Biol1 Text Answers PDF

Unit 1, Area of Study 1: Cells in action
Chapter 1: Foundations of biology
Key questions
1 The key components of the scientific method are: careful observation, making a hypothesis, and conducting a
carefully designed experiment to test the hypothesis.
2 a A hypothesis is a statement that can be tested. This involves making a prediction based on previous
observations.
b The answer to this question can be obtained from the Biology One glossary.
A theory is a hypothesis that is supported by a great deal of evidence from a wide variety of sources.
A principle is a theory that is so strongly supported by evidence that it is unlikely to be shown to be
untrue in the future.
3 a Objective means that there is no personal bias involved in the observation or experiment. An objective
observation can be quantified in some way; for example, by some form of measurement that can be
repeated by other people.
Subjective means that personal bias could influence the observation or experiment.
b Experiments must be objective so that any conclusions made are based on the unbiased analysis of the
data. Objective experiments make it possible for experiments to be repeated by others, with, hopefully,
the same conclusions being drawn.
c It is very difficult to be totally objective. The influence of a scientists culture can be very strong. A good
scientist is aware of such factors and tries to eliminate their effect.
4 a In a controlled experiment, two experiments are actually done; they are identical except for a single
factor (the variable).
b Controlled experiments are the only way that hypotheses can be tested. They eliminate random factors
that could affect the results, and allow us to examine one factor at a time.
5 All plants and animals:

are made of cells
are chemically complex and highly organised
exchange materials with their environment
exchange energy with their environment
are able to sense and respond to their environment
develop, grow and reproduce
show adaptive changes over a long time.
Reed International Books Pty Ltd 1

6 All cells are surrounded by a plasma membrane (cell membrane). This contains the cytoplasm and within is
DNA. DNA is usually enclosed by a membrane, and the organelle is the nucleus.
7 A waste is a substance produced by an organism that is of no use to the organisms and might be harmful.
Carbon dioxide and urea are examples of wastes from a human cell.
8 a A characteristic of an organism that makes it well suited to its environment and life style.
b The antifreeze in the blood of Antarctic icefish, banksia cones that release seeds after a fire to take
advantage of the nutrient-rich ash, and the Flying Duck Orchid that mimics a female wasp.
c Natural selection and evolution.
9 a Organic compounds are complex compounds that contain the elements carbon and hydrogen. All other
compounds are inorganic compounds.
b Carbon dioxide is inorganic because it is a simple compound that does not contain hydrogen.
10 a
Organic compound Elements Main function

1 carbohydrate carbon, hydrogen, oxygen storing energy; structural support
2 lipid carbon, hydrogen, oxygen (in storing energy, hormones, vitamins
different proportions to
carbohydrates)
3 protein carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, cell structure, enzymes, hormones,
and possibly sulfur and phosphorus carrier molecules
4 nucleic acid carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, the genetic material of all organisms;
phosphorus, nitrogen carry instructions required to assemble
proteins from amino acids
b Students would only be expected to make educated guesses at this stage. Reasonable suggestions would
include:
glucose cytoplasm (cytosol)
DNA nucleus
proteins cytoplasm (enzymes), plasma (cell) membrane, cell membranes (structural)
lipids plasma (cell) membrane, cell membranes (structural)
starch chloroplasts (plant cells only)
cellulose cell wall (plant cells only)
11 a nucleotides
b amino acids
c simple sugars (monosaccharides).
Chapter review questions
1 A 2 B 3 D 4 C 5 B
6 There could be many reasons why the same experimental results cannot be obtained. The experimental design
may be poor due to:
lack of objectivity
lack of clear and simple instructions
lack of appropriate equipment
and failure to control variables.
Other problems not specifically related to the experiment could be:
a poor hypothesis that was unable to be objectively tested
conclusions drawn from results that may not be correct
interpretations may have been too subjective.
7 There are many potential answers to this question. Some points to look for include:
Is the hypothesis simple and testable?
Is the proposed method simple and clearly documented so that it can be repeated?
Are all variables controlled except the one being investigated?
Students would need to consider whether to design the experiment on the rocky coast, in which case control
of variables would be difficult, or in the laboratory, in which case extrapolation of the results to the rocky
coast may be difficult.
8 Teachers may wish to discuss enzymes and enzyme activity before students attempt to answer this question.
a The variable in this experiment is temperature. Other factors that are controlled include the concentration
of original starch solution, the amount of starch used, the amount of saliva added, the amount of solution
to be tested, and the time interval for testing.
b All four temperatures at time 0 indicate that the saliva contains no maltose. If there had been maltose in
the saliva when it was mixed with starch, it would have shown up immediately. It is important to know
this so that inferences about the action of saliva in the production of maltose can be made later.
c There is something in saliva that, at certain temperatures, causes the production of maltose from a
starchsaliva mixture. There is really not enough evidence to indicate that this is caused by enzyme
activity.
d There is an increase in the rate of conversion of starch to maltose as the temperature rises from 0C to
40C. At 0C maltose is first detected at 12 minutes, but the conversion is not complete over the course
of the experiment; there is always some unconverted starch present. The reaction proceeds very slowly.
At 20C, maltose is detected at 4 minutes, and starch was completely converted by the 16th minute.

