreasons(iustaecausae)"wasthetermoftheHolyOfficereader'sreport.Also,forthesame"goodreasons"theSpeculativePartofthe
Ratiostudiorumwasnotprinted.AcquavivapromulgatedtheParspracticaofthe1591Ratiowithanorderforthreeyearsintenseexperimentation.Incontrast,the
Parsspeculativagotnone,buthadimmediatedefinitiveobligatoryforce,astheGeneral'sprefaceinsisted:"Wecommendthisformula,carefullydraftedbymany
teachers,withallourpowerandauthority,toallofOursinliterary(higher)studies."

C
TheRatioStudiorumandtheFifthGeneralCongregation(15931594)

1
ParsSpeculativa

WhileRatiostudiorum1591wasbeingtestedintheSocietys,schoolsin15921593,Romeandtheprovincespreparedforanextraordinarygeneralcongregation
thatwouldplayalargepartinRatiohistory.PopeClementVIIIorderedacongregationatthebehestoftroublemakerswho,wantedaneworderofthingsinSpain.
TheActaofthepreparatoryprovincecongregationsfrequentlymentionedtheprogramofstudies.OftenfoundtherewasthesubstanceofaRomanprovincepetition:
"thataLiberStudiorumtreatingbothDelectusopinionumandpracticebeofficiallyrecognized,andstabilityhereassured."Accordingly,thegeneralcongregation
(convokedon21December1592,convenedon3November1593)setoneofitstwelvecommitteeswithRobertBellarmine,thenRomanCollegerector,as
chairman,toconsiderapprobationoftheRatiostudiorum.AlsoappointedwereI.Tyrius,aScotandGermanAssistant,B.Castori,provincialofLyons,L.
Richeome,provincialofAquataine,B.Rossignoli,provincialofMilan,I.Chastellier,provincialofFrance,M.M.Marcos,I.Correa,B.Oliver,andA.Saphor.

Astheystartedwork,thememberswerewarnedbyaspecialcommittee"Dedetrimentis"that"Freedomtoteachandendorsethemanyscandalousopinions
temerariousinfaithandpractice,hasnoplacenow.UnlessJesuitsaresomehoweffectivelyrestrained,wefeartheywillbedenouncedtotheTribunaloftheInquisition
(whichhashappenedmorethanonce),orthatevengreaterevilswillcome."ThatpessimismFatherRibadeneyrapassedontotheCongregation:"Thetimesare
dangerous.SomeJesuitsengageinunbridledspeculation,andwehavemanyenemies.TheCongregationmustweighwhetheritshoulddelimitwithrigorous

 Page41

newdecreesmatterstreatedbroadlyintheConstitutions,andtoorderOurs,inSpainatleast,toholdbytheirteethBlessedThomas'everydoctrine,saveoneor
two,andtoorderthatanyonedoingotherwisebyteachingnewopinionsdivergingfromcommondoctrinebeseverelypunished."HesuggestedFatherGeneral
designatetwoorthreepriestsineachprovincetoreviewdoctrines.ThatwouldrestrainJesuits,andliftaheavyburdenfromSuperiors,whowereoftenembarrassed
bytheirteachings.

Thecommittee,"aftersomedaysofintensemeetingsanddiscussion,"broughttheCongregationitsreport,theRelatiodeputatorumprostudiis,with
recommendationsabouttheParsspeculativaandtheDelectusopinionum.Theyhadsevenprinciplesforteaching,fiverulesfortheologiansforchoiceofopinions,
andfiveforphilosophers.TheGeneralCongregationacceptedtherecommendations.First,itvotedunanimouslythatJesuitprofessorsshouldfollowSt.Thomas'
teachinginscholastictheologyassolid,certain,approved,andconsistentwiththeConstitutions.Next,therulesdraftedbythecommitteeforchoiceofopinionsin
philosophyandtheologyshouldbeenteredintothetextoftheRatiostudiorum,and"ourprofessorsshouldobservethemcarefully."Alsoapprovedwereits
preparatorynotesfor"betterunderstandingoftheRules."Theydecreedtoothatallthis,carefullywrittenandrevisedbythecommittee,wastobeenteredintothe
ActaCongregationis,notforeveryone'seyes,but"fortheuseofSuperiorsforgreaterelucidation,aswellasforlearningtheCongregation'smindinenactingthese
rules,andforimplementingthem."

Thetextwasrevised,corrected,andimprovedbytheCongregation,andrecordedintheActaCongregationisastheprefacetotherulesDedelectuopinionum.It
hadfourparagraphsthesecondandthirdbecamethesecondandthirdrulesfortheprofessorofscholastictheologyinthe1599Ratiostudiorumthefourthshowed
astheninthrulefortheprovincial.Canon9oftheCongregationexpressedconciselytheimmensechangetheParsspeculativaadmitted:"Jesuitprofessorsof
scholastictheologyshouldfollowtheteachingofSt.ThomasaccordingtothepracticedecreedinthetextoftheRatiostudiorumandexplainedbyFatherGeneral.
TheyarenottobeappointedtochairsoftheologyunlesstheyshowthemselvesfavorabletotheteachingofSt.Thomas,andthosewhoarenotshallbedeprivedof
theirteachingposts."Andso,afteryearsofcountlessmeetings,debates,decrees,andimmenselistsofmandatoryandoptionaltheseswithlongandshortscholia,the
fewlinesofcanon9oftheFifthGeneralCongregationlegislateddoctrineinphilosophyandtheologythat

 Page42

theSocietywastoprofess.Thecanon,somerules,anddirectionsfortheiruse,diditall.

ProvincialpostulatesabouttheParsspeculativawereansweredinthoseterms.TotheRomanprovince,Acquavivawrotethat''whatpertainstothePars
speculativadedelectuopinionumappearsincanon9withanaccompanyingexplanation."HerepliedinthesamewaytoPoland,UpperGermany,Belgium,and
Naples.(TheexplanationwastheCongregation'sdecree56.)In1594,FatherXimenes,SecretaryoftheSociety,senttheprovincialsexcerptsfromtheActathat
dealtwithSociety,teaching,includingtheprefacetotheRegulaededelectuopinionumandtheRegulaethemselves.Evenso,theCongregation'sresoluteand
solemnactionsdidnotradicallysolvethemultiplexproblemsaboutuniformityandorthodoxyofSocietyteaching.Soonafter,Acquavivahimselfhadtointerveneto
eradicatesomedeviations.

2
PraxisEtOrdoStudiorum

WhentheFifthGeneralCongregationconvenedon3November1593,theSociety'sschoolshadbeenexperimentingwithPraxisetOrdoStudiorumfortwoyears.
The1591Ratiostudiorum,asnoted,wasnotfoundentirelysatisfactoryeverywhere.Theschoolshadmanyproblemsimplementingthenewplan.Forexample,the
Neapolitancongregation'sActarecordedthat"sincewehavealreadymetmanydifficultiesintheRatiostudiorumtheGeneralsentus,andaredailyfindingmorethat
arenoteasilyresolved,weasktheGeneralCongregationtodelegatesomememberstocollecttheseproblemsforstudy."TheToledoprovinceaskedthreetheology
professors(BlasRengifo,FranciscoSurez,andGabrielVasquez)toanalyzetheprescriptionsinPraxisetOrdoStudiorum.Accordingtotheirreport,"itshigher
studyrules(were)notrightfortheSociety,andsurelynotfortheSpanishprovinces,becauseoftheimmensenumberthattoucheventhesmallestdetails.Itis
impossibletogetageneralruleforallcountriesandprovinces,giventhediversecustoms,structures,practices,needs,andotherfactorsitoughttoaccommodate."

TheBelgianprovincecongregationreportedthesamedifficulty:"Althoughthelaw,precepts,anddirectivesoftheRatiostudiorumwerefirmlyapproved,astheActa
record,andwill,wehope,beveryuseful,still,manyitemscanhardlybeimplementedinthetwoBelgianuniversitiesduetotheirlawsandcustomsandourown
privatereasons.MayitpleaseYourPaternitytohearinafatherlywaywhatFatherProvincialandhisdelegatespropose."ThePolishcongregationaskedthat"some
learnedandscholarly

 Page43

membersoftheCongregationofdiversenationalities,andotherthanthosewhodraftedtheRatiostudiorum,bedelegatedforitstotalrevision,andasfaraspossible,
leteveryprovinceandcountryhaveitssay.Andmakethetextbrief."

TheCongregationwasconcernedabouttheproblemsandprojectsoftheeducationalapostolate.AftertheGeneralhearditscommentsandproposals,heorderedthe
provincials"tosharetheirdifficultieswitheachother,"sothat"finaldecisionscanbemadeabouthowtoaccommodateeachone."Fromthiscamedocumentswiththe
desiderataandproposalsfromthevariousregions,aswellastheGeneral'sreplies.AletterofFatherDomenichi,SecretaryoftheSociety,dated21December1595,
toFatherCharlesReggio,Romanprovinceprovincial,advisedhimofAcquaviva'sconcessionsinthematterofstudies.

Spaintoo,aftertheGeneralCongregation,conferredaboutthestudyprogram.Areport,writtenatthetime,givesasuccinctaccount:"FatherGarcasAlarcn,Visitor
oftheCastilianandToledanprovinces,askedsixexpertandlearnedmemberstostudythetextoftheRatiostudiorum,thereporttheSpanishfathersgavetoRome,
andFatherGeneral'sresponse.Theyweretodiscussthesedocumentsamongthemselves,andrecordtheirconclusions."Theyreplied:"1.Generallyspeaking,itseems
neitherpossiblenoradvantageousfortheentireSocietytobeofonemind,ortobemadetoagreeaboutthemanyparticularitemscontainedintheserules.Giventhe
spreadofplacesandresourcesandthevibrantdiversityofprovincialcustomsandeducationalstructures,ourideasaboutwhatfacultiestodevelopandourplansfor
themalsoshowagreatdiversity.2.InmanyrespectsitwillbenecessarytoseparateSpaniardsfromothergroups,andeveninSpainitself,weshallhavetodistinguish
oneprovincefromanother,andinasingleprovinceonecollegiatehousefromanother,insofarastheyareassociatedwiththelocaluniversities,andmustmeettheir
standardsandrequirements,ifJesuitstudiesandliteraryexercisesaretomeritasplendidreputationandenjoyexternalaccreditation."

GivenwhatFatherAcquavivaconcededtovariousregionsforimplementationoftheRatiostudiorum(afterhisunsuccessfulattempttogetmaximumpossible
uniformityintheSociety),wecanseethathereaftermuchdeliberationtheSocietyatlastreturnedtoSt.Ignatius'principleintheConstitutions:"Asforspecified
lecturehours,theirorderandmethod,andexercisesbothwrittenandoralinthevariousfaculties,publicaddresses,anddiscourses,allthiswillbetreatedelsewherein
adocumentapprovedbytheGeneral."TheConstitutionsthenurgethat"it

 Page44

beadaptedtotheplaces,times,andpersonsinvolved,eventhoughtheyshouldfollowitsnormsasmuchascanbe."Acquaviva'sresponsetotheUpperGerman
provinceaccordedquitewellwiththatadvice:"Provincialsshouldconsultwitheachotheraboutpracticalmattersofimplementationtolearnwhatisbestforeach
province.Nevertheless,youdohavethedutyofadheringascloselyaspossibletotheprescribedRatiostudiorum."

Chapter5
The1599RatioStudiorum

TheFifthGeneralCongregationfinishedworkontheSpeculativePartoftheRatiostudiorum,butmuchmorehadtobedoneontherulesforstudies.In1595the
SecretaryoftheSocietywrotethathewasunabletosendtheprovincesFatherGeneral'sconcessionsinthematteroflowerstudiesbecause"somuchhasoccurred
thatweareunabletoclassifyandsendpromptlywhatwehaverecorded."Acquavivamentionedanewdevelopmentinaresponse(quotedinpartabove)tothe
Romanprovincialcongregation:"DecisionsaboutchoiceofopinionsthatpertaintotheSpeculativeParthavebeenmade,andcanbefoundinCanon9aninstruction
hasbeenforwarded.MatterstouchingpracticehavebeenreferredtosomeJesuitsofItaly."

WhoweretheJesuitsnewlyputtothetaskafterthegeneralcongregation?NotTucci,whobythengravelyilldiedinJanuary1597.FatherBrunelli,whohelpedhim
formanyyearswiththelitteraehumanioresparts,wassurelyone.TheGregorianUniversitylibraryinRomehasacopyofthe1591Ratiostudiorumwornthinby
hisfingersandcopiouslyannotatedinpreparationforrevisionoftherules.PhilipRinaldi,whometendlessobjectionstoendlesslyrevisedrules,wasanother.Athird
wasHoraceTorsellini,arectorintheprovincesfrom1591to1595,andbroughttoRomein1596whereheheldtheofficesofconfessorandprefectofelocutionuntil
hisdeathin1599.Brunelli'snotesshowthatheworkedwithboth:on17December1598,forinstance,hequotedTorsellinitoRinaldithreetimesaboutadebateover
aparticularpointintheorderofstudies.

Revisionworktookthreeyears(15951598)toproduceaseriesofrules:first,theincompleteBrunellitextwithrulesonlyforprofessorsoflowerclasses(rhetoric,
humanities,first,second,andthirdgrammarlevels).ThecontentoftherulesBrunellilistedcompletelyintherightmarginofthepages.Theleftmarginsshowed
numerousannotations:"superfluous,""getacommonrule,""putelsewhere,""shorten,''"tootrivial,""go

 Page45

easier,"etc.Othertextscamelaterwecanidentify,chronologicallyfourfamilies,designatedbycapitalletters:thetextsRatiostudiorum91/ABCD.Text91Ais
almostthatofthe1591Ratio,buttext91Dalmostcompletelythatofthe1599Ratio.

Rulerevisionlasteduntil1598,aswelearnfromaRinaldireport:"FinalRevisionandEmendationoftheRatiostudiorum,Tusculum.May1598."Itsfirstpartis
"ItemsintherevisionoftheRatioforrevieworproposaltoFatherGeneral,"then"ItemsrevisedbythecommitteeatTusculum,May1598,''and,inaseparatefolio,
"FatherGeneral'sdecisionsafterthebookwasreviewedinhispresence."Therevisioncommitteetried,asfaraspossible,tomakeatableofthenotesandrequestsof
theprovinces.Therewasunanimouspetitiontoshortenthelistofrules:manyofthesamerulesappearinseveralplacestherulesforpietyanddevotion,forexample,
wereduplicatedintherulesofalltheteachers.Probablytheideawasthateachonehaveacompletesetofrulesforhisoffice,butnottheentirebook.Toavoidthis
duplication,commonruleswereadoptedforallprofessorsinthehigherfaculties,andalsoforteachersinthelowerones.Forgreaterbrevitysomeruleswere
dropped,andothersputmoreconcisely.Therewerefarfewerrules.The1591Ratiohad837,the1599Ratio467theprovincialfirsthad96rules,thenonly40.

AnothergoalwastoavoidundulygreatuniformityinapplyingtheRatio.Acquaviva,asnoted,grantedmanyconcessionstothatendaftertheFifthGeneral
Congregation.Theconcerncanbedetectedatworkintheireditingoftherules,wheremostofallinDtext,butalsoinC,manyqualifierswereintroduced:"ifthe
situationallows,""modifyaccordingtolocalusage,""whereneeded,""attheinstructor'sdiscretion."Thisway,prescriptiverulesweremitigated.

ThetexthadnoParsspeculativaorDelectusopinionumtheFifthGeneralCongregationsentitsdecisionsabouttheminmanuscriptformtotheprovinces.Inthe
printedtexttheywereprudentiallyomitted,savethattherulesfortheprofessorsofScriptureandscholastictheology,gaveprinciplesaboutthedoctrinetheywereto
profess.TheAppendicesofthe1591Ratiowerealsodropped.FatherGenerallatergavespecialconcessionsinimplementingtheRatiototheprovincialsin
individuallyaddressednotes,perhapstomaketheirtemporarycharacterandtheconsequentpossibilityofchangingandadaptingthemtonewneedsmoreevident.A
completelynewseriesofruleswasattached:seminar(academiae)rules,andtherulesforrepeatinghigherstudies,forexample.

Thebook's1599Neapolitaneditionwastheprincipalone.Otherscameshortlylater:atMainzin1600,againatNaplesin1603,andatRomein

 Page46

1608,1610,and1616.TheSeventhGeneralCongregationrevisedandapprovedfortextin1616,leavingitunchangedapartfrommodificationsintherulesfor
provincialsaboutthestudiesofJesuitscholastics.

AllthislefttheSocietywithanunanticipatedrigidity.ButdidlatergenerationsforgettheIgnatianprincipleintheConstitutions,definedbytheFifthGeneral
Congregation,andhandedontoposterity,thattheRatiomustbeadaptedtothetimesaccordingtonewneedsofplaceandpeople?If,infact,theRatiotextstayed
fixed,inpracticenevertheless,many,oftenprofound,innovationsweremade,especiallyintheeighteenthcentury.InAustria,forexample,in1773(theyearthe
Societywassuppressed),JesuitswereteachingGermanin7colleges,Frenchin12,Italianin3,Bohemianin2,Hungarianin6,Germanliteraturein2,historyin5,
geographyinone,architecturein3,geometryin3,technicaldrawingin2,mechanicsin5,hydrographyinone(Trieste),agronomyinone,andeconomicsin2.

 Page47

MathematicsintheJesuitRatioStudiorum
GiuseppeCosentino

TheoriginofthemodelthateventodaymoldsEuropeanscholasticcurricula,savetechnicalandprofessionalones,fromelementaryschooluptouniversity,isthe
RatiostudiorumpromulgatedbyClaudeAcquaviva,fifthGeneralSuperior(15801615)oftheSocietyofJesus.TheRatiostudiorummeritsthishistoric
importance,foritwasnotjustatheoreticalplan,butaschemathatanimatedtheorganizationandfoundationofthefirstunifiedsecondaryeducationsystemEurope
everknew.Arguably,creationofthesystemwasakeyeventthat,alongwiththeriseofneweconomicandsocialstructures,andanewunderstandingofscience,
helpedbringaboutthemodernworld.

