Anterior Pituitary

7 products-four tropic and three direct

GnRh stimulates FSH and LH. FSH and LH act on the gonads(testes and ovaries)
ACTH stimulated by CRF(hypothalamus). ACTH acts on adrenal cortex
TRH(thyroid releasing hormone) stimulates release of TSH(thyroid stimulating hormone) which
acts on the thyrioid.
Direct hormones
Prolactin-stimulates milk production in the mammary glands.
*product of milk in males is suggestive of a pathology.
During pregnancy-estrogen and progrestrone levels are high. This allows for the development
of milk ducts in preparation for lactation. It is not until after the expulsion of placenta that
milk production begins as estrogen, progesterone and dopamine levels drop allowing for
disinhibition of milk production.
Also, prolactin is secreted by the anterior pituitary.
Inhibited by the dopamine secretion from hypothalamus.
Nipple stimulation-activates hypothalamus (two reactions)
1) Oxytocin release (posterior pituitary)-contraction of smooth muscles of breast and
ejection of milk through muscle.
2) Hypothalamus inhibits dopamine release from the anterior pituitary.
Endorphin-decreased perception of pain. Use in painkillers such as morphine. Sense of euphoria
(ie. After marathon)
Growth hormone- promotes of growth of bone and muscles. Requires large quantities of
glucose. GH prevents glucose uptake in tissues that are not growing and stimulates fatty
acid breakdown allows for more glucose availability to muscle and bone.
Stimulated by GHRH from the hypothalamus
Bone growth occurs in regions called epiphyseal plates which seal shut during puberty.
Excess GH in childhood before closure- causes Gigantism whereas deficit is dwarfism.
Adults the long bones are sealed but GH is still being produced and exerting its effects on
smaller bones causing acromelagy. Effects prominent in hands, feet and head.
Posterior Pituitary
Contains nerve terminals of neurons with cell bodies in the hypothalamus.
Products ADH and Oxytocin
ADH secreted in response to low blood volume (baroreceptors) or increased blood osmolarity
(osmoreceptors).
Acts in the collecting duct increased permeability of duct to allow for greater absorption of
water from the filtrate in the nephron. Greater retention of water resulting in increased blood
volume and higher blood pressure.
Oxytocin- secreted during childbirth and allows for contraction of uterine smooth muscle
Stimulated by suckling-promotes milk ejection by contraction of smooth muscle in
breast. May be involved in bonding*.
Positive feedback loop: release of oxytocin promotes uterine contraction allowing for
more oxytocin releases promoting stronger uterine contraction. Occurs during delivery.

Thyroid
Controlled via TSH release from anterior pituitary.
Located in front of trachea and felt at base of neck which moves up and down with swallowing.
Two functions:
1) Set basal metabolic rate (controlled by Triiodothyronine (T3) and Thyroxine (T4).
2) Calcium homeostasis (controlled by calcitonin)
T3 and T4 produced via iodination of amino acid tyrosine in follicular cells of thyroid.
*The numbers indicate number of iodine attached to the tyrosine.
Thyroid hormones control basal metabolic rate of body by making energy production less or
more efficient and alters the use of glucose and fatty acids.
Increase T3 and T4 lead to increased cellular respiration.
Greater amount of protein and fatty acid turnover by speeding up synthesis and
degradation of these compounds.
High plasma levels of thyroid hormones leads to decreased TSH and TRH synthesis. Negative
feedback prevents secretion of T3 and T4.
Deficiency in iodine or inflammation of thyroid-hypothyroidism (low secretion of thyroid
hormones). Lethargy, decreased body temperature, slowed respiratory heart rate, cold
intolerance and weight gain.
Thyroid homrones are required for neurological and physical development in children.
Deficincy in thyroid hormones causes mental retardation and developmental delay (Cretinism)
Excess of thyroid hormone- results from oversimulation or tumor- Hyperthyroidism.
Characterized by: Heightened activity levels, high body temperature, increased respiratory heart
rate, heat intolerance and weight loss.
Calcitonin
Thyroid tissues is divided into follicular cells (produce thyroid hormones) and C-cells
(produce calcitonin)
Calcitonin: (decreases plasma calcium levels)
1) Increase plasma excretion from kidney
2) Decrease calcium absorption from gut
3) Increase storage of calcium in bone
*Stimulated by high plasma concentration of calcium.

Parathyroid hormones: Four structures behind the thyroid called parathyroid produce this.
Antagonist to calcitonin raising blood calcium levels:
1. Decreases excretion of calcitonin by kidneys
2. Increases absorption of calcium from gut (through vitamin D)
3. Increases bone resorption leading to increased free calcium.
Controlled by negative feedback inhibition. As plasma calcium levels rise PTH secretion is
decreased.
Also controls phosphorus homeostasis by resorbing phosphate from bone and reducing
reabsorption of phosphate in kidney (promote excretion in urine).
PTH activates vitamin D- promoting absorption of calcium and phosphate in gut.
Significant increase in blood calcium levels with negligible effect on phosphate (it promotes
absorption of phosphate in gut and excretion in kidney)

Adrenal cortex:
Adrenal glands are located on top of kidneys. Each gland has a cortex and medulla.
Adrenal cortex- secretes corticosteroids. Mostly steroid hormones: glucocorticoids,
mineralocorticoids and cortical sex hormones.

Glucorticoids(steroid hormones)
Regulate glucose levels and affect protein metabolism.
Examples: cortisol and cortisone. Raise blood glucose by increasing gluconeogenesis and
decreasing protein synthesis.
Cortisol and cortisone decrease inflammation and immunologic response. Cortisol is a stress
hormone which increases blood sugar and provides immediate source of fuel to respond to
dangerous stimuli.
Glucorticoids release under control of ACTH which is regulated by CRF from hypothalamus.