At 40C, maltose was again detected at 4 minutes, but the starch has been completely converted by the
12th minute. In this experiment, this is the optimum temperature at which this reaction occurs. (This is
consistent with the hypothesis that saliva contains an enzyme that hydrolyses starch to maltose.)
e At 100C, maltose is detected after 4 minutes and remains present to the end of the experiment. Starch
also remains present throughout. There are two possible explanations for these observations, and it is
difficult to decide between them since we are told only that maltose is present or absent, not how much is
present. The real answer may be a combination of both explanations.
Explanation 1: As the temperature of the reaction mixture is being raised in the water bath, the mixture
will pass through the temperatures that are optimum for the reaction (i.e. 40C) and so some maltose will
be produced and will show up in tests. Once the temperature gets beyond this, any enzyme that
is involved would be progressively denatured and ineffective.
Explanation 2: High temperatures can cause large molecules such as starch to split into smaller
molecules, some of which could be maltose. This reaction occurs without the assistance of enzymes, and
would almost certainly occur at 100C. The rate of breakdown could be quite slow, so not all starch
would be used up.
9 Living: grass, bee, ripening peach, sleeping possum, hibernating bat. Cellular, exchanges material with the
environment (gases, nutrients, wastes), grows, etc
Dead: fallen twig, timber chair, hair. Cellular but does not show any of the sign of life listed above.
Non-living: honey, gravel, spider web, growing crystals. Non-cellular, does not show any of the sign of life
listed above.
10 Minerals are inorganic because they are not complex compounds of carbon. Vitamins are complex carbon
compounds.
11 An alternative theory is creation, which says that all life forms have arisen as a result of the act of a creator,
such as God. Theories are only possible explanations for observations, and all observations can be explained
in different ways.

Chapter 2: The structure of cells
Key questions
1 The smallest functional unit of life. A building block of multicellular organisms
2 All organisms are composed of cells ( and the products of cells).

All cells come from pre existing cells.
The cell is the smallest living organisational unit.
3 The previous theory was spontaneous generation, which said that life arose spontaneously. This was disproved
by Louis Pasteur's experiments.
4 Prokaryotes are small cells of Kingdom Monera. They lack membrane bound organelles and have their
requirements in the cytoplasm. Eukaryotes are larger cells, are capable of being multicellular and have
membrane bound organelles with specific functions
5 All cells have a plasma ( cell) membrane, this contains the cytoplasm and within this is DNA a nucleic acid,
not all cells have DNA membrane bound, in a nucleus
6 The cell wall in fungi is composed of chitin, whereas the cell wall of plants is composed of cellulose.
7 Kingdom Animalia (e.g. humans, kangaroos, parrots, flatworms and sponges); Kingdom Plantae (e.g.
eucalypts, conifers, grasses, mosses); Kingdom Fungi (e.g. yeasts, mushrooms and bread moulds); and
Kingdom Protista (e.g. algae, slime moulds, Euglena and amoebas). See distinguishing characteristics in
Table 2.1, page 26 of Heinemann Biology One.
8 Kingdom Monera. Photosynthesis rules out Kingdoms Animalia and Fungi. The presence of a cell wall is
further evidence that it is not an animal cell. The lack of a nucleus also rules out Protista and Plantae. The cell
must be a photosynthetic moneran a cyanobacterium.
9 Light microscopes use a beam of light, and objects are viewed in colour at low to high resolution. An electron
microscope uses a beam of electrons, and objects are viewed in black and white at resolutions that can be
thousands of times greater than can be achieved with a light microscope.
10 A light microscope can be used to view living cells in colour. Preparation time is usually quick and simple.
Stains can be used to highlight different components of cells in colour.
11 To prepare a specimen to be viewed under a electron microscope the specimen must be fixed, embedded (e.g.
in epoxy resin), and sectioned and stained (for transmission microscopes) or coated with gold (for scanning
microscopes).

12 The synchrotron allows matter to be studied with greater accuracy and precision than has ever been possible,
down to the atomic scale. It enables information on the behaviour of proteins to be obtained in a much shorter
time compared to previous methods.
13 Complex protein structures have been determined (e.g. antibodies) and also the technology is central to drug
design and development. Tissue samples have been analysed to identify disease.
1 B 2 A 3 A 4 C 5 D
6 a The epithelium, yeast, fungal hypha, egg yolk, moss, euglena, red blood cell and red alga are all
eukaryotic, and at some stage they possess a nucleus and other membrane-bound organelles. The others
are prokaryotes.
b Epithelium and red blood cell Kingdom Animalia. Root hair and photosynthetic cell Kingdom
Plantae. Euglena Kingdom Protista. Bacterium Kingdom Monera.
7 a The picture is from an electron microscope. The evidence for this is that many organelles are visible, in
particular the ribosomes which are labelled. (Remember that electron microscope images can be coloured
afterwards.)
b A chloroplast B Golgi apparatus C nucleus D mitochondrion
c chloroplast: where photosynthesis takes place. It is composed of many folded layers of membrane.
Golgi apparatus: where the final synthesis and packaging of proteins into membrane-bound vesicles
occurs before they are secreted from the cell.
nucleus: contains genetic material (linear chromosomes composed of DNA and proteins) and controls
cellular activities.
mitochondrion: involved in the energy transformations that release energy for use by the cell.