EducationaltheoristsandculturalhistorianshaveidentifiedHumanismandClassicismintheRatiostudiorum,thepedagogicalmethodsitadopted,andothersuch
features.Sciencehistorians,however,havenotstudiedtheRatio,despitetheimportanceofmanyJesuitscientists,andmathematicsteachersintheSociety'sschools
especially,forseventeenthandeighteenthcenturysciencehistory.Also,manyfirstrankfiguresattendedJesuitschoolsamongthescientists,takeDescartes,
educatedattheCollegeofLaFlche.

Infact,uptothelastquarteroftheeighteenthcentury,manyofthebetteryouthofcontinentalEurope,includingPolandandHungary,didpreuniversitystudiesat
Jesuitschools.(TheBritishIsleshadschoolstoo,andmanyEnglishladscametostudyincontinentalJesuitcolleges.)Itisthenimportantforthehistoryofmodern
sciencetoascertaininJesuiteducationthepresenceandweightaccordedintheSociety'steachingto"scientific"(inthelate1500ssense)topicsthatwerespecifically
"mathematics."So,usingJesuitdocumentsprimarily,weshalltrytoreconstructthevicissitudesofthematerialfromitsfirstappearanceataJesuitcollege(inMessina)
uptopromulgationofthedefinitivetextoftheofficial1599Ratiostudiorum.Morethanjustexplicatingthe1599Ratio'sfew,spareremarksaboutmathematicswe
muststudythemastheendproductoftheentireformationandconsolidationprocessoverthedevelopmenthistoryoftheSociety'sRatiostudiorumitself.

 Page48

1
FromJeromeNadal'sFirstMathematicsProgram(1548)totheConstitutions(1553/4)

IgnatiuswrotetheConstitutionsbetween1541and1550,addingnewpartsandrevisingothersuptohisdeathin1556.Thisfundamentaltextdefinedthelifeofthe
SocietyofJesus.TheFourthPartonstudies(DeiisquiinSocietateretinenturinstruendisinlitterisetaliisquaeadproximosadjuvandosconferunt)hastwo
sections:itsfirsttenchapters(Ignatiuswrotemostin1550)regulatethecolleges.Chapters1117,datingtotheendof1553orearly1554,treatJesuitsponsored
universities.1

Chapters1215compriseordinancesforthehigherstudycourses.2 Ignatiusintendedthat"commonlyinthecollegesLitteraeHumaniores,languages,andChristian
Doctrine,and,ifnecessary,somereadingofCasesofConscience,bepresented.Ifanyonecanpreachappropriately,orhearconfessions,thatshouldbedonetoo.
Butthereistobenotreatmentofthehighersciences.RatherthoseinthecollegeswhohaveexcelledinLitteraeHumanioresshouldbesenttotheSociety's
universitiestolearnthesesciences."3 Hisdirective,however,wasnotalwayshonored.Thelargercollegesoftenhadphilosophyandtheologycourses,tothechagrinof
St.Ignatius'secretary,JuandePolanco.4

TheFirstGeneralCongregationapprovedtheConstitutionswithfewmodificationsin1558,twoyearsafterthedeathoftheOrder'sfounder,andthisleftthetextof
Ignatiusalmostunchanged.

TheConstitutionslimitthemselvestogivinggeneralcriteria,lettingforthemostpartafuturedirectivefixparticularsfortheorderoflecturesandexercises,curriculum
content,anddetailsaboutteaching:"prescribedhoursforlectures,theirorderandmanner,compositionexercises(whichtheinstructorshouldcorrect),disputationsin
thevariousfaculties,publicspeechesandpoetrywillbetreatedindetailinadocumentapprovedbyFatherGeneral,towhichthisconstitutionrefersus,whileurging
thatallbeaccommodatedtoplaces,times,andpersons,eventhoughitsdirectivesshouldbeobservedasfaraspossible."5

InvaluableexperiencewashadafterIgnatiuswrotethesechapters,andfromthiscamedirectives,programs,anddidacticmethodsthat,wonafirst,mostlypositive,
review.HerewenoteespeciallytheexperienceoftheCollegeofMessinawhichbeganhighercoursesin1548.JeromeNadal'sscholasticprogramsgrew,orwere
basicallyformulatedfromthatexperience.InAugust1553,attherequestofMartindeOlave,RomanCollegedirectorandprofessoroftheology,Nadalcomposed
fortheRomanCollege(foundedin1551,thoughhighercoursesonlybeganin

 Page49

1553),theOrderofLecturesandExercisesinUniversitiesoftheSocietyofJesus.

TheCollegeofMessinawasthefirstinItalytoinstructexternstudents.BeginningafterEasterof1548,coursesinlogic,scholastictheology,GreekandHebrewwere
developedinthehigherfaculty.6 AttheendofSeptember,inviewoftheopeningofthefirstregularscholasticyear,therector,JeromeNadal,7 compiledandsentto
RomeforapprovaltheLaws...andConstitutions8 oftheCollege.Thesealsoincludedabriefandspecificmathematicsprogram.Itstoodapartfromthoseofthe
otherhighercourses,suchasphilosophy(logic),scholastictheology,GreekandHebrew,insofarasitspecifiedstudytextsandtheirorderofexplication,whilethe
directivesfortherestwereofanorganizationalanddidacticnatureonly:"[Themathematicsprofessor]willreadmathematicsoutsidetheregularorderatatimethe
Rectorshalldeembest:first,somebooksofEuclid,untilthestudentsarefamiliarwiththedemonstrations,thenthePracticalArithmeticofOrontius,andhisSphere,
Stobler'sAstrolabe,andPeurbach'sTheoricae."9

Herewasanambitiousprogramthatputmathematicsonaparwiththeotherdisciplines.InadditiontoEuclid'sElements,thetextswereamongthebestthen
available:thePracticalArithmeticinFourBooks,andtheWorldSphere,orCosmography,ofOrontiusFinaeus,theConstructionandUseoftheAstrolabeby
JohnStoeffler,andGeorgePeurbach'sNewPlanetaryTheory.10Togethertheycomprisedincurrenteditionsabout13001400pages,notcountingEuclid's
Elements.Thetimeandintellectualmaturitywhichstudentsworkingfromelementarygeometryandarithmeticneededtounderstandthecomplicatedschemesof
planetarymotionaccordingtoPtolemaictheory("untiltheyarefamiliarwiththedemonstrations"),wasclearlynotsomethingthatshouldbedemandedfortopicsof
onlyminorimportance.

Nadalwasaveryculturedman.BesidesknowingScripture,Greek,Hebrew,ScholasticandDogmaticTheology,hewasagoodmathematicianwhohadtaughtthe
scienceatParis:"Nadalislearnedinmathematics,whichhereadinParis(asIbelieveyouknow),andquitediligentatit."11AccordingtoPolanco,Nadalalsotaught
themathematicsprogramatMessinafromthestartofthescholasticyear1549/50.12

WelearnfromaNadalletterthatthereweretwomathematicscourses,one"inpublicschool."13AsecondNadaldocument,in1552,strengthenedandadjustedthe
mathematicsprogramofthe1548directives.HisDestudiigeneralisdispositioneetordineoutlinedathreeyearmathematicscourseforthefirstandthirdyearsof
whichthe1548

 Page50

programprovidedthematerial:"ThefirstreadingisfromEuclidandfromapracticalarithmetic,aswellasfromastronomicalprinciples,thesocalledSphere.Unless
somethingmoreusefulappears,thisshouldbetheCosmographiaofOrontius.Thefirstreadingwilltreattheseprinciples,andoccupythefirstyearitwillalsobe
offeredyearly.LetasmuchEuclidaspossibleberead,sincepracticalarithmeticandtheSpheredonotusuallyneedthatmuchtime.Itisappropriateinthisreadingto
explainsometopicsfromotherbranchesofmathematics,forexample,fromRegiomontanus'DeomnimodistriangulisorfromJordanus,etc."14Theprogrambegan
withgeometryandarithmeticandcontinuedwithcosmography.TodeferastronomytothirdyearallowedanindepthstudyofEuclid,aswellasintroductiontothe
trigonometryneededforabetterideaofthemotionsandrelativepositionsofthecelestialbodies.Thespecifiedtexts,apartfromOrontiusFinaeus,weretheDe
triangulisofJohannesMuellerandtheDetriangulisofJordanusNemorarius.15Thethirdyearhadanextendedtreatmentofastronomy."Thethirdlectureeachyear
willtreatastronomy,startingwithTheoriaplanetarum.TopicscanalwaysbetakenfromPtolemy'sGreatSynthesis(Almagest),oratleastfromtheEpitomeof
Regiomontanus,theAlphonsineTables,theAstrolabe,etc."16

Toexpandtheearlierprogramintotwoyearswasanotableaccomplishment:TheAstrolabeandtheTheoryofPlanetsstayed,andtheAlphonsineTableswere
there,but,aboveall,thePtolemaictextcouldbebroughtintothelectures,oratleastsomethingfromMueller'sEpitomeofPtolemy'sAlmagest.17AsReinhold,
commentingonPeurbach,notedinhisprefacetoTheoricaenovae,thedifferencebetweenthatworkandthoseofPtolemyandRegiomontanuswasnotsomuchtheir
goalsastheirdepthoftreatment:"Therearetwokindsofexplanation.Onegivesonlythetohoti( )oftheart:bareandbriefprinciples,eitherpropositionsor
rules,aregivens,butwithoutreasonordemonstration.Thesecondkindgivesalsothedioti,( ),thatis,barepropositionsandrulesarenotjustrepeated,but
propercausesarecarefullyanalyzed,effectsanddemonstrationsareunified.ThatishowtheAlmagestandRegiomontanus'sEpitomegivethediotiofastronomical
motionandphenomena.ButthisIsagogehasalmostthetohotionlyoftheart:ithasasimplestatementoftheSun'smotionbutnoexplanationorreasonsforit."18

Opticsandthetheoryofmusiccameinsecondyear,whichhadalltheprogram'sphysics[naturalphilosophy]."Thesecondlecturetreatsmusictheoryand
perspective.Eitherthecommontext,orWitelo's,isreadforperspective,formusic,eitherFabiusStapula'stext,orsomemore

 Page51

convenientone.Somepracticalgeometryandmensuration,takenfromanyauthor,maybeputinthislecture,etc."Witelo'streatiseDenatura,ratione,et
projectioneradiorumvisus,luminum,colorum,atqueformarum,quamvulgoPerspectivumvocant,libriX,19wasrecommendedforperspectiveformusic
theory,theMusicalibrisquattuordemonstrara20ofFabiusStapula(Lefevred'Etaples).

Nadal'sseconddocumenthadanatureandpurposeverydifferentfromthefirst,whichgavetherulesoftheCollegeofMessinaandthecoursesandprogramsthat
wereactuallytaught.Buthere,asLukacsrightlynoted(inhisneweditionofthisandotherfirstperiodSocietyeducationpapers),wehaveapreparatorytextforthe
DestudiischaptersintheIgnatianConstitutions.InMarch1552IgnatiusaskedNadaltoreadandannotatepartsoftheConstitutions.Theannotationswereduein
RomethatyearbytheendofOctober.HisdocumentcanbetakenatleastasapartialresponsetoIgnatius.

Nadaltreatedatlengthhigherstudies:languages(Greek,Hebrew,andOriental),theartscourse(philosophyandmathematics),andtheology.Mathematicsheset
complementarytothenaturalphilosophyandmetaphysicscourse.Becausethelatterwasaffordedtreatmentequaltothatformathematics,itbecameathreeyear
course,andtheentireartscoursefouryears,withthefirstoneforlogic:"Inthelastthreeyears,orso,thoseenteringtheprogramwillprofessnaturalphilosophyand
metaphysics,thatis,Aristotle'sDephysicoauditu(8books),Decaelo(4),Demeteorologicis(4),Degenerationeetcorruptione(2),Deanima(3),Parva
NaturaliaandMetaphysica(12).Threereadersaretoreadtheminthreeclasses,atleastbytheprogram'sthirdyear."Thephilosophershadfourhoursofclass:two
forlectures,twoforrepetitionofthelectures."Thisgivesthemtimetohearthemathematicslecture."21

Everyday,however,theprofessorwastohaveasinglemathematicslectureforeachofthethreeclassesof"metaphysics"(=physicsormetaphysics,todistinguish
thesestudentsfromthoseinthefirstyearartslogiccourse)."Themathematicsprofessorwillalsoreadlectures,andhewillhavenootherdailyassignment,exceptthat
hehimselfwillrepeatthelectureheardwiththepreceptorpresentheassignshisownthesisdefendersformonthlyandannualdisputations.Hewillarrangehis
prelectionssoastoreadonelecturethefirstyeartherearestudentsinlogicandphysics(onlythephysicsstudentsaretohearmathematics)twolecturesthesecond
year,threethethird,andalwaysthreeafterthat."22Thisway,onereaderwoulddoforathreeyearmathematicscourse.

 Page52

PromotionoftheGanda(Spain)andMessinapublicschoolstouniversitystatusmovedIgnatiustoseekappropriateguidelinesandaspecificparadigmfortheSociety
touseinallfutureefforts,aswellasgeneralcriteriafortheConstitutions.Messinaprovedusefulforsuchaparadigm.IgnatiusvaluedNadal's1548planofstudiesso
muchthatheapproveditwithfewchanges.InDecember1550ClaudeLeJaywrotetoIgnatiusfromGermany:"Whatauthorsshouldwereadforgrammar,rhetoric,
philosophy,andtheology?PleaseanswerwiththelisttheMessinacollegepublishedofitsreadersandlectures."23ForsometimeMessinawastheonlyparadigmits
schoolswerethefirstexamplesofthemodusparisiensisadaptedtotheorientationandneedsoftheSocietyofJesus.24TheRomanCollege,foundedin1551,had
schoolsofgrammarandhumanitiesstudentsoftheGermanCollege,establishedthenextyear,alsocametheretofinishtheirstudiesinphilosophyandtheology.For
thatreasonIgnatiusentrustedtoFatherMartinodeOlave,boththeRomanCollegerectorshipandthetaskofpreparingastudiesdocumentfortheSociety's
university.Olaveprobablydelivereditcompleteinthesummerof1553.25

Olave'sOrdolectionumetexercitationuminuniversitatibusSocietatisIesushortenedthephilosophycourseinNadal'sprogramfromfourtothreeyears.26
Olave,atheologian,didnottrytogivespecificdirectivesforthemathematicscourse,butsimplyrecommendedadequatetreatment."BesidestheAristotelian
professorsthereshouldalsobesomeonetoreadmathematicsaswellasthegoodandusefulpartsofastrology.ThiswillbeatanhourthatletstheAristotlescholars
asagrouphearandcomparethatartwithAristotle'sdoctrine."27Thehorariumprescribedanhouroflectureeachdayexceptinthefirstsemester.Thismadethe
mathematicscoursetwoandahalfyears.28

Rightaway,however,mathematicsgotalesserroleinRomanCollegepractice,whichitlaterkeptinJesuitschools.Inthescholasticyear1553/54theinstructor,
BalthasarTorres,alsoreadnaturalphilosophy,countertoOlave'sideaofassigningmathematicsinstructiontoanappointedreader.Harshrealityprobablywas
decisiverightawayincurtailingtheprogram,and,evenmore,inlimitingfoundationofchairsofmathematics.TofindJesuitprofessorsabletoteachthehighlytechnical
coursesNadalprescribedwasnoteasy.NaturalphilosophyteacherslikeTorresweresurelycompetenttoteachbriefandsummarycomplementarymathematics
courses,butspecialistswereneededforanexpandedthreeyearprogram.AttimestheywererecruitedfromoutsidetheSociety,for

 Page53

example,Maurolyco,whotaughtatMessina.29Butthiswasalwaysexceptional,andcouldnotsolvetheproblem.Clavius,asweshallsee,deploredthisdearthof
academicspecialists.Forhim,thetaskofteacherformationwasbasictothestruggletoassuretheSocietyandtheChurchthescientistshebelievedwereofvital
importance.IgnatiusdoubtlessthoughttheroleofmathematicsinNadal'sprogram,andeveninOlave's,wasexcessive.

Nadal,atonetimemathematicsprofessorinParis,surelyknewtheconflictbetweentheuniversityandFrenchhumaniststhatcenteredonlanguageandmathematics.
In1531FrancisIfoundedsixRoyalChairsintheuniversity,thanksabovealltotheeffortsoftheHumanistBud.Languagesweregivenfive:threeforHebrew,two
forGreek.Mathematicshadone,30entrustedspecificallytoOrontiusFinaeus,whosetextswerecentralinNadal'sprogram.Later,achairforphysicalscience,
astronomy,geography,andmedicinewasalsocreated.

IgnatiuswelcomedGreek,Hebrew,andevenorientallanguages(thatmissionariesneeded)intotheSociety'sratiostudiorumandcodifiedtheminthe
Constitutions.31ButstrongmathematicsprogramswerenotnecessarilyassuredapresenceonaccountoftheproperneedsoftheOrderanditsschools,the
objectiveofwhichwas,andremained,theformationoftheologiansandmissionaries.