Mineralocorticoids (salt and water homeostasis-act on kidney)

Aldosterone- increases sodium reabsorption in DCT and collecting duct of nephron.
Water follows sodium and thus increases blood volume and pressure. Plasma osmolality
remains unchanged unlike ADH. Aldosterone decreases reabsorption of potassium and
hydrogen ions and promoting excretion in urine.
Controlled by renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system
Decreased blood pressure causes the juxtaglomerular cells of kidney to secrete renin.
Renin cleaves angiotensinogen to its active form angiotensin I. Angiotensin I is then
converted to angiotensin II by angiotensin converting enzyme (ACE) in lungs.
Angiotensin II stimulates aldosterone. Blood pressure restoration causes negative feedback
preventing renin stimulation.

Cortical Sex Hormones( androgens and estrogens)

Because males secrete large quantities of androgens in testes, adrenal testosterone has negligible
effect on male physiology.
Females are sensitive to disorders of cortical sex hormone production. Enzyme deficiencies in
synthetic pathway of adrenal cortex hormones can increase in androgen production leading to
masculinized genitalia. Males can be affected if there is excess production of estrogen.
Adrenal Medulla
Derivative of nervous system is responsible for production of epinephrine and norepinephrine
released into circulatory system.
Amino acid derivative hormones that belong to catecholamine class.
Epinephrine- promotes glycogen to glucose breakdown in liver and muscle as well as increase
metabolic rate.
Both increase heart rate, dilate bronchi, and increase blood flow to systems used in
sympathetic response (vasodilation in blood vessels leading to skeletal muscle, heart, lungs and
brain.
Vasoconstriction (decrease in blood flow) to kidney, gut and skin
Cortisol is useful for slow stress response whereas catecholamine used for fast stress
responses. Cortisol can also promote catecholamine release.

Pancreas
Both an endocrine and an exocrine gland. Exocrine secretes substances directly into ducts.
Exocrine function-digestive enzyme release. (Pancreatic acini)
Endocrine-hormone producing cells grouped into islets of Langerhans throughout pancreas.
Islets of Langerhans contain alpha, beta and delta cells.
Alpha cells secrete glucagon. Beta cells produce insulin. Delta cells produce somatostatin.

Glucagon
Secreted during fasting times. When glucose levels run low, glucagon stimulates degradation
of protein and fat, conversion of glycogen to glucose as well as production of glucose via
gluconeogenesis.
Gastrointestinal hormones (cholecystokinin and gastrin) - increase glucagon release from
alpha cells.
High glucose levels inhibit glucagon release.

Insulin (antagonist to glucagon)

Secreted when blood glucose levels are high.
Insulin induces muscle and liver cells to take up glucose. When glucose levels are high, insulin
stimulates anabolic processes such as fat and protein synthesis.

Excess insulin-hypoglycemia (low blood glucose concentration)

Underproduction or insensitivity to insulin results in diabetes mellitus (hyperglycemia)
In kidney, excessive glucose in filtrate will overwhelm nephron ability to reabsorb glucose
resulting in presence in the urine.
Glucose is osmotically active and doesnt not cross cell membrane. Prescence of glucose in
filtrate leads to excess excretion of water (increase urine volume-polyuria, increased thirst-
polydipsia)
Type I diabetes- autoimmune destruction of beta cells of pancreas. No/little insulin production.
Require injections of insulin to prevent hyperglycemia and allow entry of glucose into
cells.
Type II diabetes (non-insulin dependent)
Receptor level resistance to the effects of insulin. Inherited and partially due to
environmental factors such as high carb diet and obesity.
Pharmacological intervention. Only need insulin when bodies cant control glucose levels.

Somatostatin- inhibitor of insulin and glucagon secretion. High glucose and amino acid
concentration stimulate its secretion. Somatostatin can also be produced by hypothalamus to
decrease GH secretion.

Gonads
Testes- secrete testosterone in response to gonadotropin simulation (LH and FSH)
Testosterone- sexual differentiation of male during gestation. Promotes development and
maintenance of secondary sex characteristics in male (voice, public hair, deepening of voice,
muscle growth.
Ovaries- secrete estrogen and progesterone in response to gonadotropin simulation.
Estrogen-development of female reproductive system during gestation and development of
secondary sex characteristics in females such as auxiliary/pubic hair, breast growth, body fat
redistribution.
Pineal gland
Located in brain and secretes melatonin.
Plays a role in circadian rhythms. Blood levels of melatonin partially responsible for
sleepiness.
Pineal gland receives projections from retina but no role in vision. Hypothesized that pineal
gland responds to decrease in light intensity by releasing serotonin.

Other organs that can function as endocrine:

Gastrointestinal tract: endocrine tissues in stomach and intestine.
Secretin, gastrin and cholecystokinin. (peptide hormones)
Kidneys-water balance. ADH increases permeability in collecting duct. RAAS system
increases sodium and water reabsorption in DCT and collecting duct.
Kidneys produces erythropoietin which stimulates bone marrow to increase production of
RBC(erythropoietin) in response to low oxygen levels in blood.
Heart- released atrial natriuretic peptides(ANP). Secreted in response to high blood volume.
Promotes sodium excretion and increases urine volume. Antagonistic to aldosterone as it lowers
blood pressure/volume and also has no effect on osmolarity as it has dumps water as well.
Thymus(located behind sternum)- releases Thymosin
Important for proper T-cell development and differentiation.
*Thymus atrophies with age leading to decreases thymosin production.