Chapter 3: Cells at work
Key questions
1 Enzymes are composed of proteins.
2 A substrate is a molecule that an enzyme acts on. It binds at the active site.
3 a Enzymes speed up the rate of reaction, which would otherwise occur slowly.
b Enzymes are either within the cell controlling reactions such as cellular respiration, or out side the cell
such as in digestion.
4 Temperature enzymes are temperature-dependent as they have an optimum temperature at which the rate of
reaction is at its fastest.
pH enzymes have an optimum pH range.
Substrate this is the molecule the enzyme acts on.
5 a The enzyme is denatured; that is, the protein structure is permanently changed, so the enzyme can no
longer catalyse the reaction.
b The reaction would still proceed but it would be very slow, because enzymes speed up reactions that
would otherwise take place slowly.

6
Enzymes can (a) bring molecules together, or (b) split molecules apart. In (a), the enzyme E binds to two
substrates at the active site. The substrates are joined to form a new molecule. In (b) the enzyme binds to a
single substrate, which then splits into two molecules. The arrows indicate that each reaction can operate in
reverse.
7 Cells require energy for all their activities: movement, metabolism, eliminating wastes, producing new
organelles, repair and maintenance, and replication.
8 It is in the form of ATP, which is produced from organic molecules broken down in cellular respiration.
9 a Energy for an organism is required for heat production, movement, growth and repair. Transmission of
information also requires energy
b See question 7 above. The needs of a multicellular organism reflect the needs of its cells.
10 Glycolysis is the first stage of both aerobic and anaerobic respiration. It produces two pyruvate molecules
from one glucose molecule, releasing 2 ATP molecules.
11 a Fermentation.
b In animals, lactic acid is produced. In plants, alcohol and carbon dioxide are produced. Both plants and
animals produce 2 ATP molecules.
c Yeast, (fungi) and bacteria also produce the same products as plants.

12 Plants require water, carbon dioxide and light.
13 The primary product of photosynthesis is glucose. Oxygen is a byproduct.
14 Light energy, e.g. from sunlight, is converted into chemical energy, glucose.
15 Photosynthesis is under the control of enzymes. The rate of reaction is therefore temperature-dependent. There
is an optimum temperature range within which the reaction will proceed at a suitable rate.
16 a The nucleus controls the activities of a cell.

b DNA within the nucleus contains the code for the production of particular, proteins which are manufactured in
the cytoplasm. mRNA carries the message of the code to the ribosomes within the cytoplasm which
manufacture the proteins.
17 ribosomes where the material is originally synthesised; amino acids are linked together by the instructions
the ribosomes receive, and a protein is formed
endoplasmic reticulum may modify the protein made and then transports the material through the cell
Golgi apparatus modifies materials transported by the endoplasmic reticulum and then packages them into
vesicles
vesicles contain the synthesised material which are released by exocytosis from the cell.
18 Mitochondria are the sites of aerobic respiration, which provides the necessary energy for synthesis.
19
20 Lysosomes contain powerful digestive enzymes involved in removing damaged organelles and external
debris.

21 Plant vacuoles provide support for the cell (turgidity). They are also involved in the storage of material and
also as a site to store wastes. Water-soluble pigments in vacuoles are responsible for flower colour.
1 C 2 A 3 A 4 A 5 B
6 a he redrawn graph will level off to a constant amount of product, because all the substrate is eventually
converted to product and the reaction stops.
b The slope of the graph would be twice as steep and would level off in half the time, but it would still
level off at the same amount of product.
7 a The enzyme would be denatured and the reaction would proceed more slowly as the temperature
increased.
b The shape of the enzyme would change and it would not be able to bind to the substrate, so the reaction
would proceed more and more slowly as the pH increased, and would stop when the pH reached about
3.5. (See figure 3.3 on page 38 of the textbook.)
8 a There is a net oxygen uptake by the plant when the rate of cellular respiration is greater than the rate of
photosynthesis, because cellular respiration uses oxygen while photosynthesis produces it. Thus there is a
net oxygen uptake at times A and D. There is a net oxygen output at times B and E. At time C there is no
net uptake or output because the rates are the same.
b At time D, the rate of photosynthesis has remained slightly higher than normal. This might happen if a
light is left on, either inside the room or outside the window. At time E the rate of photosynthesis is less
than normal. This might happen if the sky becomes cloudy or the amount of light is reduced by a blind or
curtain.
9 a After one hour, the highest concentrations of aerobic bacteria are in the areas exposed to violet, orange
and red wavelengths. Areas exposed to other wavelengths have almost no aerobic bacteria in them.
b Aerobic bacteria were used in this experiment because they require oxygen for cellular respiration (an
aerobic process) and therefore will move to the areas of the photosynthetic algae filaments which
produce oxygen as a product of photosynthesis.
c The distribution of bacteria indicates that the rate of photosynthesis is highest at the spectral band of red,
followed by violet and then orange. This is because at these wavelengths a high rate of photosynthesis
produces larger amounts of oxygen, which is then available to be used by the aerobic bacteria.