TheConstitutionsreferbrieflytomathematics,butonlytofixsomecriteriaasnormative,indicatingexplicitlytheRomanCollegepolicyofmakingmathematics
complementarytophysicsasaspecificparadigmforitemsthathadnoplaceintheConstitutions."AccommodateRomanCollegerulestoothercasesasbefits
each."32

Thesoleconcessiontomathematicsteachingoccursina"Declaration,"whereIgnatiusconfirmedsubordinationof"profanesciences"totheSociety'sapostolicgoal:
"Logic,metaphysics,moralscience,andmathematicstotheextentthatitaccordswiththegoalproposedforusaretobetaught."32bisWhatwas"thegoalproposed
forus"foundclearexplanationinthePreface:"SincethegoaltowhichtheSocietyrightlytendsistohelpattaintheultimateendofone'sownsoulandthatofthe
neighbor's,forwhichtheywerecreated,andsinceforthis,inadditiontotheexampleofone'slife,bothlearningandawayofexplainingitarenecessary...inthose
admittedtoprobation,...wemusttreatLettersandthewaytousethisknowledge.''33Thisisnosterileaffirmationofprinciple,intendedtostandwithout
consequence,butratherapointofpermanentreference,operativeintheIgnatianvision.Thegoalwasalready

 Page54

clearintheFifthChaptermaterialaboutthestudiesofJesuitscholastics:"ThegoaloflearningintheSocietyistohelp,withGod'sgrace,one'sownsoulandour
neighbor's.Thisisthenorm,ingeneralandforparticularpersons.WhatdisciplinesOursshouldlearn,andhowfartheyshouldprogressinthemshouldbedecided
accordingly.Generallyspeaking,theliteratureofvariouslanguages,logic,naturalandmoralphilosophy,metaphysicsandtheology,bothscholasticandpositive,and
SacredScripturehelptothisend.Thosesenttothecollegesshoulddostudiesinthesedisciplines,andsomewillworkwithgreatereffortinthosethattheprefectof
studiesshalljudgemorefittingintheLord,takingintoaccounttime,place,andpersons,etc."34

ThisideabecamemorepreciseinthechapteronstudiesintheSociety'suniversities:"SincethegoaloftheSocietyandofstudiesistohelpourneighbortoa
knowledgeandloveofGodandthesalvationofhissoul,andsincethefacultyoftheologyisamoreaptmeanstothisend,theSociety'suniversitiesshouldmake
specialeffortsinthisregard."34bisWhatdistinguishedthischapter(of1553/4)fromtheearlierone(writtenatthestartof1550),apartfromtheirdiverseobjects,was
theintentionalrankingofdisciplinesinalistshowingahierarchyoffunctionallyinterrelatedsciencesrelativetotheology,whichrepresentedthe"knowledgeandloveof
God,"andsosetthegoalfortherest.Inchapterfive,theologyendedaseeminglycasualorder.Hereittopsaladderwithcarefullyindicatedsteps:"Becausethe
teachingoftheologyaswellasitsusedemands,especiallytoday,knowledgeofhumaneletters,andLatin,Greek,andHebrewtoo,suitableprofessors,ingood
number,shouldbepreparedforthispurpose.Instructorscanbereadiedforotherpracticallanguages,Chaldee,Arabic,andHindi,whentheseseemneededoruseful
forthegoalproposed,rememberingthedifferentregions'needsandthereasonsforteachingthem."Moreover,philosophyandothersciencesshouldbestudied
insofarastheypreparethemindforthestudyoftheology.Throughtheologythesedisciplinesaimatthesalvationofsouls:"Soalsosincetheartsandnaturalsciences
disposethemindtotheologyandaiditsperfectknowledgeanduse,andbythemselveshelptothatgoal,theyshouldbetaughtwithequalcare,andbycompetent
instructors,sincerelyseekinginallthingsGod'shonorandglory."34ter

IgnatiusrecommendedfollowingAristotlecloselyinthephilosophicalandnaturaldisciplines:"Inlogic,naturalandmoralphilosophy,andmetaphysics,Aristotle's
doctrineshouldbefollowed."35

Whatmathematicsthenincluded(which,afterarithmetic,geometry,and

 Page55

later,algebra,wasinpartmechanics,perspectiveoroptics,musictheory,astronomy,cosmography,geography,astrology,andsurveying)hadnothingdirectlyrelevant
tothegoalproposedforJesuitteaching,incontrasttophilosophy,andspecificallytothose"artsornaturalsciences"which"disposedthemindtotheology"insofaras
theywerearationalorganizationofallhumanexperienceoftheworld.

Existenceofabasicrapportbetweenthevariousdisciplinesandtheologyasthecriterionforadmittingthemintothestudiescurriculum,andfortheirvalueafter
admission,wasalreadyaffirmedbySt.IgnatiusintheAugust1553RatioordinandistudiiuniversitatisCampostellanaewhere"thepartsofmathematicsa
theologianshouldknow"wereinfactlistedamongthetopicsforstudy.36Yetthisdoctrinalandpurelyinternallogiccouldnotbepushedtothelimit,iffornoother
reasonthanthattheSocietywasalwaysrealisticaboutitsagendathatnecessarilytookitintoafastchangingexternalworld.Bornasamilitantorganizationtostruggle
intheworld,theSocietyneversawtheologyasanendinitself,butonlyasapropermeansforthesalvationofsouls.37

Jesuitactionnevershowedabstractdoctrinalrigidity,butratheranabilitytoadaptmeanstoends.Greatpragmatism,withadamanceaboutnonnegotiablegoalsand
principles,markedtheSocietyearlyoninitsacademicworkalso.In1548,Ignatius'secretary,JuandePolanco,sawliterary,philosophical,andtheologicalformation
asmeanstotheSociety'sgoal,andurgedthatformationlooktothemoreimportantareas,forexample,heresyandheretics."Toseemorenecessarymattersasmore
important,ortotreatcarefullycriticaltopics,isarationalpolicy,e.g.,topicsthatrelatetoheretics,andthosemoreusefulforpreaching,hearingconfessions,etc."38
Cosmographytoohadaplaceamongthesciencesforstudy.39

Fortherest,theConstitutions'directivesallowedadaptationforallthevariousspecialcases,40nordidtheyprecludefuturechangesnewtimesmightdemand.
IgnatiuslefthissuccessorstocomposeacoherentruleandspecificregulationsforstudiesintheSociety,buturgedthatallbeadaptedtoplaces,times,andpersons
("advisinghoweverthattheybeaccommodatedtoplaces,times,andpersons,althoughtheyshouldaccordwiththatdocument,asfaraspossible."Seeabove.)

Mathematicalsciencescontinuedtogainimportanceinthelatterhalfofthesixteenthcentury,andforcedintoquestionevermoreopenlytheAristoreliansystemof
sciences.Althoughatfirstthetwodevelopedatthesametime,thedaywasnearwhenthepositionOsianderquietlyattributed

 Page56

toCopernicus(heliocentrismisonlyamathematicalhypothesis)wouldbecometheOldWorldsystem'slastdefense.(See,forexample,Bellarmine'sremarks,which
alsogavetheofficialChurchposition,ontheadmissibilityofheliocentrismasapurelymathematicalhypothesis,soastobetter"savetheappearances"forplanetary
motions.)40bis

ThefortyyearsbetweentheappearanceofDerevolutionibusorbiumcoelestium(1543)andtheChurch'scondemnationofCopernicanism(February1616)saw
themathematicalscienceschangefrompurelypracticalproceduresinastronomy,astrology,business,navigation,computationoftime,surveying,andsoon,toa
worldviewatvariancewiththetraditionalonefixedintheAristotelianencyclopediaofscience.Ignatiuscouldhardlyanticipateallthatwhenhewrotethe
Constitutions,buthisreasonswereimportantandhadconsiderableweightintheformationoftheSociety'sRatiostudioruminthesecondhalfofthecentury(1547
1599),theeraof"pacific"developmentofthenewsciences."Jesuitprofessorswereatthattimechallengedbythedifficultbutvitaltaskofstoppingsecularizationof
literatureandscience."41

WeshallseethatinthelastquarterofthesixteenthcenturyChristopherClavius,themostrenownedJesuitscientistofhisday,soughtinPlatogroundsforthecognitive
andnotmerelypracticalvalueofmathematics.Claviustriedtogetforittherespectaccordedphilosophyintheordinancesforstudies.Thoughnotcompletely
successful,hisworkhadrealvalueinassuringhighlevelSocietypresenceinresearchandscientificdebateforseveraldecades

2
TheSpreadofJesuitCollegesandUniversities.
TheModusRomanus

TheSociety'sfounderwantedtheRomanschoolstoserveasmodelsforthemanyJesuitcollegesthatwouldbeassociatedwiththemevenbeforetheRatio
studiorumwaspromulgated.IgnatiuswantedtheSociety'sexperiencetomatureintoacompleteanddefinitiveplanofstudies.Tobesure,herealizedhowinnovative
itstaskwas.Hismanyreferencestothemodusparisiensisarenotacallforitspassiveadoptionanduse,butratherfordevelopmentofaquiteoriginalmodus
romanus,evenifinspiredbygoalsandstandardsuptothenidentifiedwiththeUniversityofParis.

Implementation,intheoryworldwide,ofapostelementaryschooltouniversityfacultyinstructionalsystemwasthegrandiose,unprecedentedplanthattookshape
between1548andthefoundationoftheRomanCollegethatwastobeitsparadigmandoperativecenter."TheCollege's

 Page57

planandpurposewillbegeneral"forthreereasons:first,because"itisadvisabletotesttheformforlikecollegesandstudiageneraliaintheSociety'skeeping"
second,"(because)manyJesuitsfromvariouslandshavenotcompletedtheirstudies,...itwillbeveryconvenienttoformacollegiumgeneralewherebrieflyOurs,
givingtimetoLetters,workentirelytodeveloptheirabilitybothtoteachthosewelldisposedtoreceivethetruth,andalsotowinoverthoseresistantandinimicalto
it."Last,"ithelpstohaveaseminaryespeciallyfornorthernnations(alludingtotheGermanCollege,foundedin1552,asnoted)wheretheCatholicreligionsuffersso
much,inwhichmenofthosenationsaretaughtwithexampleandsounddoctrinebypersonsoftheirownlanguagetokeepwhatremains,andrestorewhatwaslost,of
theChristianreligion."42ThiswaytheRomanCollegewasnotonlyaparadigmforallSocietyschools,butalsoa"forge''forteachersand"operarii"fromallEurope
missionedtovariousworkseverywhere.Theratiobetweenreligiousandexternstudentswasveryhigh.Later,institutionsliketheGermanCollegewereaddedfor
othernationalities,aswellastheRomanSeminaryin1564.BecausealltheirseminariansstudiedintheRomanCollege,itbecameinlargepartaninternalservicefor
boththeSocietyandtheChurchintheformationofJesuitinstructorsandsecularclergy.43AndsotheRatioStudiorumwouldevolvemostofallintheRoman
College,withelaborationofstructures,studyplans,anddocuments.

A1566manuscript44gaveaspecificplanofstudiesfortheCollege.ThedirectiveaboutclassesintheArtsFacultyisalmostthesameasthedefinitiveone.45
Mathematicsfiguresasasupplementarytopicinthesecondyear."Themathematicsprofessorlecturesinthisorder:SixbooksofEuclid,arithmetic,theSphere,
cosmography,astrology,planetarytheory,Alphonsinetables,withperspectiveforsundials.Onlysecondyearphilosophersattendtheselectures,andoccasionally,
logicians,withpermission."ThisprogramseemstofollowcloselyNadal'sprogramof1552,eventoidenticalorderingofdisciplines.However,itisaone,notathree
yearprogram,andthismakesabigdifferencehowthematteristaught.Silenceaboutauthorsandtextssuggeststhatcompendia,themselveslittlemorethan
introductionstothedisciplines,hadcomeintouse.Infact,theprogramis,inpart,foundelsewhereatthetime.Forexample,intheUniversityofSalamancathe
mathematicsprofessorexplained"[in]thesecondyearsixbooksofEuclid,arithmetictosquareandcuberoots,Ptolemy'sAlmagest,orRegiomontanus'Epitome,or
Geber,orCopernicus,attheauditors'pleasureasasubstitute,theSphere."

 Page58

Thirdyearhascosmographyandgeography.46Thisisatwoyearcourse,betweenwhatNadalwantedandwhattheRomanCollegehad.Disciplinesandsequence
arethesame,andthetextsselectedamongthebetterones(Copernicusstandsoutrightaway!),thoughwithfeweroptionsthanNadal'sprogram.Sowemayinferthat
astandardmathematicsprogramwastheninplace,andtaughtonamoreorlessadvancedlevelwithdirectreadingoforiginaltextsoruseofsimplemanuals,astime
allowed.

Anarticulated,fullydetailedRatiostudiorumhadtomeetthreerequirements:ithadtobeinternallycoherent,compatiblewiththeSociety'sgoalsandcultural
orientation,andrelevanttotheexternalscene,insofarastheSocietywasbecomingthelargestChristianbodygiventoeducatingyouth.

Ledesma'streatise,47datedtoearly1575,theyearhedied,didnotaimtobeameredirectivetofixjobdescriptionsforprofessorsandofficials,classsequences,
coursematerial,studyprograms,orlecturehours.Rather,itlookedtogivealogicallytightsymbiosisforthedisciplinesinvolved.Itssynoptictableuniquelywitnesses
toahighlyunifiedsynthesiswithauthoritativeprecedentinonecarefullytakenfromtheConstitutions,Part4,chapter12,whichrequiredallstudiestobedirectedto
theSociety'sultimategoal.LedesmamadethetabletoshowtheinterdependenceofthesubjectshewouldtreatsystematicallyinDerationeetordinestudiorum
CollegiiRomani,48thoughhedidnotgetbeyonddiscussionofthehumanitiesclass.Hissynoptictableputthemathematicaldisciplinesamongtheliberalarts,along
withmoralphilosophyandtheartscoursethatcomprisedlogic,physics,andmetaphysics.InitscomplexitytheschemaresembledthatoftheConsuetudinesand
correspondedtothedefinitiveschemafixedintheRatioetinstitutiostudiorum.

Fortunately,Ledesmaleftabriefmanuscript,Deartiumliberaliumstudiis,49adraftperhapsofatreatiseplannedonthesubject.Paragraph15treatedmathematics.
"Mathematicaldisciplinesmustnotbeomitted,butreadintheuniversitiesinanextraordinarylecture,50eitherbysomeonewhostartedanothercoursetheyearbefore,
orbysomeoneelse.Inprivatecolleges,however,aphilosophyinstructorshoulddothis,ifconvenientotherwisesomeoneelsewillexplicatemathematicsasmuchas
befitsthegoalproposedtous.KnowledgeoftheSphereistheabsoluteminimum.OursstudyingacademicLettersshouldalsohearthisdisciplineastheyhear
philosophy,orifthisisnotpossible,whentheyheartheology.ThoseespeciallywhomSuperiorswanttoprepareforpublicliberalartslecturesshouldbetrainedinthe
discipline."Interestingly,Ledesma'sshorttext

 Page59

movesfrommereprogrammaticdetailstowhataresurelyproblemareasinactualteaching,theverylifeoftheschool.Twodifferentmathematicalstudylevelswere
planned.One,forallstudents,religiousandextern,listedwhathethoughtwastheleastacultivatedpersonshouldknowaboutthetopic:"KnowledgeoftheSphereis
theabsoluteminimum."Theotherlevelwasforreligiouschosentoteach"liberalarts"(thatis,philosophy,ethics,andmathematics),andmoregenerallyforanyone
whowantedadegree.VeryfewJesuitsorexternstookthemasterofartsdegreeitwasenoughtoattendthecourse,movingfromfirsttofinalyear(passingtheso
called"scrutinies,"thatis,comprehensiveevaluationsinaseriesofquestionoressaytestssetoverthecourse,orinitslastmonths),tobeabletoentertheology,or
medicine,orlawinanotheruniversity.Sobothmathematicsprograms,liketheothersmentioned,wereeitherincompletelytaughtbyinstructorsabletoteachjustonly
acompendium,orwerenotcompletedbythestudents,savethosewithsomereason:adesiretoteachmathematics,orapersonalinterestinit.

Relatedtocourseofferingswasthefacultyrecruitmentproblem.Ledesma'splans,optingtorelyonexpediency,precludedrecruitmentofspecialistteachers,an
inevitableconsequenceofthemarginalpositionthedocumentassignedmathematicsrelativetophilosophyinJesuitschools.Theparagraph'sfirstwordstoldagood
dealabouttherealconditionoftheprograms:ifLedesmafelttheneedtourgethatmathematicswasnottobeneglected,heintimatedthatneglectoftenoccurred.The
directiveabouttheSphere(thatatleastwasstudied!)clashedwiththe1566RomanCollegeprogram.Yetthatwasaplannedprogram,whileLedesma'sremarks
seemtorefertotheactualpractice.Butnoonewastodotheartsprogramwithoutsomemathematics,aswemayconcludefromLedesma'srecommendationincase
itwasnotpossibletodothisintheartsprogram,thenatleastdoitduringthefouryearsoftheology.Hislastpoint,asthecontextshows,referredtosmallercolleges
thathadnochancetofoundachairofmathematics.Yetinfact,mathematicswasoftenseenasoneofmanysciencesthatcouldbeforegone,andsostudentswerenot
heldtothelevelofproficiencyandprogresssetforphilosophy,thetrueandpropercourse.

TheSociety'sfirstyearssawfewmathematicschairs:inItalyupto1590,justthoseatRomeandMessinainFrancetherewerenoneupto1592.51Notices
circulatedofapossibleinstructorshipatPrague("Alectureinmathematicswillalsobegiven,providedtherearebooksandstudents.")in1556,52andofoneat
Colognefortheteachingoftheelementsof

 Page60

mathematics,butwithnoprofessornamedintheprogramsof1576/77and1578/79.53AtCoimbra,accordingtoadocumentdated1561/62,therewasahalthour
dailymathematicslecture"intheRomanmanner."54

Mathematics,then,notonlyfailedtogettheautonomyandprestigeNadalenvisionedforitrelativetophilosophy,butinsteadtendedrightawaytoslipoutofthe
curriculum.AftertheRomanCollege,manyothercollegeswereestablishedinItaly,France,Germany,Bohemia,Hungary,Spain,Portugal,Poland,andalsooverseas.
Thenewschools'teachingstaffsneededhundredsofmastersanddoctors.TheSocietyhadtoprovidethemeitherbyrecruitingmaturescholarsfromitsranksorby
settingupteacherformationprograms.Andyetbecauseoftheenormousproblemsfinancial,organizational,juridical,andpoliticalthatthistumultuousgrowth
begot,itsbettermenwereallnecessarilyatworkmeetingthemosturgentbasicandimmediateneeds.

Firstofall,theyneededtosetupfacilitiesandgetinstructors,tostartbasiccourses.Thenthemodusromanushadtobeadaptedforclassdivisionandpedagogical
method.NadalwasoneofthosewhomovedheavenandearthtoestablishJesuitschoolsthroughoutEuropeandtoimplementcorrectlythemodusromanus.55Even
so,despitehismanycommitments,hehadtogetinvolvedagainwiththescienceshetaughtinParisbeforeheenteredtheSociety:hishelpwasneededtoassuretheir
integraladmissionintotheJesuitschoolprograms.

3
TheWorkofChristopherClaviusandtheElaborationoftheOfficialRatioStudiorumoftheSocietyofJesus

DebateaboutmathematicsteachingandtherolethedisciplineshadrelativetotheothersciencesandstudenteducationcontinuedamongRomanCollege
mathematicians.Twoofthem,GerolamoTorres(notBalthassarTorres,theCollege'sfirstmathematicsteacher)andChristopherClavius,leftnotesthatareinvaluable
forinternalreconstructionofthethematiccomplex,inideologyandpragmatics,linkedtothequestionofmathematicsteaching.Interestingly,Nadalcollaborated,orat
leastexchangedideaswiththem,forthebottomofoneofTorres'pagesshowsnotesinNadal'shand.ThetextisDestudiismathematicispublishedinMonumenta
Paedagogica(1sted.)alongwithTorres'othershortnoteonthesametopic,doneincollaborationwithChristopherClavius.56

TheytreatedtwobriefschemataformathematicsprogramsmodeledonthoseofNadal,Olave,andtheConsuetudinis.Thecourseshouldbetwoyears,withlogic
andphysicsinthephilosophycourse,thatis,inthefirst

 Page61

twoyearsoftheartsprogram.Inthefirstschema,threemonthsofpracticalarithmetictaughtduringthesummerautumnatthestartoftheacademicyear(August
SeptemberOctober)precededthetwoyears.ThethreemonthsledtoanotherfourorfivemonthsforEuclidandareview.Thesecondschemawantedprivate
readingsonfeastdaysinthethirdyear.Therewerealwaystwolectures,morningandafternoon,thefirstforbeginners,theotherforthosealreadystarted.57

Thesetwodocumentsarealmostthefirstones,toourknowledge,entirelyaboutmathematics.ButwhileTorres'notesshowa"technical"character,andaimto
developanoptimalcombinationofdisciplinesinthemathematicscourseforthetimeallotted,Clavius'twobrieftextshaveaquitedifferentcharacterandpurpose
unfortunately,likeTorres',theyareundated.Nadal'swrittencommentsmakethemnolaterthan1580,theyearhedied,yettheircontentandtoneseemstoputthem
later,aspartofthepreparatoryworkforthefirstdraftoftheRatiosudiorumthatbeganin1581withFatherGeneralClaudeAquaviva'sappointmentofafirst
commissionoftwelvefathers.

Clavius,infact,aimedtosell,notjustexplain,aplanorprogram.Hisstyleisdiscursive,andhislogicprecise.Studyandteachingofmathematics,heargued,mustnot
bedowngraded,ashappenedthen("inourSociety,mathematicsisalmostcompletelyneglected")therewasneedrathertoadmitthediscipline'stheoreticaland
practicalvalue,andthenworktochangethesituation.Hisargumentsandproposalsappearedinthe1586Ratiostudiorumrulesforthemathematicsprofessor,which
bolsterstheconjecturethathewrotethemforthecommissioncharged"todraftaplanofstudies."Thefirstofhistwoshorttexts58decriedthegravityofthesituation.
FewJesuitsknewmathematics,andwhenthedisciplinesarediscussedinpublicorprivate,"Oursofnecessitytherefallsilent,withnolittleshameandembarrassment."
ThishurttheSocietyforithadmanygoodpracticedmathematicians.Theproblem'srootcauselayintheschoolswheremathematicswaslittleorbadlystudied
becauseofpoorteacherpreparationandmoralethatinturnledtoinsufficientstudentapplicationtothesubject.

Philosophyteacherswerethefirsttoblamefordevaluationofmathematics.Betterthatthey"avoidquestionsthathelplittletounderstandnaturalphenomena,and
greatlydetractfromtheauthorityofmathematicaldisciplinesamongtheirstudents,likethosethatdenythatthemathematicalsciencesaresciences,orhave
demonstrations,andclaimtheyareabstractedfrombeingandgoodness,etc."Eventhatisn'tenough

 Page62

fortheminprivatetheysteeryoungpeopleawayfrommathematics,"asmanydidearlier."Intruth,thephilosophersdon'tknowthebasicfactthat"thesesciences
havesuchcloseaffinitytoeachotherandtonaturalphilosophy,thatunlesstheyhelpeachother,theycanneverenhancetheirprestige."Withoutmathematics,"physics
cannotbeunderstood,especiallywhenittreatsnumberandthemotionofcelestialorbits,orthemultitudeofintelligences,thestars'effectsthatdependontheir
conjunctions,oppositions,andotherdistancesbetweenthemselves,infinitedivisionofcontinuousquantity,tidalebbandflow,winds,comets,rainbows,halosand
othermeteorologicalphenomena,orratiosofmotions,qualities,actions,passions,andreactions,thatthecalculatoresdescribed."Thelistaimedtopiquethe
professionalinterestofthosewhotaughtthesetopicsfromAristotle'sbooksor,especially,thecommentaries.Claviusraised,perhapsabitprovocatively,thequestion
of"infinitedivisionofcontinuousquantity''thatmarkedthecentralAristotelianargumentagainstthepossibilityofapplyingmathematicstophysics.Butevenif
philosophersdidnotseetheutilityofmathematicsfornaturalphilosophy,theyshouldconsiderthe"examplesinAristotle,Plato,andtheirdistinguishedinterpretersthat
areunintelligiblewithoutsomeknowledgeofthemathematicalsciences.Moreover,outofignorancehere,somephilosophyprofessorsoftenmadeegregiouserrors,
and,evenworse,publishedthemtherearemanyexamples."Also,philosophersshouldknowsomemathematics,atleasttoavoidbadsyllogisms,andenoughto
understandAristotleandotherphilosopherswhotreatsuchtopics.

Thefirstconditionfor"promotingmathematicalsciencesinJesuitschools"wastogivethemanew"image."Todothis,theyhadtoeducatetheeducators,firstthe
philosophyprofessors,whomoldedschoolopinion,andthenthemathematicsteachersandthestudents.Sotheywouldnotundervaluemathematicalsciences,"the
studentsmustbemadetorealizethesesciencesareusefulandnecessarytounderstandcorrectlytherestofphilosophy."Hewantedthemathematicsprofessortobe
atallformaloccasions,theconferralofdegreesorpublicdisputations,nexttotheotherinstructors."Thiswayitcaneasilyhappenthatstudents,seeingthe
mathematicsprofessorwiththeothersatsuchfunctions,willrealizethatphilosophyandthemathematicalsciencesarelinked,asinfacttheyare."Andlast,"inprivate
too,mastersshouldencouragestudentstolearnthesedisciplines,andstresstheirutility."

Togetfullycompetentteachers,wellmotivatedandreadytolecture,inmathematicswastheotherpartofClavius'strategy.HesharedTorres'idea

 Page63

thatpubliclecturescouldnotalwaysproducetheteachers:"However,sothattheSocietymayeverhavegoodprofessorsforthesesciences,somemembers,aptand
soinclined,shouldbeselected.Theycanbeinstructedinaprivateacademyinspecializedmathematics."Keepingwiththis,herejectedanyproposalto"reada
standardtopicinprivate,"urgingrather,asanassetfortheSocietygenerally,institutionofamathematicsacademy,privateonlybecauselimitedtoJesuitscholastics
(thosesenttotheschoolsaftertheirtwonovitiateyears,intheSociety'scase).Onelastpoint.Noonewillgetthemasterofartsdegreeoradoctorateintheology
withoutexaminationinmathematics.TheproposalconfirmsoursuspicionsaboutLedesma'sDeartiumliberaliumstudiis:forallpracticalpurposesmathematicswas
optional.Wecaneasilyguesstheconsequencesofthatsimplefactinaschoolwherecoursemarksandexaminationswerethebiggestincentivetostudy,andhow
studentsviewedsuchproposals.

Clavius'otherbriefnotedealtentirelywithfacultyproblems.59Nexttothebasicneedtoformcompetentprofessionalswasthatofestablishingtheprestigeofteaching
mathematics,andthenfortheSocietytoassignfullyformedmenforthis,notjustoneswholatelycompletedphilosophyandwereatmost24yearsold."Itseems
neitherexpedient,...noradvantageoustotheschool,whichisdiminishedandhandicapped,thatitsmastersarealmostboys,norfortheSociety'sreputationthatthey
areregularlysenttoteachthemoreimportantdisciplines."Soitisnotenoughjustthat"thosewhoaretoprofessthisscienceareexcusedfromteachinggrammar
becausetheyearaftertheycompletephilosophytheycanstudymathematicsingreaterdepthintheJesuithouse,andthenforayearortwogivepubliclectures."60
Instead,"withphilosophycompleted,theyshouldstudyforawholeyearthetopicstheyaretoteach,asalreadyagreed,butthenattendtheology,andafterthatteach
themathematicaldisciplinesforthetimeagreed.Forapartfromthefactthatbythentheywillbematuremenandpriestsandtheologians,theywillhonorthechair
ratherthanembarrassit.''Thiswaynoonewouldteachmathematicsbeforeage30.Therestofthenoteanalyzedindetailtheadvantagesofthechange.

Clavius'proposalsmeritcarefulstudyherebecausetheywerethefirsttoseetheroleofmathematicsintheRatiostudiorumasapoliticalculturalissuethatchallenged
indepthJesuitideasandaskedallschoolparties,studentsaswellasteachers,forchange.ChangewaspossibleonlyasaconsequenceofapoliticalchoicebyJesuit
superiors.Tothoseresponsibleformakingandimplementingsuchdecisions,Clavius'proposalswererevolutionary.Theytouchedallkeypointsofthequestion,and
wanted,

 Page64

notpartialremediesorpatchworktosalvagewhatcouldbesalvaged,butacomplexstrategyabletogetradicalchangeinattitudesandstructure.Claviusenjoyed
greatauthorityfromhisworkonGregoryXIII'scalendarreform,andinthepolemicthatswirledaboutthatreformandinvolvedtheprestigeoftheChurch.Clavius'
workprovedinvaluableinthatthesuccessthataccruedtotheChurchthenalsoredoundedtohisownprestigeandthatofthemathematicalsciences.61

TheGregoriancalendarreformwaseffectedin1582.Theyearbefore,1581,theSociety'sFourthGeneralCongregationmet,andelectedClaudeAquavivatoits
highestoffice.HehadamandatetopreparethedocumentonschoolsaccordingtoIgnatius'wish.

ThetwoClaviusdocumentswereprobablydoneforuseofthecommission"adconficiendamformulamstudiorum."62ThegroupcompletedadraftoftheRatioin
1585,andsentittopressthenextyear.Clavius'ideasandproposalswereacceptedforthemostpartinthisfirstdraftofthedefinitiveRatioatqueinstitutio
studiorum.Thechapter"DeMathematicis"hadagoodmanytopicshediscussedandthatwerereviewedhere.Itbeganwithanapologiaformathematics:
mathematicsisnosmallhelptotheSociety'spurpose,andindispensableforallothersciencesithasinfinitelymanypracticalusesinallcivilandreligiouslife.63This
said,ithadtoadmit,sadly,regretfully,thattheSocietylackedteachersandscholarsofthiskeymaterial.Proposalsweremadeontwolevels:schoolinstructionand
teacherformation.IfasolutioniswantedforthetaskofpreparingJesuitscientists,thetwolevelsmustoperatedistinctly.Astudyprogram,likeNadal's,couldnotbe
implementedinaschoolwhosegoalwastoawardthedoctorateintheology,notmathematics.Somathematicsshouldbeputinaspecialacademy,aprofessional
school,setintheRomanCollege:"Asecondprofessor,whocouldbeFatherClavius,shouldbeappointedtoofferamorecompletecourseofmathematicsovera
threeyearperiod,andoneofthetwoistoexplaininprivatetoabouteightortenofOurs,whohavealreadyheardphilosophyandbeenrecruitedfromdifferent
provinces,andareofatleastaverageabilityandnotaversetomathematics,atopicofhischoice,ifthisispossible.''ThekeypointofClavius'programwasinthisway
realized.Hesawitsstudentsasteacherswhowouldfosterstudyofmathematicalscienceseverywhereasalegacyofthespecialacademy.Aoneandahalfyear
courseinthefirsttwoyearsofphilosophywassetforstudentsinthenormalschool.Ofconsiderableinterest,andindicativeofClavius'influence,wasthelinkingof
mathematicsandthePosteriorAnalytics"whichcanbeunderstoodonly

 Page65

withdifficultwithoutmathematicalexamples."64

Precisedirectivesaboutlectureordercamenext:"ArrangementsshouldbemadethatEuclid'sElementsalwaysgetsmoredetailedtreatmentthanGeographyorthe
Sphere,especiallysincethelatterdonotrequirecloseknowledgeofallEuclideanprinciples,butonlyafewofthefirst,thatwillbeknownaftertwoorthreemonths.
Afterthis,theSphereorothermoreinterestingsuchtopicsshouldbetreatedinthethreequartersofanhourforthemathematicslecturewiththefirsttwo[forEuclid],
andthisarrangementshouldbekepttotheendofstudies.Later,inthesecondyear,therestofthecompendiumFatherClaviuswillcomposeshouldbeexplainedin
thefirstclasshourafterdinnertothesesameauditorswhoarethenhearingphysics.WhenEastercomes,asecondmorninglectureforthebenefitofnewlogic
studentsshouldbeadded,wherethemathematicscompendiumwillbestartedanew.Thesamecycleistobekepteveryyear."Thisway,frommidApriluntilmid
JuneEuclidwastaughtafterthis,andtotheyear'send,theEuclidlecturecontinuedforahalfhoureachday,withtheremainingquarterhourfortheSphereor
Geographyorsomesuchtopic.ButwhatwasClavius'compendium?Itshouldhaveincludedallthematerialforthemathematicscourse,whichprobablyalso
comprisedotherelementsofastronomy,arithmetic,algebraperhaps,65andphysics[optics?].NoknownworkoftheGermanscientistfitsthisdescription.Although
theRatiosaidClaviuswouldwriteit,verylikelyheneverfinishedit,ifheevenstarted.HisEpitomeofPracticalArithmeticwasascholasticmanualwhosefirst
edition,inLatin,appearedin158566atthesametimeasthedraftofthefirstRatio.AnItaliantranslator,LorenzoCastellano,inhisdedicationtoClavius,notedthat
itscontentswereinstructionalmatter:"inthisnewtranslationofmine,IhaverecordedandfixedinmemoryallIknowIlearnedfromthelivingvoiceofyour
Reverence."67Thebookletexplainedoperationsonintegersandfractions,someelementsofcommercialarithmetic,forexample,the"ruleofthree,''arithmeticand
geometricprogressions,andsquareroots.Itcouldthencomprisethefirstpartofanevercompletedcompendiumofthemathematicsprogrammaterial.Inanyevent,
thecompendiumwasunfinishedfiveyearslaterwhenthesecondRatioversion,publishedin1591,mentioned"acertainmathematicscurriculumthatFatherClavius
willcompose."68

The1591Ratioshowednoshiftofemphasisinwhatconcernedmathematicsfromthedraftof1586.IttooknewClavius'presence.Thecompendiumhewasto
preparewascitedagoodthreetimesasfoundation

 Page66

forthecourse.ArecommendationClaviusmadeinhisfirstmemorandumaboutthedeportmentofphilosophyprofessorsalsogotapproval:theymustbecarefulnotto
subverttheimportanceofmathematics,ortotakepositionsdenyingtheoriesitproposes,foroften,infact,thelesstheyunderstandthem,thegreatertheircalumnies.
69Evenso,theordinarycourselengthwaschanged,reducedtoasingleyear,andthehalfyearforlogicstudentsdroppedaltogether.Thethreeyearspecialschoolfor
Jesuitscholasticsbecamean"AcademyofMathematics,"ofsixmonthslength,withtwodailylectures."Aknowledgeableandcompetentprofessorshallexplain
mathematicstoOurstwicedaily.Theymustnotbeinvolvedinotherstudies,butdevotethemselvescompletelytolectures,repetitions,anddisputationsin
mathematics.Thosewhohavemadegreatprogressandarenotaversetothesubject,shouldbelistedforit,tosharetheirknowledgefrequentlyinprivateacademies,
andinpubliclectureasmuchasneedbe."70A"lectiopublica''71oftwohoursadaywasalsoseenasapossibility,butonlythephysicsandmetaphysicsstudents
couldattendit,withsuperiors'permission.ThecourseprogramwasthatofthefirstRatio,anditwouldstaythatwayinthedefinitiveRatio.Introducedforthefirst
timewerepublicdisputationsinmathematics,onceamonthormore,withparticipationofphilosophersandtheologiansweeklyrepetitionswerealsorequired.These
toowerekeptinthedefinitive1599Ratio.