Chapter 4: Cells, membranes and environments
Key questions
1 Extracellular fluid is the fluid surrounding a cell, and therefore in direct contact with the cell wall or plasma
membrane. The plasma membrane separates the extracellular fluid from the cell contents.
2 a The internal environment is the extracellular fluid that surrounds the cells.
b Any three of the following
concentration of particular salts (ions)
temperature
concentrations of nutrients, water and wastes
acidity or alkalinity (pH).
3 Extracellular fluid in an animal is separate from the external environment has a highly regulated composition.
Cerebrospinal fluid and lymph are both extracellular fluids. Sea water is not extracellular fluid for animals
(but may be for simple organisms such as algae). Mucus is a secretion and is not extracellular fluid.
4 Membranes in a eukaryotic cell includes the plasma (cell) membrane that surrounds the cytosol and a network
of interconnected non-plasma membranes.
5 The plasma membrane

forms a physical boundary to the cell
controls the movement of substances into and out of the cell
assists in the transport of information to excitable cells.
6 The nucleus, mitochondria and chloroplasts have a double membrane.
7 a The two phospholipid layers are the main component; associated with them are proteins, carbohydrates
and cholesterol.
b i Proteins provide the channels for water soluble molecules and ions to pass through the membrane.
ii Cholesterol molecules provide stability to the membrane without reducing its flexibility.
8 a Surface area to volume ratio means the surface area of an object compared to its volume.
b The shape on the right has the greater surface area.

9 a A flattened body shape would have a high surface area to volume ratio, and would enable an organism to
maximise heat gain when exposed to the sun.
b A shape in which the width, depth and height are about the same would have a low surface area to
volume ratio, and would enable the organism to conserve heat.
10 a Diffusion is a passive process where molecules move from an area of high concentration to an area of
relatively low concentration along a concentration gradient.
b It does not require energy.
c Size of the solute molecules, type of solute (lipid soluble, water soluble, insoluble), temperature, relative
concentrations on either side of the membrane.
11 Chloroform and alcohol are lipid-soluble, so they can dissolve into the phospholipid bilayer and pass easily
through the membranes.
12 a Diffusion is the passive movement of molecules along a concentration gradient, from a region of high
concentration to a region of low concentration. Osmosis is the net movement of free water molecules
through a partially permeable membrane, from a dilute to a more concentrated solution.
b Facilitated diffusion takes place through specific channels in cell membranes, and is faster than diffusion.
c Active transport is the net movement of molecules against a concentration gradient. It requires the input
of energy. Diffusion takes place down a concentration gradient and does not require an input of energy.
13 Energy is expended in taking up nutrients that cannot pass through the phospholipid bilayer by diffusion or
facilitated diffusion.
14 a The cells that react to the large protein hormones circulating in the blood have specific molecule
receptors in the plasma membrane.
b Steroid hormones pass easily through membranes and interact with specific receptors within the cell.
15 Cells communicate by direct contact between the surface membranes of the cells concerned, or by the
movement of substances along strings of cytoplasm that connect cells. Other cells communicate by the
production of substances that move to a cell or group of cells that have specific organelles, or receptors, that
are able to respond to the substance.
1 C 2 A 3 C 4 D 5 D 6 A
7 a Fresh water in the lungs (high free water molecule concentration) readily moves into the blood plasma
(lower free water molecule concentration) by osmosis. The plasma now has a higher free water molecule
concentration than the red blood cell, so, by osmosis, water moves across the red blood cell membrane,
causing the red blood cell to swell and burst.

b The plant cell membrane is surrounded by a rigid cellulose cell wall. This prevents the membrane from
swelling, to the point of bursting.
8 a
Object Surface area Volume SA : V ratio

i (6 1 1) = 6 cm2 1 cm 1 cm 1 cm = 1 cm3 6:1
ii (6 2 2) = 24 cm2 2 cm 2 cm 2 cm = 8 cm3 24 : 8 = 3 : 1
iii (6 3 3) = 54 cm2 3 cm 3 cm 3 cm = 27 cm3 54 : 27 = 2 : 1
iv (2 2 1) + (2 4 2) + (2 4 1) = 28 cm2 2 cm 4 cm 1 cm = 8 cm3 28 : 8 = 3.5 : 1
v (2 3 1) + (2 9 1) + (2 9 3) = 78 cm2 3 cm 9 cm 1 cm = 27 cm3 78 : 27 = 2.8 : 1
b As the size of an object increases, its surface area-to-volume ratio decreases.