The1599Ratiohadasuccinctanddrystyleitsdefinitiveformgaverulesbutnoreasonsorexplanations.Formathematics,the1599Ratiotookthesubstanceofthe
precedingversion,withthreerulesfortheprofessorofmathematics:"1.HewillexplainEuclid'sElementstothephysicsstudentsinaclassofaboutthreequartersof
anhour.AftertheyhavebeentaughttheElementsforabouttwomonths,heshouldintroduceabitofGeography,ortheSphere,ortopicsusuallyheardwithinterest.
ThisisdonealongwithEuclid,eitheronthesameoralternatedays.2.Eachmonth,oratleasteveryothermonth,heshouldseethatoneofhisstudentsdiscussesa
famousmathematicsproblematamajorconvocationofphilosophersandtheologians,latertherecanbeadisputation,ifappropriate.3.Onceamonth,onSaturday,
themaintopicsexplainedthatmonthshouldbereviewedinpublic,insteadofaprelection"(RulesoftheMathematicsProfessor).Andso,mathematicsishereset
definitivelyasmaterialcomplementarytophysicsinthesecondyearofthephilosophycourse.TheRatiogaveonlyasimpledecreeaboutteacherformation:thoseapt
andinclinedtomathematicsshouldbetrainedprivatelyafterthecourse.72

NoneofthethreeRatioversionsrequiredthemathematicsexamination

 Page67

Claviuswanted.Forifmathematicswereatopicforexamination,itwouldnolongerhavecomplementarystatus.Anappropriatechairwouldhavetobefoundedin
anycollegethatofferedadvancedinstruction.Butweknowthatwasneverthecaseonlythelargestcollegeshadmathematicschairs.Attheendofthesixteenth
centurythesechairsatlastbegantobecommonintheSociety,asitsscholasticorganizationleftanexperimentalperiodtoenteraphaseofstructureconsolidation.In
theseventeenthcentury,manyJesuitcollegesworldwideofferedmathematicsinstruction,theroleofwhichintheplanofstudieswasnowclear.Mathematics
complementedthephilosophycourse,andbecauseofitsobviousaffinitywithphysics,wasalwaysscheduledalongwithit,astheRatiostudiorumprescribed.

 Page68

Notes

1.MHSI(=MonumentaPaedagogicaSocietatisIesu,edited,completelyrevised,andaugmentedwithnewtextsbyLadislausLukacs,S.I.,I(15401556),Rome,
1965,p.271.WecitethiseditionasMon.Paed.1965.Theearlieredition,MonumentaPaedagogicaSocietatisIesuquaeprimamRationemstudiorumanno
1586editampraecessere,Madrid,1901,willbecitedasMon.Paed.1901.

2.C.12:DescientiisquaetradendaesuntinuniversitatibusSocietatisc.13:Demodoetordinepraedictasfacultatestractandic14:Delibrisqui
praelegendisuntc15:Decursibusetgradibus.TheofficialtextoftheConstitutionswasthatpublishedin1583(ConstitutionesSocietatisIesucumearum
declarationibus,Roma)bydecreeoftheOrder'sFourthGeneralCongregation,heldbetweenFebruaryandAprilof1581.TheConstitutionsaredividedinparts
(indicatedbyp.followedbyaRomannumeral)andparagraphs(c.followedbyanArabicnumeral)."Declarations"areattachedtoeverychapter(indicatedbyd.
followedbyacapitalletter)St.Ignatiuswastheirauthor,andtheyhavethesamelegalauthorityasthetext.

3.Const.,p.IV,c.7,d.B.Buthealsoassertedthat"theymayhoweverbestartedinthemoreimportantdisciplinesforthebenefitoftheplaceswherethecolleges
arelocated,alwayskeepinginmindwhatismorepleasingtoGod"(Const.,p.IV,c.7,p.1).

4."IntheDeclarations,letterA,oftopicsthataretobereadinthecolleges,thishasnotbeenobserved,norisitobservedinmanycollegeswheretheArtsare
read...butIthinkitshouldbeobserved,asfaraspossible"("QuaedamexConstitutionibusquaenonobservantur,interquaemultasuntetiamquaeforte
nonexpeditobservari"inCongr.20,a.76,n.46).

See,inturn,theopinionofJeromeNadal,oneoftheleadersintheSocienty'sfirstfewyears:"Howeveritwillnotbeoutofplace,andevenuseful,wherecollege
resourcesandstudentsizeallow,thattheteachingofliberalarts,andattimesoftheology,bedonetheretoo,justasintheRomanCollege"(G.Nadal,Scholiain
Constitutiones3367).Infact,evenatfirstwithIgnatiusstillalive,whatdeterminedwhetherornotacollegehadhighercourseswasharddatalike"college
resources"and"studentnumbers,"thatwerereviewedfromtimetotime.Asaresult,conflictswithlocaluniversitiesarosethemostnotableandraucouswasthat
withPadua,where,on23December1591,aVenetianSenatedecree

 Page69

orderedtheJesuitstostoppublicteaching,anddosoonlyinprivateamongthemselves.

5.Const.,p.IV,c.13,d.A.

6.P.I.dePolanco,Chronicon,1548,213:"FatherNadalindeedinstitutedthreereadersofgrammar...MartinIsadorefordialectic,AndreasFrusiusforGreek
literature,andFatherNadalhimselfforHebrewhoweverhelefttheprelectionstoFatherAndreas.Hehimself,thoughmarkedforcollegeadministration,taught
scholastictheologyinthemorning,andCasesofConscienceafterdinner."

7.JeromeNadalwasbornon11August1507atPalmadeMajorca.AfterfinishingstudiesatParis,hewasrecruitedfortheSocietybySt.Ignatiusin1545.He
residedattheCollegeofMessinafrom1548to1552.RecalledtoRomein1553,hewassenttoSpainandPortugaltopromulgatetheConstitutions.Laterhewas
visitorinalltheEuropeanprovinces,rectoroftheRomanCollege,andVicarGeneral.HediedatRomein1580.

8.Polanco,Chronicon,1548,214:"Aftertheschoolsopened,theypublishedtheirlawsandconstitutionswhichwereapprovedandputintoeffect."

9.Mon.Paed.1965,p.26.

10.PublishedrespectivelyatParisin1535and1542,atOppenheimin1512,andatViennain1542.

11."Mostofall,MasterNadal,whocameasreaderinscholastictheology,iswellversedinthis,inScripture,andindogmatic(theology)heknowsthedecreesand
thecouncils.Heisalsolearnedinmathematics,whichhereadinParis(asIbelieveyouknow),andquitediligentatit.Heisequallyversedintheartsandhumane
letters,Latin,Greek,andHebrew,asyoumayhaveseen"(MHSI,MonumentaIgnatiana,Seriesprima,SanctiIgnatiideLoyolaepistolaeetinstructiones,I
XII,Madrid,1919,II,2526).

12.Chronicon,1549,350:"Atthattime(autumnresumptionofstudies)FatherAndreasFrusiusalsoofferedalectureindialectics(whichwastobedoneyearlyin
thephilosophycourse),withgoodresults,untilhehadasuccessor.ForinthesecondyearMasterIsadorewasteachingnaturalphilosophy...FatherNadalhimself
hadthreedifferentlectures,towit,Euclidinmathematics,andotherauthorsinGreekandHebrewliterature."Themathematicslectureshadgratifyingsuccesswithno
fewerauditorsthanthelecturesinthehighercourses:"SoinNovemberFatherNadal

 Page70

himselfnotedthereweresixteenstudentsindialectics,thirteeninphilosophy,teninhisGreeklecture,threeorfourinHebrew,andtenortwelveinmathematics."
Onlythreeorfourstudentsheardscholastictheologysincefewexternswerereadyfortheselectures,andthereligious"werenotyetcomingtoourschools."

13.TheConstitutionsalsoanticipatedthe"publicschool"inspecialcases:"Prudencewilldeterminewhetherapartfromordinaryinstructorswhoshouldknowwell
theirauditors,thereshouldbeoneormorewholikepublicprofessorswillreadphilosophy,mathematicalsciences,orotherdisciplines,withgreaterresourcesthan
ordinaryreaders,accordingtocircumstancesofplacesandpersonswithwhomtheydeal,keepinginmindgreateredificationandserviceofGod"(Const.,p.IV,c.
13,d.C.).

14.Mon.Paed1965,pp.14849.

15.JohannRegiomontanus,DetriangulisomnimodislibriV,Venezia,1533I.Nemorarius,GeometriaveldetriangulislibriIV,inOpera,Paris,1514.

16.Mon.Paed.1965,pp.14950.

17.JohannRegiomontanus,EpitomeinPtolemaeimagnamcompositionem,Basel,1543.

18.G.Peurbach,Theoricaenovaeplanetarum,2nded.,Wittenberg,1553,ff.2021.

19.Nuremberg,1535.

20.Paris,1500.

21.MonPaed.1965,pp.14748.

22.Ibid.,p.148.

23.Ibid.,p.393.The"printedlist"JaywantedwasmadeatMessinain1548earlyintheacademicyear154849,andprintedattheMessinapressofPietroSpira.It
announcedcoursestobeoffered(languages,arts,theology)mathematicswasnotlisted.Teachingmethodsusedweregivenonlyas"disputationsandotherwaysto
getresults"alongwith"goodexercises,acts,anddisputations,accordingtoParisianpractice"(Mon.Paed.1965,pp.38386).

24.Themodusparisiensisor"Parisianmethod"wasdevisedattheUniversityofParis,renownedforitstheologyfaculty,forwhichitsartsfaculty(philosophy)was
thepreparation.ButitsdidacticmethodsmorethanitsintellectualorientationwontheapprovalofIgnatiusandadoptionfirstbyNadalatMessina,andthenbyJesuit
schoolseverafterward.TheParisianmethod(developedbythetheologyfaculty

 Page71

anditsassociatedcolleges,Sorbonne,Montaigu,andSt.Barbara)"hadthefollowingdistinctivecharacteristics:1.Thestudentsofadisciplinewereusuallydivided
intoclassesbyageandaccomplishment('senior,''moreadvanced,''elementary').2.Thestudentswerenotallowedtoattendatwillthelecturesofother
professors.3.Repetitionsandpublicdisputationswereregularlyscheduled.4.WhileItalianinstructorswerepreoccupiedwithdeliveringpubliclecturesina
scholarlyway,theParisianskeptclosetotheirstudents,payingcarefulattentiontotheirpersonaldevelopment"(R.G.Villoslada,StoriadelCollegioRomano
dalsuoinizio[1551]allasoppressionedellaCompaniadiGes[1773],Rome,1954,p.11).

25.Mon.Paed.1965,pp.24,*16364.

26."TheentirecourseinAristotlewillbedoneinthreeyears"(Mon.Paed.1965,p.177).

27.Ibid.,p.166.Thephilosophycourseinsteadwasdescribedindetail,withaprescribedreadinglist.

28."Afterthefirsthalfyear[ofthephilosophycourse,withoutmathematicsstudy]...theywillhearthemathematicslectureinthethirdhourwhichwillalwaysbeone
hourbeforedinner....Afterayearandahalfthestudentsmayhearthemathematicslecturereadinthemorning,andtheothermathematicslectureusuallyreadan
hourafterdinner"(Mon.Paed.1965,pp.17677).

29.FrancescoMaurolycobegantoreadmathematicsintheJesuitCollegeofMessinaintheacademicyear156970.HewasawareofRomanCollegepractice,
thankstoFatherBalthassarTorres.AnotherTorres,likehimaRomanCollegemathematicianandphilosophyteacher,developedtwobriefmathematicsprograms,in
whichMaurolycofiguredamongtheauthorsread.SeeM.Scaduto,"IlmatematicoFrancescoMaurolicoeigesuiti,"ArchivumHistoricumSocietatisIesu18
(1949),pp.12641.ForthemathematicsprogramsofGerolamoTorres,cf.infra.

30."ThemostimportantuniversityeventofthaterainFrance,andonethatrevealedclearlythedifferentmindsets,wasthefoundationoftheCollgedeFrance.This
wastheworkofFrancisIandhisgreatadviser,WilliamBud....FarfromwantingtocreateaninstitutionalrivalfortheUniversity,FrancisIsimplynamed
professors'King'sReadersintheUniversityofParis,'sixinall,threeforHebrew,twoforGreek,oneformathematics.TheSorbonnetriedtodestroytheroyal
foundation,...asNolBedasaid:althoughithadnodesire

 Page72

toimpedereadingGreekandHebrewliterature,thelearninganddoctrineofwhichithonored,itfearedmostofallthatlanguageprofessorsnottheologically
literatewoulddamageorderogatethetranslationofSacredScripture"(S.d'Irsay,Histoiredesuniversitsfranaisesettrangresdsorigenesnousjours,
2vols.,Paris,1933,I,pp.27073.)

31.SincelanguageinstructionwasentrustedtoJesuitprofessorswhohadtobedoctorsintheology,theSorbonne'sobjectionsasNoelBedaexpressedthem(see
note30),begantosubside.SignificantinanycasewasthewaytheSocietyfacedproblemsbytryingtoresolvethemattheappropriatepoints.Avoidablecounter
productivenegativeapproacheswerenotitsstyle.

32.Const,p.IV,c.7,d.C.Thischapterwaswrittenwiththoseontheuniversities,i.e.,itdatedto155354.

32.bisConst.,p.IV,c.12,d.C.

33."ThedoctrinetheSociety'sscholasticsshouldstudy,"p.IV,cap.5,p.1.

34.AbsenceofmathematicsfromthelistdoesnotimplythatIgnatiusdidnotwanttheSociety'sscholasticstostudyit.Fromthe1556Constitutionsforthe
ScholasticsoftheSocietyofJesusatPadua,whichIgnatiuswrotewiththehelpofLanez(Mon.Paed.1965,pp.35),welearnhowthefirstJesuitscholastics,
senttostudyattheUniversityofPadua,weretodevotethemselvestotheartscourse,andalsotomathematics:"Theothertwoandahalfyears(oftheartscourse)
arefornaturalphilosophy,metaphysics,mathematics,andmoralphilosophy,asthelecturescheduleallows"(ibid.,p.11.)

34bis.C.12,p.1.

34ter.C.12,p.2and3.

35.C.14,p.3.Theterm"metaphysics"wasaddedbytheFirstGeneralCongregationof1558.Ignatius,infact,hadnotputitinthephilosophycourse,incontrastto
Nadal,Olave,andconstantlaterpractice.IntheRomanCollege"metaphysicsisreadinthetrienniumforlogic,naturalandmoralphilosophy,andthemathematical
arts(asmuchasisnecessary)"(Polanco'slettertoAdriaenssens,24October1553,inMon.Paed.1965,p.443).Polanco'sletterspellsoutclassorderinthe
philosophycurriculum:"Thefirstclassintheelementsofdialectics,thesecondinthemoreadvancedbooksoflogic,thethirdclassstartedinthebooks'dephysico
auditu,'followingParisianmethods,andthatofLouvain."

 Page73

PolancoconfirmedthatIgnatiushimselfapprovedthistofixregulationofthephilosophycurriculum:"FatherIgnatiushoweversetthephilosophycourseatthree
years"(Chronicon,1553,8).

36.Mon.Paed.1965,p.437.

37.ButrememberthatthedoctrinaljustificationlayinthefactthatJesuitschoolswereprimarily"professional"schoolsforJesuitsandsecularpriests,toform
theologiansonly.Onlyfromamodernviewpointcanweconsiderthepublicserviceroleasforemost,whichineffecttheydidingrowingmeasure.Buttheschools
were,firstofall,inaspecialwayinthisinitialperiod,aninstrumentforrenovationoftheChurch.

38.P.IoannesdePolanco,S.I.,IndustriaequibusiuveturSocietasadfinemsibipropositumassequendum(MeanstohelptheSociety,attainthegoalproposed),
inMon.Paed.1965,p.34.

39."ThosewithmoretimeandtalentmaystudyGreekandotherhumanitiessuchasrhetoric,poetry,history,andcosmography..."(ibid.,p.33).

40.SuchwerethoseofthemissionsandcollegesoutsideEurope,inIndia,China,andSouthAmerica.InChina,forexample,themathematicalscienceswereamong
themostimportantwaystocomeincontactwiththelocalcommunity,andtobeginconversionandinstruction:seeP.D'Elia,GalileoinCina.Relazioniattraversoil
CollegioRomanotraGalileoeiGesuitiscienziatimissionariinCina:16101640,Roma,1947.Butmoregenerally,theuniversalscopeofJesuitwork(outside
Europe,butalsointheReformationlands,especiallyGermany)alwayshadaremarkableinnertendencytonewapproaches,andtoconsiderideasnotentirely
orthodox.

40bis.TheclearestandmostprecisestatementofBellarmine'sopiniononthematteroccursinhisfamousreplytoFoscariniof12April1615,publishedinthe
EdizioneNazionaleoftheOperediGalileoGalilei,2nded.,Florence,19291939,vol.XII,pp.17172.

41.F.Charmot,LapdagogiedesJesuites,sesprincipes,sonactualitParis,1951,p.472.

42.LetterofJuandePolancotoJeanPelletier,rectoroftheCollegeofFerrara,fromRome,21September1555,inMonPaed.1965,pp.45763.Hisletter
recountedthestatusofRomanCollegeteaching:"Fromthestart,thingshavealwaysgrown,andnowallfacultiesarerepresented,savemedicineandlaw:Thestaffhas
hardworkingandlearnedmasters.EightornineteachLatin,Greek,andHebrew.

 Page74

Fivelectureinliberalartsandphilosophy.Apartfromthethreeregularcourses,therearetwoextraordinarylecturers,onefornaturalphilosophy,theotherfor
mathematics,sothatinthreeyearsanappropriateamountofthedisciplinescanbeheardfortheology."AsforRomanCollegeinternationalism,heprovideddata
bothaboutstudentorigins:"somecametoourcollegeinRome(whichtheyknewbyreputation),otherstotheGermanCollege,fromupperandlowerGerman,
Austria,Bohemia,Moravia,Silesia,Slovenia,Denmark,Gotha,IrelandandEngland,"andabouttheeffectsitsfoundingalreadyhadinfosteringlikeventures:"the
collegeisinternationalinanotherwaytoo:fromitsfoundationsprangmanyothercollegesinItalyandelsewhere,asYourReverenceknows,and,asreported,
thankstoit,eachyearcoloniescanbesenttolandsthataskforthem,suchasArgentina,...Ratisbon,Prussia,andmanyothers."