c There is a greater surface area in comparison to volume.
d Heat, nutrients and wastes are exchanged across the surface of many organisms. Larger organisms and
exchange organs have a lower surface area to volume ratio and are less efficient in exchange than smaller
organisms.
9 Loss of water from the puddle causes an increase in solutes in the puddle water. The tadpole will lose water
from its tissues by osmosis, causing the death of the cells.
10 Solution A 1% sugar, because half of the water moved into the tank of 2% solution.
Solution B 2% sugar, because there was no net movement of water.
Solution C 0.5% sugar, about three-quarters of the water moved into the tank of 2% solution.
Solution D 4% sugar, because water moved into the tube, doubling its volume.
11 a Because the membrane is permeable to the salt solution, there will be a net movement of salt along a
concentration gradient, from the right-hand side to the left-hand side. Eventually, the salt concentration
will be the same on either side.
b The membrane is not permeable to glucose, so the glucose concentration will not change initially.
c However, with the movement of salt to the left-hand side, the total solute concentration (glucose and salt)
will have increased on the left-hand side, and the solvent (water) concentration will have proportionately
decreased. On the right-hand side, the total solute concentration will have decreased, and the solvent
concentration will be proportionately higher. Water will therefore move by osmosis across the partially
permeable membrane, from the right-hand side (higher free water molecule concentration), to the left-
hand side (lower free water molecule concentration), and so the fluid level in the left-hand side will go
up, and that in the right-hand side, will go down. This will change the concentration of glucose on both

sides of the tube. Glucose will be more dilute in the left-hand side and more concentrated in the right-
hand side than originally, after the flow of water molecules from the right-hand side to the left-hand side.
12 In developing embryos, the differentiation of tissues and organs depends on cellcell interactions
involving the release of chemicals that affect neighbouring cells. The virus might prevent this from
happening, so that tissues and organs might not develop properly.
13 Carbohydrates in plasma membranes play a role in the recognition process that occurs between cells and
antibodies, hormones and viruses. The poison might interfere with this process, so that invading viruses
or microorganisms might not be attacked.

Chapter 5: Cell replication
Key questions
1 Mitosis is a process of division of the nucleus, genetic material is accurately copied and passed on to two
daughter cells. Cytokinesis is the division of the cytoplasm into two
2 a Meiosis produces cells which are not the same as each other or the parent from which they were
produced (the four daughter cells have half the genetic material of the parents).
b The purpose of meiosis is to produce gametes. These fuse during fertilisation and produce variations in
offspring. Mitosis maintains continuity and is involved in growth and repair.
3 a The purposes of cell replication are:

restoring the nucleus to cytoplasm ratio from fertilisation of an egg to a normal sized egg
growth and development to produce more cells, growing in size and becoming multicellular
maintaining and repairing old or damaged cells.
b Examples in the textbook, given in order of the answer to part a, are:
the development of eggs of birds, frogs and mammals
the specialisation of cells for muscles, blood and bone in animals, or photosynthesis and transport in
plants
replacement of cells lining the gut, growth of many plants form only a few cells, regrowth of tissues in
starfish
4 Chromatids are double strands formed from chromosomes, and are joined at a centromere. Chromosomes and
chromatids become visible in prophase.
5 During interphase, DNA is synthesised (chromosomes are replicated), normal functioning of the cell occurs,
the cell increases in size and replicates organelles, and materials are accumulated for mitosis.
6 The diagrams should resemble those in Figure 5.6 on page 76 of the textbook. The following information
should be included:
Interphase replication occurs, chromatids form
Prophase chromosomes shorten and thicken and become visible, nuclear membrane disappears, spindles
form.
Metaphase chromosomes line up along the equator and spindles are attached at the centromere and the
centriole.
Anaphase spindles contract and are is pulled apart, forming single-strand chromosomes.
Telophase nuclear membrane forms around both sets of chromosomes.

7 It is important that each daughter cell is an exact genetic copy of the parent cell. The nucleus needs to contain
all the DNA, information present in the parent cell. The division of the nucleus does not need to be as precise
as the functio of the nucleus is initially to program the synthesis of missing organelles etc
8 Plant cells do not usually have a centriole. During cytokinesis the membrane does not constrict but a new
division forms, the cell plate
9 a Apoptosis is programmed cell death.

b shortest life; sperm cell, skin cell, blood cell, ovum, nerve cell, longest lives
10 As growth occurs, cells start to become different and have specific functions examples of these in a human are
the different types of blood cells, the cells which make up the various organs e.g. cardiac muscle cells in the
heart
11 a These cells are called stem cells.

b Stem cells are capable of replacing themselves and can differentiate into distinct cell types. They can then be
used to develop or repair the body.
12 Controlled cell death is when the cell responds to certain signals and enters controlled apoptosis, enzymes
within the cell break it down and then phagocytic cells remove the debris. Random cell death occurs when
cells are damaged, releasing their contents and causing inflammation
13 Bacteria reproduce by binary fission.
14 There would be 512 bacteria after 3 hours. The bacterium would divide into two after 20 minutes, and the
number would continue to double every 20 minutes.
1 A 2 B 3 C 4 A
5 a A chromatid; B centromere
b During prophase, when chromosomes shorten and thicken.
c During interphase, chromosomes appear as dispersed masses called chromatin. The DNA replicates, then
the chromosomes shorten and thicken. Chromatids then separate.

d
Phase What occurs

G1, S, G2 Interphase During interphase, the cell grows, changes shape and takes on
specialist functions. During S, chromosomes replicate.
Prophase The chromosomes are clearly visible as homologous pairs.
Metaphase The chromatids line up at the equator of the cell.
Anaphase Spindle fibres attached to the centromere pull apart the chromatids.
Telophase The chromosomes move to the opposite poles of the cell.
Cytokinesis A membrane divides the cell into two.
7 The foetus would be undergoing mitosis in all areas. In the mother mitosis would be occurring in the skin,
bone marrow and anywhere that repair is occurring, e.g. a cut.
8 The cell is anaphase, because the chromatids have become single-strand chromosomes and are in the process
of migrating to the poles.
9 These are a line of cells obtained from a human cervical carcinoma that have been grown continuously since
1952. This is rare as usually cells have a limited number of cell divisions before they die (apoptosis).
10 a Adult stem cells are stem cells that exist in most mature tissues, especially in bone marrow.
b They supply mature tissues with replacement cells as required.
c Unlike embryonic stem cells, they are usually able to replace cells of only one type of tissue.
11 Cytokinesis is division of the cytoplasm and occurs after or towards the end of mitosis (nuclear divison). In
animal cells the plasma membrane pinches in, forming two daughter cells. In plant cells the presence of the
cell wall prevents this. Instead a cell plate forms in the middle of the cell during telophase. It grows out from
the centre and divides the cell into two daughter cells.
12 Stem cells are likely to move through the cell cycle more rapidly than differentiated cells. Interphase in
particular is likely to be much shorter as there is no cell differentiation and often limited growth.

Unit 1, Area Of Study 1 review
1 D 2 D 3 B 4 A 5 C 6 A 7 A 8 C 9 B 10 C
11 a C6H12O6 + 6O2 6CO2 + 6H2O + 3638 ATP

b
Glycolysis Respiration
Site within cell cytoplasm mitochondria
Aerobic/anaerobic anaerobic aerobic
Amount of ATP produced 2 ATP 36 ATP
12 a Absorption.
b Each cell has a large surface area, which is enhanced by protrusions from the cell, which greatly enhance
the surface area available for the absorbtion via diffusion of digested food substances. In the small
intestine these protrusions are called villi.
13 a Cell A is a plant cell, and cell B is an animal cell. Cell A has a cell wall and chloroplasts. Cell B lacks a
cell wall and has a Golgi apparatus.
b
Structure Function of structure

A cell wall gives cell strength and rigidity
B plasma membrane encloses cytoplasm; controls movement of substances into and out of cell
C nucleus contains genetic material; controls cellular activities
D vacuole physical support (turgidity); storage
E chloroplast makes simple carbohydrates using CO2, water and light energy
(photosynthesis)
F rough endoplasmic reticulum produces, processes, transports and stores materials in the cell
G mitochondrion releases energy for use by cell
H nucleus contains genetic material; controls cellular activities
I Golgi apparatus does final synthesis and packaging of proteins
14 a The hypothesis is that the enzyme catecholase is denatured by heat.

b The responding variable is the level of enzyme activity.
c 2 minutes.
d 35C, because at that temperature the browning appeared on the potato in the shortest time.

e Enzyme activity slows down when the temperature increases beyond the optimum temperature. At much
higher temperatures the enzyme is denatured and can no longer catalyse the reaction.
15 a Temperature and light intensity.

b Availability of water and carbon dioxide.
c Red light, because photosynthesis is occurring at a higher rate.
d i At temperatures beyond 40C enzymes involved in photosynthesis are not operating at their optimum
temperatures. At 55C the enzymes are denatured and the reactions they control cease.
ii The results suggest that photosynthesis will not take place in conditions above 55C.
e Photosynthesis is an endergonic reaction because it will not proceed without the input of energy, in this
case light energy.
16 ad
Specimen A Specimen B Specimen C

Solution: Solution: Solution:
pond water distilled water sea water
Drawing of cell after 10 Drawing of cell after 10 Drawing of cell after 10
minutes minutes minutes
Explanation Explanation Explanation

Because the plant came from Distilled water contains no Sea water has a much higher
the pond, the cells will have salts, so there was a net concentration of salts than
much the same concentration movement of water into the pond water, so there was a
of salts as the pond water, so cell by osmosis. This caused net movement of water out of
there will be little movement the cell to become swollen the cell by osmosis. This
of water into or out of the and turgid. caused the plasma membrane
cell. to shrink around the smaller
cytoplasm, but the cell wall
remained rigid so the cell
keeps its shape.
e Although the cell became very turgid, the strong cell wall prevented it from bursting.