43.TheuniversitychaptersoftheConstitutionscamesomemonthsaftertheruleofstudiesIgnatiuswantedfortheRomanCollege.SomemodificationsbyIgnatius
leftthemonthesamestudylevelNadalandOlaveproposed.Themostimportantoneslookedtoremovingmetaphysicsfromthefacultyofarts(Polanco,Chronicon,
1553,7:"Threeartscourseshavebeenstartedtogether:first,dialecticsfromthebeginning,thesecondonthedeeperpartsofAristotle'slogicandethics,thethirdin
physics."),whichwastobethreeandahalfyears(PolancotoAdriaenssens,Mon.Paed.1965,p.443:"Candidatesshouldbepromotedtotheteachingofficeif
theyarefoundwellqualifiedtoteachafterahalfyearforexaminationsandresponses,butnototherwise").Otherchangeslookedtoredimensioningthemathematics
programsandtheinstitutionofthebienniumofrepetitionsandexercisesafterthefouryeartheologycourse,firstofthelaureates.Later,metaphysicswasreturnedto
thefacultyofarts,andtheFirstGeneralCongregation,in1558,wanteditmentionedintheConstitutions(p.IV,c.14,p.3:"Inlogic,naturalandmoralphilosophy,
andmetaphysics,thedoctrineofAristotleistobefollowed").

44.ReportedinG.M.Pachtler,S.I.,RatiostudiorumetInstitutionesscholasticaeSocietatisIesuperGermaniamolimvigentesIIV,Berlin18871894,I,pp.
19297.PachtlerreproducesthetextofamanuscriptintheArchivesoftheSociety'sUpperGermanProvincethemanuscriptisentitledGubernatioCollegii
Romaniac

 Page75
mo
1 inliterisetspiritualibus.Anno1565.Villoslada,inhisStoriadelCollegioRomano,citesextensivelyfromtheConsuetudinesCollegiiRomani,a
manuscriptintheGregorianUniversityArchives,thecontentofwhichcoincidesexactlywiththatpublishedbyPachtler.Forthisreason,theConsuetudinesshould
bedatedbackto1566atleast,beingtheoriginalfromwhichatleastthatcopywouldhavebeentaken,andnottoshortlybefore1574,asVillosladasupposed.
Wemayalsosupposethatmorecopiesofthedocumentweremadeandsenttothevariousprovincesinsofarasithadamodelforschoolorganization.The
ConsuetudineswerealsopublishedfromanothercodexinMon.Paed.1901,pp.46470.

45.Thesingledifferenceofnote,relativetothedefinitivesystemization,wasthelengthofthecourse,againthreeandahalfyears.

46.ConstitutionestamcommodaeaptaequequemsanctaeAlmaeSalmatinensisAcademiaetototerrarumorbeflorentissimae(Thecommodiousanduseful
ConstitutionsofthecherishedandholyAcademyofSalamanca)Salamanca,1562,quotedfromS.d'Irsay,HistoiredesuniversitsfranaisesI,p.334,note6.

47.FatherJamesLedesmawasprofessoroftheologyintheRomanCollegefrom1556to1562,andprefectofstudiesfrom1563to1575.

48.Mon.Paed1901,pp.338453.

49.Ibid.,pp.460ff.ThiswaswrittenforusebyalltheSociety'sschools,notfortheRomanCollegealone.

50.The1548ConstitutionesCollegiiMessanensisstate"hewillreadmathematicsextraordinem,"liketheRomanCollege,"therearetwoextraordinaryreaders,
onefornaturalphilosophy,theotherformathematics"(PolancotoAdriaenssens,op.cit.).

51.Cf.F.deDainville,S.I.,"L'EnseignementdesmathmatiquesdanslesCollgesJsuitesdeFranceduXVIeauXVIIIesicle,"Revued'histoiredesscienceset
leursapplications,7,nn.12(JanuaryJune1954)pp.621,10223.Thesecondpartofthepaperinno.2of1954hasatableofthemathematicschairsinFrance
fromtheSociety'sorigintoitssuppression.ThefirstknownchairisthatoftheCollgeofPontMousson,probablyin1592.

52.OrdolectiomumquaeinCollegtoRegioapudS.ClementemadJ.Christigloriametutilitatempublicaminstituenturatquecontinuabuntur(Orderof
lecturesthatarescheduledfortheRoyalCollegeatSt.ClementstothegloryofJesusChristandthepublic

 Page76

utility,andwhichwillbecontinued),printedinPachtler,op.cit.,I,pp.150ff.Theproblemofbooksandinstructionalaidspersisted,especiallyinmathematics
andastronomyinstruction.Booksonthesetopicswerelesscommonandaccessibleintheschoolsthanphilosophytexts.Instrumentswerealsoneeded,atleast
compass,quadrant,andastrolabe.SeeB.Salino'slettertoChristopherClaviusfromGenoa,14January,1605,wherehebemoanedthecollege'slackofbooks
andinstruments''becausethesciencewasneveratanytimereadhere."HetoldClaviushisdireneed,listingsometextsandrequestingcompass,quadrant,and
astrolabe.(PontificalGregorianUniversityArchives,529[ClaviusII],181).Fortheinstrumentsused,oratleasttheproperuseofwhichwasexplainedto
students,seealsothetableinGerolamoTorres'twobrieftextsatp.21.

53.CataloguslectionumGymnasii(Coloniensistotoannoobservandus,aCalendisNovembrisanni1576usqueadCalendasNovembrissequentisanni
1577(CatalogofLecturesintheCologneGymnasiumtobeheldintheentireyearfromtheCalendsofNovember1576toCalendsofNovemberofthe
followingyear1577)theseconddocumenthasinsteadthecatalogoflecturesfromNovember1578toNovember1579.BothareinPachtler,op.cit.,p.23035.
Thefirstcatalogprescribedforthephysicsclassthat"Inthefirsthour,atopicinmathematicsisread,e.g.,inthefirstsemester,theSphereofJohnofSacrobosco,"in
thesecondsemesterAristotle'sEthicswillberead.Thereweretwoinstructorsfortheseclasses:FatherAndreasVermadius,whoreadAristotle'sPhysics,
mathematics,andtheEthics.Also,hepresidedatthe"Repetitions"andthe"Disputations."FatherBolandusreadtheDecaelo,theMeteorologica,theDe
generationeetcorruptione[inthems.deortuatqueinteritu].Healsoreadthelastlecturewithanother,inthemetaphysicsclass.Twoyearslater(157879)
mathematicswasdetachedfromthetrueandproperprogramFr.Bolandusreaditatthe"FirstHouronHolyDays,"perhapsbecauseAndreasVernadius,whoread
theSphereofSacrobosco,wasnolongeraninstructor.

54."SeetoitthatmathematicsisreadahalfhoureachdayaccordingtoRomanpractice"(Descholisartium.DelasartesinMon.Paed.1901,p.673).

55.Nadal'slife,betterthananyoneelse's,reflectedtherapidpaceofdevelopmentintheseyears,aswellasthenumberandsizeoftheproblemsJesuitsfaced.In
1553,nolongerrectoroftheCollegeof

 Page77

Messina,NadalwenttoSpainandPortugaltopromulgatetheConstitutions.TherehevisitedthecollegesofBarcelona,Valencia,Alcal,Saragossa,Cordova,
Ebora,Coimbra,andsomeothers.In1555hemettheEmperorinGermanyandarrangedthefoundationoftheCollegeofPrague.Afterwardshevisitedthe
collegesofDillingen,Ingolstadt,andViennawherehestayedforalongtime.AfterareturntoRome,hevisitedthecollegesofVenice,Padua,Ferrara,Bologna,
Modena,Genoa,andFlorence.Inlate1555,hereturnedtoSpaintovisitthecollegesofAlicante,Valencia,Valladolid,andsomeothers.AfterastayatRomefor
thedeathofIgnatiusandtheFirstGeneralCongregation,heresumedvisitingEurope,fromPortugaltotheNetherlandstoGermany.Everywherehegave
instructions,advice,direction.AfterabriefstintasSuperintendentoftheRomanCollege,hewassentbacktoGermanyin1566.Thereheagainvisitedthe
collegesatMunich,Ingolstadt,Dillingen,andVienna.ThenhewenttoTirnau,Olmutz,andagaininHungarytoPresburgandKremnitz.HemovedintoPoland,
wherehegavenewinstructorstothecollegesofBraunnsbergandPoltava.HealsovisitedtheCollegeofPrague,andwentaboutRenania.InFlandershewas
busyatthecollegesofLouvain,Liege,Antwerp,Douai,andDinant.NadalwasnextinFrance,atthecollegesofParis,Verdun,Cambrai,Lyons.Hewasthen
VicarGeneralfor15monthsuntilEverardMercurianwaselectedGeneralin1573.HeapprovedthetwouniversitiesofMilanandLorraine,andpromised
foundationoftheCollegeofFulda.AftertheelectionofMercurian,hisactivitystopped.HestayedatRome,thenatHall,nearInnsbruck.Fromtherehereturned
toRome,wherehediedon3April1580.

56.Thesecondpaperisentitled"Derebusmathematicis"bothwerealreadypublishedinMon.Paed.1901,pp.47778.

57.Forthis,seeOlave,op.cit.,p.177:"Afterayearandahalf,thestudentsmayhearthemathematicslecturereadinthemorning,andthenheartheother
mathematicslectureordinarilyreadanhourafterdinner."

58.ModusquodisciplinaemathematicaeinscholisSocietatispossintpromoveriinMon.Paed.1901,pp.47174.Sincetheyareundated,"first"referstothe
orderofpublicationintheMon.Paed.1901.

59.DeremathematicainstructioinMon.Paed.1901,pp.47476.TheMonumentaeditorssuppliedthetitle.

60.Suchanormwasalreadyknowntheyearbeforethedraftofthis

 Page78

document,seeminglyintheRomanCollege("Itwasenactedtheyearbeforethat...").

61.The1586Ratioexplicitlyreferstocalendarreform:"AtRomealso,saveforapersonortwo,thereishardlyanyonewhocanteachthesedisciplines,oris
availabletotheApostolicSeeforadiscussionofEcclesiasticaltime"(Demathematicis1).

62.TheRatiohadthreeeditions.Thefirst,in1586,composedbyacommitteeofsixpriests,wassenttoalltheOrder'sprovincesforcommentstobereturnedto
Rome.Aseconddraft,formulatedonthebasisoftheseresponses,waspublishedin1591.Itsdiscursiveandanalyticstylemadeitmoreanessaythanacode.Soa
thirdandfinalRatiowasprepared,senttopressattheendof1598,andpublishedin1599.Thefinaltextwasmuchmoreconciseandaridinitspreceptiveformthan
itspredecessors.TheSeventhGeneralCongregation(1615)madesomemildchangesforaneweditionin1616thatwasnotfurtheraltered,andfinallyalways
enteredintotheInstitutumSocietatisIesuinthatform.Cf.LaRatiostudiorumelapartequartadelleConstitutionidellaCompagniadiGes,editedbyM.
Barbera,Padua,1942,pp.4146.

63."These(mathematicalartsgive)poets,historians,logicians,andnaturalphilosophersdemonstrationparadigms(theyprovide)civilrulerswithadmirabledomestic
andmilitaryadministrationtechniquesphysicistswiththetypesandcriteriaofcelestialorbits,light,colors,transparentmedia,andsoundsmetaphysicianswiththe
numberofspheresandintelligencestheologianswithspecialaspectsofdivinecreationandallthisplusspinofffromthemathematicians'workthatbenefitspublic
health,transportation,andagriculture."

64."(Theprofessorofmathematics)istoofferashortcourseinmathematicswithdailylecturesforayearandahalfthatbothOursandextemsaretoattend.Hewill
beginthiscourseaftertheResurrectionPasch,firstinthemorningattheschoolhoursetforlogicstudents,whoarethenpreparingforthePosteriorAnalyticswhich
canhardlybeunderstoodwithoutmathematicalexamples."

65.Claviuswroteanalgebratextpublishedhoweveronlyin1608:AlgebraChristoforiClaviiBambergensiseSocietateIesu,Roma,apudBartholomaeum
Zannettum,1608.

66.ChristoforiClaviiBambergeosiseSoc.Iesu,EpitomeArithmeticaePracticaenuncdenuoabipsoauctorerecognita,Roma,DominicusBasa,1585.

 Page79

67.ArithmeticapracticacompostadalmoltoRev.PadreChristoforoClavioBambergensedellaCompagniadiGesettradottadalatinoinitalianodal
SignorLorenzoCastellanoPatrizioRomano,Roma,DomenicoBasa,1586.TheprefaceprovidesgreatinsightintotheRomanCollegemathematician'sviewpoint
onhisscience.ToquotethemostsignificantpassagesfromtheLatinedition(1585):"WithoutArithmetic,asIseeit,noscience,asPlatoclaimed[inmarg.Epinomis]
orhumansocietycansurvive.Platosaidforthrightly[inEpinomisandRepublicVII]thattoremoveArithmeticfromlifeistotakeprudenceandallrestraintfromthe
world,forwithoutitneitherpublicnorprivatedomaincanstand.Infact,otherdisciplinessodependonArithmeticthatitscollapsewouldtakethemwithit.For,
withoutmasteryoftheentirenumberrealm,neitherastrologernorgeometerwillstandopentestingthathistheoremsshowtruthandbeautylinkedwithutilityfor
shouldeventheleastfaultappearintheideasconsidered,youwouldseeutterruinoftherest.AndsoPlato,PrinceofReason,[inRepublicVII]wanteditasentrance
andvestibuletoallothersciences,notjustbecausetheyarenothingwithoutnumbers,butbecausethemindcomesaliveworkingwithnumbers,andisreadiedforall
otherlearning."

68.Regulaeprofessorismathematicae,4.

69."Letauthoritiestakespecialcarelestintheirteachingthephilosophyprofessorseithernegatetheprestigeofmathematics,orsubvertitsideas,likethoseabout
epicycles,foroftenthelessoneknowsaboutatopic,themorehedemeansit"(RulesoftheProvincial,Demathematicis44).

70.Ibid.,41.

71.For"lectiopublica,"seenote13above.

72.Preparationofspecialistsinthemathematicalscienceswasthendoneoutsidetheofficialstudiescurriculum.Galileo'sadversaryHorazioGrassi(LotharioSarsi
Sigensano)isagoodexample.HewasRomanCollegemathematicsprofessorfrom1616to1628(withatwoyearhiatusfrom1624to1626).AsaRomanCollege
student,hewasassignedtomathematicsjustforthefullscholasticyear16051606,afterhecompletedthephilosophycurriculumbutbeforehebegantheuniversity
theologycourse.(SeeC.Costantini,Balianieigesuiti,Florence,1969,pp.7172).

 Page81

MathematicsInstructioninJesuitCollegesofNorthernItaly
GiuseppeCosentino

Thenewphysicalworldvisionconsequentontheseventeenthcenturyscientificrevolutionwontenureinschoolprogramsonlyinthenineteenthcentury.Yeteven
beforethat,mathematicsinstructionassuredthepresenceinthelifeoftheoldcurriculaofnewideas,oratleasttreatmentofterrestrialandcelestialphysicsprocedures
withmathematicalmethods.ThiswassurelytrueinJesuitschools,wheremathematicscoursescomprisednotonlyarithmetic,geometry,andalgebra,butalsodiverse
useofmensurationandcalculusinastronomyandastrology,computationoftime(calendarandsundial),surveying,theoryofmusic,optics(perspective),and
mechanics.

WeknowJesuitcollegestudypatternsfollowedthemodusparisiensis.1 TheSocietynotonlyadoptedUniversityofParispedagogy,butinstructionalprograms,and
theircontenthaditalsoastheirmodel.2 IncontrasttoItalianuniversities,theUniversityofParishadfourfaculties:arts(philosophy),medicine,law,andtheologythe
firstwaspreparationfortheothers.3 ThethreeyearJesuitcollegeartscourseledtothesubsequentstudyoftheology,andwasinsubstanceacourseofAristotelian
philosophy,distributedoverlogic(1styear),naturalphilosophyorphysics(2ndyear),andmetaphysics(3rdyear).Someauxiliarydisciplineswereincluded,for
example,moralphilosophy(in1styear,withlogic),andmathematics(in2ndyear,withphysics).

Antagonismbetweenthemathematicaldisciplinesandthecorephilosophicalandtheologicalcurriculawasfelt,ifnowhereelse,inthetaskoffullyintegratingtheformer
intoanAristoteliansystemofsciencesthatassignedmathematicsamorepracticalthantheoreticalrole,andtendedtoadmit,ifnotreallyhonor,itsutility,ratherthanits
intrinsicnoeticvalue.Mathematicalprogress,incontrast,wascloselylinkedwiththeriseofanewscientificoutlookfranklycriticaloftheassumptionsandtraditional
methodsofphysicsandAristoteliancosmology.Henceanantagonism,notopenatfirst,developedbythesecondhalfofthesixteenthcenturyintoamoreorless
explicitconfrontation.InthecircumstancestheSociety's

 Page82

adoptionofaprecise,nuancedcommitmentinthefieldofmathematicaldisciplines,despiteitssubstantiallyconservativethrust,representedasignificantchoicefora
culturalpolicyof"accommodation,"thatis,availabilityforameeting(thatcouldbecomecollaboration)withtheinnovativetendenciesofEuropeanscientificthought.

Inthesixteenthcenturythenewsciencecould,ingeneral,growbesidetheoldqualitativephysics,andwasofteninextricablylinkedwithit.Thisdifficult,thoughnot
alwaysimpossible,coexistencestrengthenedtheconciliatoryandmoderatetendenciesoftheJesuitscientists,whointhenextcenturyamidmountingdifficulties
carriedoutprogramsthatintruthbecameeverlesscredibleandeffectiveformediationbetweentheoldandthenew.Jesuitschoolinterestinmathematicswas
counteredbytheestablishedprimacyofAristotelianphysics,andbecausethetensionandambiguity'connectedwithsuchcopresencewasnotresolvedbyopen
debatebetweenthetwosides,anincreasinglydetailedseriesofrulescametodelimittherespectivetasksandfunctionsoftheteachersandscholarsofphilosophyand
mathematics.ThehistoryofJesuitcollegeanduniversitymathematicsinstructionis,then,ofgreatinterestforamoreprecisehistoriographic(andnotjustideological)
reconstructionofthehistoryofscienceinthecriticalperiodoftheseventeenthandeighteenthcenturies.

Afterfoundingthefirstcollegesforexterns,IgnatiusacceptedthefactthattheSocietyofJesuswasbecomingateachingorder.ButiftheSocietywastogothatway
tofulfillitsfoundationalmission,hehadtoreaffirmthegoalofallSocietyworks,keepingmeansandendsdistinct:"Soalso,sincetheartsandnaturalsciencesdispose
themindtotheology,andhelpperfectitsknowledgeanduse,andtheseinthemselveshelptothesameend,theyaretobetaughtwithappropriatediligenceandby
competentinstructors,sincerelyseekingineverythingthehonorandgloryofGod."4 Accordingtoavenerabletradition,thebestscientificsystemtoprepare"the
mind...fortheology"wasAristotle's:"Inlogic,naturalandmoralphilosophy,andmetaphysics,Aristotle'sdoctrineshouldbefollowed.''5 Thatwasthemethodthe
universitiesinParis,Padua,andBologna,theage'skeyculturalcenters,used,eachinitsownway.

Allthesame,someJesuitvoicesspokefortheotherside.AmongthemostauthoritativeandpowerfulwasthatofChristopherClavius,whoseworkwasdecisivefor
curriculumdevelopmentinthecolleges.Accordingtohim,mathematicswasnotjustuseful,butindispensablefornaturalphilosophy("naturalphilosophyishobbled
andincompletewithoutthemathematicaldisciplines").Heurgedsymbiosisofthetwodisciplines.

 Page83

Suchaccordandmutualsupportcouldberealizedinthecollegesonlyifmathematicsenjoyedthesamerespectasphilosophy:"Secondly,studentsmustrealizethatthe
mathematicalsciencesareusefulandnecessaryforcorrectunderstandingoftherestofphilosophy,andagreatassettowardperfecteruditioninalltheotherarts.In
fact,mathematicsandnaturalphilosophyhavesuchaffinitythatunlesstheyhelpeachother,theycannotmaintaintheirstatus.Itwillbeabigstepupifphilosophy
teachersavoidtopicsthathelplittletoprobenaturebutonlyderogatethemathematicalsciencesamongtheirhearers,e.g.,claimsthatthemathematicaldisciplinesare
notsciences,donothavedemonstrations,andonlyabstractfrombeingandgoodness,etc."6

Claviusattendedtotheworkofteacherformation:"SothattheSocietymayalwayshavecompetentprofessorsforthesedisciplines,someaptandablemenshouldbe
setasideforthem,andinstructedinthevariousmathematicaldisciplinesinaprivateacademy.Otherwiseitseemsimpossiblethatsuchstudiescanlongsurviveinthe
Societyorbefosteredthere."7 ThroughClavius'influence,thedefinitiveRatiostudiorum(1599),althoughsettingadecisivelysubordinateroleformathematicsin
keepingittoaoneyearcourseandasacomplementtophysics,didarrangethatinterestedstudentscouldattendprivatelecturesafterthecourse.8 Claviushimself
foundedaschoolandaRomanCollegescientifictraditionthatfordecadesformedmanyoftheSociety'smostrenownedscientistsandteachers.Thankstoa
courageousgroupofscholars,mathematicswasproperlyfosteredintheSocietyofJesus,androutinelytaughtinitscolleges.Fromtheverybeginning,theSociety's
ranksboasteddistinguishedscientistsandexterncolleaguestoo,forexample,FrancescoMaurolyco,whotaughtinthecollegeofMessinainthescholasticyear1569
70.9

Attheendofthesixteenthcenturythecollegescontinuedtogrowinnumberandimportance.Afterthefirst"experiments"ofthedecade154050(Goa,Gandia,
Messina)openedthewayforanunexpectedapostolate,theyearsrightaftertheRomanCollegefoundation(1551)becameaneraoffeverishactivitythatsweptaway
everyobstacleandhesitation.TeachingbecametheSociety'sprincipalapostolate,anditspedagogyenjoyedbrilliant,unanticipatedsuccess.Heirsofamedieval
universityculture,theJesuitcollegesembeddedthatlegacyinacentralizedorganizationtoprovideuniformityofculturalcontent.TheRatiostudiorumwasthesingle
guidethatregulatedJesuitcollegesworldwide,andevaluatedtheirinstructionalmethodsforefficiencyandpracticality.

 Page84

Liketheuniversities,that,everlessatthecenterofcurrentscience,graduallylosttheirtraditionalhighlevelresearchroles,andliketheacademies,thencharacteristic
centersofmodernagescience,theJesuitcollegeswerecooptedascentersofactivityinthemakingofthemodernworld.10Untilnowhistorianshaveattended
almostexclusivelytotheJesuitscholars'owncontributionstothedevelopmentofscientificknowledge,or,occasionally,totheOrder'spoliciesinvarious
controversies,intheGalileocase,forexample.Thereare,however,nosystematicstudiesoftheJesuitcollegesthateffectedandtransmittedtheSociety'scultural
values.Noraretherepreciseindicationsanddataabouttheeffectivequantitativeandqualitativeconsistencyofmathematicsteachingwithintheseinstitutions.Thisisa
biggap,giventhecharacteristicallycollaborativeandprogressivenatureofmodernscienceaftertheseventeenthcenturyrevolution,andthefundamentalrolethat
institutionalorganizationofresearchanditsliaisonwithcivilsociety,oritsmoreeducatedpartandrulingclassatleast,hadfromthenon.

ApartfromgeneralhistoriesoftheSociety,thosethatstudythevariousprovinces11neitherprovideadequatedataaboutcollegiateinstructioningeneralorabout
mathematicsinstructioninparticulartheyrelatealmostexclusivelytheexternaleventsofthecolleges.ThefewworksknownthatlookexplicitlyatJesuitcollege
mathematicsinstructionarethoseofDeDainville.12DataaboutmathematicsinstructionalsoappearinRG.Villoslada'sStoriadelCollegioRomano,dalsuoinizio
(1551)allasoppressionedellaCompagniadiGes(1773).13M.Scaduto'sfinepaper,"Leoriginidell'UniversitdiMessina(apropositodelquartocentenario)"14
discussesNadal'smathematicsprogramandteachinginthecollegeofMessina.NotetooScaduto'spaper(seenote9)onthefamousmathematicianFrancesco
Maurolyco'slinktotheMessinacollege.

NorthernItalianJesuitcollegeshavereceivednobetterattention,thoughtheDomusGalilaeanprogramhasrecentlygivenprioritytotheirhistory.DelMonti'swork
ontheTurinprovince,alreadynoted,recordseventsforthecollegesofGenoaandTurin.SomedataaboutBreraandtheCollegiodelNobiliatBresciacanbefound
intheTreccaniFoundationcityhistoriesofMilanandBrescia.UsefulnotesforthehistoryofmathematicsinstructionatGenoaduringthefirsthalfofthe1600sare
foundinC.Costantini'sBalianieigesuiti15thatsketcheseventsabouttheJesuitcollegechairofmathematics.

Indeed,thecollegesandtheuniversitiesofBologna,Parma,Genoa,andMilan,alongwiththeRomanCollege,werethekeycentersfortheevents

 Page85

wetriedtosketch.ManyfamousJesuitscientistsworkedinnorthernItaly:inthe1600s,DeDominis,Cabei,Riccioli,F.M.Grimaldi,LanaTerzi,TommasoCevain
the1700's,Saccheri,Riccati,andBoscovich,thefounderofBrera'sastronomicalobservatory.Butthislistofgreatnames,neededtoprovidecoherenceandprestige
totheculturalphenomenon,shouldalsohelpconstructafullnetworkofpeercontactsbetweenscholarsinsideandoutsidetheSocietydoingadvancedscientific
researchanditsanalysis,contactsthatexistedinthecollegesandespeciallyinthechairsofmathematicsthatweretheirnaturalorganizationalcenters.

ToreconstructthehistoryandcharacteristicsofmathematicsinstructioninnorthernItalianJesuitschoolsweneedtosetupadatabankidentifyingarchivesandtheir
basicorganizations.Happily,therearecopioussourcesforthecolleges,concentratedingoodpartinthegeneralarchivesoftheSocietyofJesus.

ThearchivesoftheGeneral'sCuriareceivedallthedifferentreportsthathouse,college,andnovitiatesuperiorsweresupposedtodoperiodicallytogivetheSociety's
governmentdataandinformationusefulforgovernance.16Thegeneralarchiveshaveinfactthreedivisions,butonlythefirsttwothathousedocumentsfortheold
SocietyuptotheSuppression(1773),areofinterestforus.Thesetwosources,housedtogether,have,however,differentoriginsandcontents,andsowerenot
combined,butkeeptheirowndocumentorganization.17TheFondoGesuiticodoesnotconcernus,buttheArchivumRomanumSocietatisIesu(ARSI)holdsthe
documentsdirectlyusefulforcollegehistories.

Thefirstsourcestoexaminearethe"triennial"and"short(orannual)"catalogs.Thenamesdescribethetimeintervalsbetweenonereportandthenext,butthecatalogs
tookdefinitiveformonlywiththenormsthatSuperiorGeneralClaudeAcquavivapromulgated.HeamplifiedtheformulascribendithathispredecessorEduardo
Mercuriansenttotheprovincesin1578.18Thecatalogsweretobecompiledbycollegerectorsandhouseprefects,andsenttotheprovincial,whointurnwould
sendthemtoRomeforanarchivalamanuensistocopyintotheappropriatebooks.

Theannualcatalogssupplydataforhistoriesofthechairsbecausetheylist,collegebycollege,theJesuitsandtheirofficesthatyear.Thiswayonecanmakeatableof
mathematicsinstructors,yearbyyear,withtheteachers'names.ARSIhasthecatalogibrevesoftheVenetianprovincefromthescholasticyear161314,andthose
oftheMilanprovincefrom161415,inunbrokensequenceupto1773.19Thetriennialcatalogs,in

 Page86

turn,aremostimportantfortheirbiographicaldata,andaredividedintoafirst,second,andthirdcatalog.Thefirsttwotreatpersonnelonly,andprovidebrief
biographicalsketches:age,placeofbirth,entranceintotheSociety,studiescompleted,officesheldandgradeintheSociety(firstcatalog)thesecondcataloglists
superiors'evaluationsoftheirsubjects'intellectualandmoralcapacities,andtheirattitudes.20Thethirdcatalogtriedtoprovideasuccinctstatisticaltableofthestatus
ofthecollege(orhouse)intheformofabriefreportaboutinstructionandeconomicconditions(revenue,debts,etc.).21Whereannualreportsaredeficient,triennial
catalogscanalsohelpbywayofconjecturetoestablishthepresenceorabsenceofsomeprograms.Werelyespeciallyontriennialcatalogsforfortheperiodfrom
159890tothestartoftheunbrokensequenceofannualcatalogsthankstothemwecanmakeatable,clearifincomplete,ofthechairsofmathematicsatthetime.22

Evenfortheprecedingperiodtherearesome"extraordinary"documentswithprecisedata,suchastheShortCatalogoftheVenetianProvinceintheyear1582,
ontheoccasionofVisitation23thatliststheJesuitsatthecollegesofBologna,Modena,Brescia,Forli,Ferrara,Padua,Parma,Piacenza,andVerona,andtheir
offices.StillolderisNewsoftheCollegesoftheProvinceofLombardy,March1573,24thathasafullreportonthestateoftheprovincesofMilanandVenice,
whichfrom1558to1578werepartsoftheLombardy(orCisalpine)province.Itrecordsthattherewerethentwelvecolleges,twoprofessedhouses,andtwonovice
houses.Next,sidebyside,arereportsonthefirstfoundationsofthecolleges,ontheirendowments(donationsofsufficientincomefromabenefactor,whoassumed
thetitleoffounder,andwasdeemedespeciallydeservingofrecognitionbytheSociety),latergiftsandotherevents,aswellasspecificitemsaboutincomeand
expenses,andtheconditionofthebuildingandschool.Theprofessorsandotherreligiousarelisted,alongwiththeiracademicassignments(offices),e.g.,rector.At
timesthecollegereceivedmoneyearmarkedforteachingcertaindisciplines,andthatalsowasrecorded.

Ofcourse,veryfewdocumentsfromthefirstdecadesoftheSociety'sexistenceareasclearandcompleteasthese.Manynotes,lists,andtablesuptotheendofthe
1500sarefragmentaryorincompleteanddifficulttodisentangle.ARSIarchivistshavepatientlyanddiligentlypublishedthemallwithdelicateandwiserestorationand
conservationworkinthevolumesInformationesantiquae(catalogsandnoticesoftheyears15541602),CatalogiantiquissimicollegiorumItaliae(154677,
someto1600),Status

 Page87

etnumerus1574(thewholeworld,byprovince),25andsomeothers.

Moreheterogeneousandlessdirectlyusefularethesourcesformathematicsteachingintheindividualcolleges.Acatalogofnoticesofinstitutionofchairs,course
content,frequencyoflectures,orrelationswiththeambientculturalscene,necessarilyinvolvessearchoflocalarchivalsources,and,inparticular,identificationanduse
ofdatafromJesuituniversitieslikeGenoa,Milan,andParmathatthestateseizedattheSuppressionoftheSociety.ARSIhashistoriesofthecollegeswrittenbythe
Jesuitsthemselves.FortheprovincesthatinterestuswehavetheStoriadelCollegiodiGenovada'suoiprincipinel1553finoal1772scrittadalP.Nicol
Gentile,edal1689continuatadavari,andtheInformationedellostatodelcollegiodiS.LuciadiBolognadatadall'anno1580alpresentedel1673.26But
dataisscarceaboutteachingbecausethehistoriesrelate,insuccinctanalyticform,factsaboutthecollegeasawhole.Newsofgifts,ceremonies,debts,building
condition,andinternalandexternalconflictpredominates.27

PapersandlettersoftheJesuitteachersandscientistsareofgreaterinterest.Theycomprisethemainsourcefortheinstructionalcontentandhistoryofthecollege
chairs.Inparticular,itseemsonlyfromtheseletterscanwelearnadequatelyabouttheactualinterrelationshipbetweentheteachingandpersonalstudyandresearchof
theSociety'sbetterscientists,atopictheimportanceofwhichneedsnoemphasis.Itsmanyfacetsarelittleexplored,forexample,thecriteriathatdeterminedthe
choiceofaninstructororthefutureofastudent.Itisaquestionnotonlyoflearninghowoftenthesamepersonwasbothscientistandteacher,butalsoofnotinghow
manyscholars,knownbytheirpublications,alsotaughtorheldotheroffices.Onehastoestimatethelinkbetweenteachingandnewscientificproductivity,whatitis
andwhenitoccurred,anddothis,mostofall,startingfromtheexperienceoftheteachingscientist,alsotoestimatehowmuchtheneedforadvancedresearchandthe
dutyofteachingintheJesuitschoolswereeffectivelyconcurrent,oratleastcompatible.Thiswayonlycanwehopetoshedlightfromtheinsideonhowtherolesthat
theSocietyundertookinthefieldofsciencewererelated,howitrelatedtocivilandreligioussociety,andtheplaceithad,objectively,inthedevelopmentofsociety
andculture,bothEuropeanandnonEuropean.

AmongthemorenotedandimportantuneditedcollectionsarethecorrespondenceofChristopherClaviusandAthanasiusKircherpreservedinthearchivesofthe
PontificalGregorianUniversity.E.C.Phillips

 Page88

publishedacatalogofClavius'letters:"TheCorrespondenceofFr.Chr.ClaviusPreservedintheArchivesofthePont.GregorianUniversity."28

Veryusefulforidentifyinginstructionalmatterarethelecturenotesandotherdidacticmaterialmadeorkeptbystudentsandinstructorsthesemaybeprofitablyused
forcomparisonswithprintedworksandcurrentmanuals.AnexampleofthelatterisBrevisintroductiointotammathematicamperPatreumIacobum
BonvicinumNeapolitanum,preservedinthemanuscriptcollectionoftheBibliothecaUniversitariaofGenoa.29GiacomoBonvicino,whotaughtmathematicsatthe
collegeofGenoafrom1652to1656,anddiedoftheplaguein1657,editedBrevisintroductioin1654,butdidnotcirculateit,norisheidentifiedwiththisorany
otherworkintheOrder'sbibliographicalindex.Brevisintroductiohas16014.521cm.pages,andisdividedintofourparts.Thefirsthas36geometryproblems
andtwoshortnotes("Ontheangleofincidenceequaltoanangle,"and"Whatisadirectionline?").Thesecondparttreatstrigonometry("Abrieftreatiseof
trigonometry").Thethirdhasastronomy,withmentionofgeneralterrestrialgeography("BriefexplanationofthecontentoftheSphere").Thefourthpartlooksatthe
problemofstatics(''Mechanics").Pedagogicalexpositoryarrangementwasexplicit:"Tofollownaturalorderwhichalwaysstartsfromeasierthings,wemustdosome
exercisesbeforewetrydeepmathematicsandgeometry.WewillthereforegivewithoutexplanationmanyproblemsthatwillbedevelopedlaterintheEuclid
lectures."30Thispracticalanddidacticpurposeispreciselywhatconstitutesthreecenturieslaterthecentralpointofinteresthereandinsimilartexts.