17 a D (early prophase), A (prophase), C (metaphase), E (anaphase), B (telophase), F (completion of mitotic
division).
b i Meiosis is referred to as reduction division because each of the new cells it produces has half the
number of chromosomes as the original cell.
ii The gametes produced by meiosis contain half the number of chromosomes of body and somatic cells.
When fertilisation occurs and the male and female gametes fuse, the diploid number is restored.
c i mitosis, ii mitosis, iii meiosis, iv mitosis.
d Two key aspects of meiosis that give rise to the variation observed within a species are that:
The gamete receives only half the genetic information from the parent cell. One member of each pair
of chromosomes is chosen randomly from the parent cell.
When the chromosomes pair up during meiosis, genetic information may be shared between members
of adjacent pairs of chromosomes, producing chromosomes with new combinations of genetic
material. This process is known as recombination.

Unit 1, Area of Study 2: Functioning organisms
Chapter 6: Autotrophs are producers
Key questions
1 Common requirements for all cells are energy, oxygen, water, nutrients, waste removal and reproduction.
2 Heterotrophs are unable to make their own food and therefore rely on other organisms as a food source. For
animals this involves eating other organisms. For fungi and bacteria it means breaking down dead organisms
or their wastes.
3 Photosynthetic organisms such as plants and cyanobacteria have the cellular requirements for photosynthesis
and use light energy to produce organic molecules. Chemosynthetic organisms, e.g. bacteria, gain their energy
from reactions with inorganic molecules such as sulfur.
4 a Autotrophs and heterotrophs receive their energy from sunlight or from inorganic molecules.
Heterotrophs receive energy in the form of complex molecules.
b Autotrophs such as plants require carbon dioxide and water for photosynthesis. Inorganic nutrients and
minerals are also needed. Autotrophic bacteria use hydrogen sulfide or other substances.
5 a The light compensation point is the level of light at which the rates of exchange of carbon dioxide and
oxygen are from cellular respiration and photosynthesis are the same.
b No. There would be no growth because the glucose produced in photosynthesis is used in cellular
respiration.
6 a Low light; leaves would have a large surface area and a thin cuticle.
b Arid areas; leaves have a small surface area to volume ratio, some species do not have leaves but
photosynthetic stems. Leaves have thick cuticles and can turn to reduce the surface area exposed directly
to the sun.
7 These bacteria are chemosynthetic and use the hydrogen sulfide from the volcanic activity to obtain energy.
8 a Nitrogen fixation is the conversion of atmospheric oxygen into compounds that can be used by plants. It
is carried out by bacteria, associated with plants in a symbiotic relationship. It is important because it
provides nitrogen in a form that other organisms can use.
b An enormous amount of energy is needed to produce artificial fertilisers, and uses non-renewable
resources.

9 a Rhododendrons an azaleas require an acid soil. Clematis grows best in alkaline soils. Most other plants
are pH neutral.
b The pH determines what minerals can be taken up, e.g. potassium and magnesium.
10 a Macronutrients: nitrogen, potassium, calcium.

Micronutrients: iron, copper.
b Macronutrients are needed in relatively large amounts compared to nutrients.
11 a The surface area of plant roots is greatly increased by the presence of root hairs. A film of water over the
root hairs enables dissolved minerals to be absorbed. Substances with a higher concentration outside
move into the roots by diffusion. If the concentration of a substance is greater within the roots then active
transport is used to move the substances against the concentration gradient. Water enters roots by
osmosis.
12 Modified stems e.g. potato tubers: store starch.

Modified leaves e.g. bulbs: store starch.
Stems e.g. sugar cane: store sugar.
Seed, fruits: store starch, sugar, and sometimes oils and proteins.
1 D 2 A 3 D 4 C 5 B
6 Because a lichen contains an alga, it can produce its own nutritional requirements by photosynthesis. A lichen
is therefore an autotroph. The fungal part of a lichen assists with water and mineral uptake.
7 a C4 plants have an extra process to capture CO2 in which the enzyme that captures carbon dioxide does
not react with oxygen in warm weather. As a result, they are more efficient at fixing carbon as sugar and
do not have to have their stomata open for long periods in warm climates.
b C4 plants are more likely to be found in warm climates where the light intensity is high, i.e. the tropics
and subtropics.
8 A leaf from a plant in an arid environment would have a small surface area to volume ratio and a thick cuticle,
and its stomata would be able to close to conserve water.
9 a To increase the pH of the soil, i.e. make it more alkaline, lime (calcium oxide) is added to the soil.
b Acid-loving plants would be disadvantaged; alkali-loving plants, including many vegetables, would grow
better.

10 The fungus obtains organic compounds from the plant, such as carbohydrates and amino acids. The fungus
provides the plant with additional water and minerals from the soil, and produces hormones that stimulate root
growth.
11 a Autotrophs produce their own food by synthesising organic molecules. Most autotrophs are plants and
algae, and make the molecules they need using photosynthesis to make glucose and taking up minerals
through their roots.
b Heterotrophs cannot produce their own food; they must obtain their food by consuming other organisms.
Most heterotrophs are animals and fungi. They use the organic molecules they ingest to make the types of
molecules they need.
12 a Fixed means that an element is incorporated into a usable molecule or ion.

b Carbon: carbon dioxide glucose (usable form)
atmospheric nitrogen nitrogenous compounds such as ammonia
c Carbon is fixed by plants in the process of photosynthesis. Nitrogen is fixed by bacteria, living in a
symbiotic relationship with plants.