WebeganbyindicatingthatuptonowsuchimportanttopicsastheteachingofscientificdisciplinesinthelargermodernEuropeanschoolorganizationhadbeen
neglected.Nowtherearegoodpossibilitiesforendingthatneglect.Systematicstudyofmaterialsuchaswehavefoundwillsurelyilluminatethecircumstancesand
structuresthatdrovetheactualhistoricaldevelopmentofmodernscience.

 Page89

Notes

1."AftertheSocietydecidedtoadmitalsoyoungmenwhohadyettobetrainedinletters,andtoopencollegeswiththeirownschools,ithadtochoosewhetherto
followthemodusitalicusorthemodusparisiensisinitsschools"(L.Lukacs,MonumentaPaedagogica,Novaeditioexintegrorejecta,15401556,Roma,1965,
p.616).

2.SeeM.Barbera,S.I.LaRatiostudiorumelaparteIVdelleCostituzionidellaCompagniadiGes,Padua,1942:"Themodusparisiensishadtwoprincipal
characteristics.Thefirstwasthedistinctionofclassandcourselevels,sothatthestudentsattendtoonethingatatime,andprogressinanorderlyway.Therewere,in
particular,fiveclassesinthehumanitiescourse.Thesecondcharacteristicwasthattheprofessorsgavespecialsupervisiontothestudentswithmanyandrigorous
exercises.InItaly,ontheotherhand,solemnityandpompprevailedininstructiongivenfromtheloftyheightsofthechairtostudentsandauditorsofdiverse
competence,withouttheprofessorbeingobligatedtothestudentsortotheadvantageoftheyouth"(p.xx).

3.P.O.Kristeller,LatradizioneclassicanelpensierodelRinascimento,Firenze,1965,pp.4243.

4.ConstitutionesSocietatisIesucumearumdeclarationibus,Romae,MDLXXXIII,ParteIV,cap.XII,par.3.

5.Ibid.,ParteIV,cap.XIV,par.3.

6.C.Clavius,ModusquodisciplinaemathematicaeinscholisSocietatispossentpromoveri,inMonumentaPaedagogicaSocietatisIesu,quaeprimam
Rationemstudiorumanno1586editampraecessere,Madrid,1901,pp.472ff.

7.Ibid.

8."Allthephilosophers,inthesecondyearofphilosophy,willhearthemathematicslecturesintheschoolforthreequartersofanhour.Letthoseaptandinclinedto
suchstudiesbetrainedafterthecoursewithprivatelectures"(Ratioatqueinstitutiostudiorum,1599,Cap.I,RegoledelProvinciale,20,inBarbera,op.cit.,p.
126).

9.SeeM.Scaduto,"IlmatematicoFrancescoMaurolicoeigesuiti,"AHSI18(1949),pp.12641.

10.TheRatiostudiorumtookadvantageofawealthofpracticalexperience,aswellastheoreticandprogrammaticdiscussionheldovermorethanahalfcenturyof
uninterruptedandgrowinginstructionalactivityeverywhere,includingReformationlandsand

 Page90

nonEuropeanlocales(EastandWestIndies,China,etc.).Asalreadynoted,theJesuitsfirstundertookinstructionofexternstudentsatthecollegeofGoa,in
India,thatDiegodeBorbahadalreadyestablishedthererightafterthearrivalofSt.FrancisXavier,whoin1542askedandgotfromSt.Ignatiussomeinstructors
toteachhumanitiesandChristiandoctrinetoIndianandPortugueseyouths.JesuitMissionariestaughttherefrom1543to1549whentheyhadcompletedirection
ofit.(Barbera,op.cit.,p.27,note1.)NodiscussionoftheSocietyofJesuscanprescindfromtheuniversalscopeofitspresenceandfromthedemandsthatits
vastmissionaryactivityinitscontactwithhereticsandnonChristianpeoplesputonthewholeorganizationinmattersofeducationandculturalpolicy.Inthe
circumstances,mathematicsandscienceingeneralweretakenamongthemostefficaciousmeanstoestablishcontactwithahostile,oratleastforeign,
environment.St.Ignatiushimselfusedtosaythat"OurSocietyinitsdesiretohelpsoulswillseizethespoilsofEgypttoturnthemtothehonorandgloryofGod,
becauseinourday(thehumanities)arequitenecessarytomakeprogresswithsouls,especiallyinnorthernregions(italicsours)"(MomumentaIgnatiana,First
Series,SanctiIgnatiideLoyolaepistolaeetinstructiones,IXII,Madrid,190311,VIII,letter618of30March1555).Ignatiusherereferstothestudyof
classicalhumanities,CiceroandDemosthenes,buthisargumentisalsovalidforthesciences.Indeed,inIndiaandChina,onlythelatterwilldo.Tobesure,this
necessarilycreatedamongmanyJesuitscholarsaturntowardtheexternalandamindsetsomewhatheterodoxandunfamiliarinthemilieuoftheCounter
Reformation.

ThedefinitiveversionoftheruleofstudiesintheSociety'scollegeswascompletedin1598,butitwassenttothepressonlyin1599:Ratioatqueinstitutio
studiorumSocietatisIesu,Napoli,incollegioeiusdemSocietatis.ExtypographiaTarquiniiLongii,MDXCVIII,then,Napoli,apudTarquiniumLongium,MDIC.
Itwaspreceded,asisknown,bytwootherdrafts,thefirstpublishedin1586(RatioatqueinstitutiostudiorumpersexPatremadidiussuRP.Generalis
deputatosconscripta,Romae,inCollegioSocietatisIesu,MDLXXXVI),thesecondin1591(RatioatqueInstitutioStudiorum,Romae,inCollegioSocietatis
Iesu,MDXCI).The1599Ratio,slightlyamendedbytheSeventhGeneralCongregation(1615)wasreprintedin1616,andwasever

 Page91

afterwardsenteredintheeditionsofInstitutumSocietatisIesu.InadditiontothetextintheInstitutum,thereistheeditioneditedbyG.M.Pachtler:Ratio
studiorumetinstitutionesscholasticaeSocietatisIesuperGermaniamolimvigentes,IIV,Berlin,188794(=MonumentaGermaniaePaedagogica)this
alsohasthefirstRatio.Bycontrast,the1591Ratiowasnotreprinted,andoriginalcopiesarealmostnonexistent:"Theoriginaleditionmusthavehadveryfew
copies,becauseextantonesareexceedinglyrare.OneisintheLibraryofLondon(notintheBritishMuseum),anotherintheCambridgeUniversityLibrary,a
thirdintheJesuitscholasticateatLouvain"(Barbera,op.cit.,p.45.)BarberaandAllanP.Farrell(TheJesuitCodeofLiberalEducation.Developmentand
ScopeoftheRatioStudiorum,Milwaukee,1938,fromwhichthisdatacomes)overlookthecopyexistingintheARSI,whichIwasabletoconsult,thankstothe
courtesyofFr.EdmundLamalle,directorofthearchives.ItwasSuperiorGeneralClaudeAcquaviva'scopy,withmanyannotationsinhishand.Onsomeblank
pagesinthebackofthevolume,therewascopiedalittlemanuscripttreatiseDedelectuopinionum,atopicdebatedatthetimebytheCommissionfortheRatio
studiorum("WhentheywereappointedtoredotheRatiostudiorum,and,afterprecisediscussionanddebateformanydays,theysenttotheCongregationtheir
judgmentaboutthespeculativepartandtheselectionof[theological]opinions,theCongregationapprovedtheirdecisions"[InstitutumSocietatisIesu,Firenze,
1893,ILp.272])thiswasmarkedoutintheRegulaeprodelectuopinionumapprovedbytheFifthGeneralCongregationmeetingbetween3November1593
and18January1594.TheactaoftheGeneralCongregationsarepublishedinInstitutum,op.cit.

TheofficialtextthatprecededtheRatiowasdevelopedfromtheConstitutionscomposedbySt.IgnatiustheirFourthParttreatedtheordinanceonstudies:
chapters1117ontheuniversitiesdatetotheyears155354(SeeMon.Paed.novaeditio,op.cit.,p.271).TheConstitutionswereapprovedbytheFirst
GeneralCongregationin1558.

ThechapterDemathematicisofthe1586RatiobeginsappropriatelywithcitationofDeclarationCattachedtothepassagecitedoftheContstitutions(seen.
4):"Logic,physics,metaphysics,moralscience,andmathematicstoowillbetaughttotheextenttheyhelptothegoalproposedtous."TheFourthGeneral

 Page92

Congregation(FebruaryApril1581)orderedpreparationofaneditionoftheConstitutionsthatwasissuedin1583itwasusedforthepassagesgivenhere.By
decreeoftheGeneralCongregationitbecametheofficialtextoftheSociety'sfundamentallaw.

Wemustnotehere,howeverbriefly,somedocumentswrittenbeforeandaftertheConstitutionsthathaveparticularimportanceforthehistoryofmathematics
instruction.First,theConstitutionesCollegiiMessanensis(1548)andtheDestudiigeneralisdispositioneetordine(1552),bothbyFatherJeromeNadal.
Theyhavebeenpublishedintheoftcitedfirst(anduptonowtheonlypublished)volumeofthenewseriesMonumentaPaedagogicathatrecordsdocumentsup
to1556.ButfortheperiodbetweenthedraftingoftheIgnatianConstitutionsandthefirstRatio,thereareimportantmanuscriptsattributedbothtoChristopher
Clavius,fromwhichwetookthepassageprintedinthetext,andGeralamoTorresallarepublishedinthesinglevolumeoftheoldMon.Paedthesetoohave
alreadybeencited.ThoseofClaviusaretwobriefhandwrittentexts,thefirstisentitledModusquodisciplinaemathematicaeetc.,(seenote6above),whilethe
editorsofMon.Paed.gavethetitleDeremathematicainstructiotothesecond,whichisuntitledinthemanuscript.Also,theverybriefTorresmanuscripts
(eachapage)areinSpanish,buthaveLatintitles:Destudiismathematicis,andDerebusmathematicis.

SeeG.Cosentino,"MathematicsintheJesuitRatiostudiorum,"inthisvolume,pp.4779,forpedagogicaldocumentsrelativetotheteachingofmathematicsin
Jesuitschools.

11.FornorthernItalythereisjustA.Monti,LaCompagniadiGesnelterritortodellaProvinciaTorinese,5vols.,Chien,191420.Onlythefirstvolumetreats
theperiodbefore1773(theoldSociety).SomeotherhistoriesoftheSociety'sItalianprovincesareE.Aguileia,ProvinciaeSiculaeSocietatisIesuortusetres
gestae,2vols.,Palermo,173740(comprisingtheperiodfrom1546to1672)F.Schinosi,IstoriadellaCompagniadiGesappartenentealRegnodiNapoli,2
vols.,Napoli,170611(from1538to1600),continuedbyS.Santagata,2vols.,Napoli,175657(from1600to1650)G.Barella,LaCompagniadiGesnelle
Puglie,15741767,16351940,Lecce,1941A.Arami,StoriadellaCompagniadiGesinSardegna,Genova,1939(from1552to1938).FortheSocietyof
JesusinItaly,seeP.TacchiVenturi,StoriadellaCompagniadiGes

 Page93
a o do
inItalia,narratacolsussidiodifontiinedite,2vols.in4sections,Rome,1910(vol.primo,l ed.),192252(vol.secundo,l &2 t.,respectively).Thefirst
volumetreatsreligiouslifeinItalyduringthefirsteraoftheSociety,thesecondhasthelifeofIgnatiusLoyola,thefoundationoftheSociety,anditshistoryupto
hisdeath(149156).ThisnowclassicworkwascontinuedbyM.Scaduto,L'epocadiGiacomoLanez,ilGoverno(155665),Rome,1964.Alltheworks
citedpresentthemajoreventsoftheSocietyanditshousesandcollegesfromageneralpointofview.Onlyinpassingdotheyhaveitemsaboutteaching.Their
valueforthehistoryofmathematicsteachingissolelyinprovidingaframeofreferenceforthestagesofsuchinstructionasknownfromothersources.

12.F.DeDainville,S.J.,"L'enseignementdesmathmatiquesdanslesCollgesJsuitesdeFranceduXVIeauXVIIIesicle,"Revued'histoiredessciencesetde
leursapplication7,nn.12(JanuaryJune1954),pp.621,10223,and"L'EnseignementscientifiquedanslesCollgesdesJsuites,"inEnseignementet
diffusiondessciencesinFranceauXVIIIesicle,Paris,1964,pp.2765.

13.Rome,1954.

14.AHSI17(1948),pp.10259.

15.Firenze,1969.

16."Theprimarypurposeofbotharchives(i.e.,oftheoldSocietyupto1773andofthe'restored'Societyfrom1814)wasandistoservetheSuperiorGeneraland
hisassistantsinthegovernmentoftheOrder.Asecondpurposeistohelptheportrayalofeventsorhistory.Andsoforgoodreason,useofthedocumentsis
ordinarilyrestrictedtoVeryReverendFatherGeneral,unlessaboutahundredyearshaveelapsed"(G.Teschitel,"ArchivumRomanumSocietatisIesu[ARSI],"
Archivum4[1954],p.145).Inthisarticle,theauthor,whowasdirectoroftheSociety'sgeneralarchives,givesabriefprospectusorsummaryofthearchives,a
clearclassificationofthematerialofgreatuseforafirstorientation.Seealsothesameauthor's"L'organizzazionedell'archivogeneraledellaCompagniadiGes,"
RassegnadegliArchividiStato22(1962),pp.18996.Fortheoriginofthearchives,seeG.Schurhammer,"DieAnfngedesRmischenArchivsderGesellschaft
Jesu(15381548),"AHSI12(1943),pp.88118.

17."Becauseofthedifferencesintheirjuridicalstatus,theRomanArchivesandtheFondoGesuiticowerenotcombined,butsetside

 Page94

byside,underthesamearchivist,andkeeptheirdifferentclassifications."E.Lamalle,"L'inventairedesplansdesArchivesromainesdelaCompagnie,"inJ.
ValleryRadot,Larecueildeplansd'edificesdelaCompagniedeJsusconservlaBibliothqueNationaledeParis,Roma,1960,p.396.

18."InthebookletRegularumPP.MercurianietAquavivaethereispreservedtheFormulascribendi...thatwasexpandedbyP.Acquaviva"(A.Coemans,
BrevesnotitiaedeInstituto,historia,bibliographiaSocietatis,2nded.revisedandexpanded,Brussells,1937,p.42).Mercurian'sFormulaisinARSIInst.40,
ff.7778(Formulaconficiendorumcatalogorummissaadprovinciasinprincipioanni1579)herecanalsobefoundAcquaviva'scorrectionsandadditions(ff.114
114v:Formulacatalogorumconficiendorurn,recognitacalendrisnovembris1589,andibid.f139:Deemendationeseuadditioneadformulamcatalogorum,utcatalogi
singulissuisnominibusappellentur,Calendrisoctobris1590.)ThedefinitiveFormulascribendihasbeenpublishedinInstitutumSocietatisIesu,op.cit.,III,pp.
36ff.

19.FromVen71toVen91a(provinceofVenice),andfromMed1toMed19(provinceofMilan).Theannualcatalogswereusuallycompiledatthestartofthe
scholasticyear(OctoberNovember),andalwayshadtheinscriptionexeunteanno...,withthedateoftheyearinprogress,orperhapsineunteanno...,with
thedateofthefollowingyear.ThecatalogsalwayshavealistofJesuitstudentswhowereattendingthehighercoursesoftheology,andalsoofthosewhowere
hearingphilosophy.

20."First,foreachonerecordhisnameandfamilyname,hiscountry,age,health,yearsintheSociety,studiesandministriesundertaken,academicdegrees,ifany,
whetherprofessedorcoadjutor,etc.,andwhen.Inthesecondcataloglisttheman'stalentsandqualities,thatis,hisintellectualability,judgment,prudence,
experience,progressinletters,ordinarydemeanor,andwhattalentshehasfortheSociety'sministries"(Formulascribendi,nn.3233,inInstitutum,op.cit.,III,p.
45).

21."ThenumberofOursineachhouseshouldberecorded,andalsohowmanyofthemarepriests,professors,scholastics,andinwhatfacultieshowmanyare
temporalcoadjutors,whatis[thehouse's]income,whatordinaryalmsitgets,howmuchmoneyisborrowed..."(Decatalogis,quitertioquoqueannoasingulis

 Page95

provinciisinurbemmittidebent.R.P.N.ClaudiiAquavivaePraepositiGeneralis,iussurecognita,etanno1580inProvinciasmissa.InInstitutum,op.
cit.III,p.309).

22.ThetriennialcatalogsoftheVenetianandMilaneseprovincescamefromVen37toVen62,andMed47toMed69,respectively.

23.Ven37a.

24.Ven36a.

25.Hist.Soc.175Rom.78bHist.Soc.41.

26.Med80andVen112.

27.AnalogousconsiderationsholdfortheAnnuaeLitterae,withedifyingcontentforthemostpart.Thesewerepublished,startingfromthoseof1581uptotheones
of165354:AnnuaeLitteraeSocietatisIesuanni...adPatresetFratreseiusdemSocietatis,36vols.ThefirstwaspublishedinRome,thelastatPraguein
1658.

28.InAHSI8(1939),pp.193222.Thelistisnoterrorfree.ForKircher'scorrespondence,seeG.Gabrieli,"CarteggiKircheriani,"inRegiaAcademiad'Italia,
Rendicontidiscienzemoraliestoriche,7thseries,2(1949),pp.1017.AmongthemostinterestingandtopicallyrelatedareagroupoflettersofJesuit
mathematicsteachersfoundintheBibliotecaNazionalediFirenzeamongtheGalileanmanuscripts.TherearelettersofVincenzoVivianiandagoodnumberofletters
ofFerroni,andsomeothersofRiccioli,LanaTerzi,Ceva,Saccheri,Boscovich,andRiccati.Saccheri'stwoletterstoVivianiwereeditedbyA.Favaro,Duelettere
ineditediG.SaccheriaV.Viviani,Paris,1903.

29.Mss.F.VI6.

30.Ibid.p.5.