Chapter 7: Heterotrophs are consumers
Key questions
1 a Heterotrophs obtain inorganic and organic molecules by eating other organisms or their products.
b The eight essential amino acidsisoleucine, leucine, lysine, methionine, phenylalanine, threonine,
tryptophan and valinemust be obtained from an animals diet because they cannot be made by the
animal itself.
2 a Vitamins and minerals are necessary in very small amounts in our diet as they are required in a range of
cellular processes such as forming parts of enzymes.
b Vitamin supplements can be harmful if there is an excessive intake of fat-soluble vitamins such as A, D,
E and K. These vitamins are not excreted in urine as are water-soluble vitamins but instead are retained
in the fat tissue of the body. Excessive amounts of calcium taken during pregnancy may result in
premature bone calcification in the developing baby.
3 The following is an example only. Students answers will vary.
Disease Symptoms Treatment

Scurvy Weakness, bleeding of gums and mucous Vitamin C (ascorbic acid); consume quantities
membranes. of citrus fruits and green leafy vegetables.
Beriberi Stomach upsets, muscular weakness Thiamine (vitamin B1); consume grains,
progressing to paralysis and death. legumes and meat.
Rickets Occurs in young children; malformation Vitamin D and exposure to sunlight; consume
of bones, particularly legs which deform fish oils and dairy products.
due to the weight of the body.
Kwashiorkor Occurs in children; distended belly due to Protein; consume high quality protein.
an enlarged liver, thin limbs, and swollen
hands and feet.
4 a Digestion is the breakdown of large organic food molecules into smaller molecules that can be absorbed
through the cell membranes into the cells lining the gut.
b Chemical digestion is the process of breaking complex molecules into smaller, simpler molecules with
the aid of specific enzymes. Mechanical digestion does not involve the chemical change of food
molecules but results in the physical breakdown of large pieces of food into smaller pieces of food, thus
increasing the surface area on which enzymes can act.
c The role of enzymes found in the gut is to break down food molecules into smaller molecules, such as
glucose and amino acids, that can pass across the cell membrane of cells lining the gut.
d Different enzymes have different optimal pH values:
amylase works best in the mouth at a pH of about 7
protein digesting enzymes work best in the stomach at a pH of about 3
enzymes acting in the duodenum are most effective in a pH range of between 7 and 9.
The acidity of different parts of the digestive system allows different enzymes to act.

e Bile is a detergent-like substance that is produced by the liver. It is released into the small intestine in
small amounts to emulsify fats. This results in the breaking up of large fatty globules into smaller
droplets, thereby increasing the surface area of the fats. The action of bile is mechanical digestion.
5 a Generally, all solid foods eaten in our diet require both mechanical and chemical digestion.
b Foods that require no digestion are those that can be absorbed directly into the body. These include
alcohol and sports drinks and sweets that contain glucose.
c They must be split up into simple molecules that are small enough to pass across the plasma membrane
and into the body. Proteins are converted to amino acids, carbohydrates to glucose and fats and oils to
fatty acids and glycerol.
6 Characteristics of an efficient digestive system are:

effective mechanisms for capture and preliminary handling of food
appropriate physical breakdown of food
a one-way gut with separation of tasks along its length
efficient transport and storage of ingested food
efficient sequential release of digestive enzymes
an adequate surface area for maximal absorption of nutrients and water
efficient egestion of unwanted materials.
7 a The features of the small intestine that make it well suited to its absorptive role are:
large overall surface area and length
internal surface consisting of millions of folds or villi, including microvilli, which occur on the
exposed surface of the cells lining the lumen of the small intestine
thin lining that allows for the rapid transfer of nutrients
good supply of blood and lymphatic vessels, which aids the transport of nutrients.
b Fatty acids and glycerol are absorbed into the lacteals of the lymphatic system. They do not go to the
liver, but to the heart first.
8 a Cellulose is a complex carbohydrate molecule that is composed of chains of glucose molecules. Cellulose
forms the cell wall in plant tissue.
b Cellulase is the enzyme involved in the chemical digestion of cellulose.
c Fungi, protozoa and bacteria are the only organisms that can produce cellulase.
d Herbivores are able to digest cellulose as a result of a symbiotic partnership (mutualism) with
microorganisms that can digest cellulose. These microorganisms live in the intestine of the host herbivore
and break down the cellulose into smaller molecules that the host can absorb.
9 a In foregut fermentation, the fermentation chamber is located before the stomach and is often referred to
as the rumen in cattle and sheep. Food is regurgitated back into the mouth and chewed as cud allowing
for additional mechanical digestion before being returned to the rumen for chemical breakdown by
micro-organisms.

Hindgut fermentation occurs in the caecum at the junction of the small and large intestine, or in the first
part of the colon, or both. Unlike fore-gut fermentation, these regions are located after the small intestine
where most absorption of digested food takes place.
b In hind-gut fermenters, the symbiotic micro-organisms only make a contribution after the food has
passed through the small intestine (where most absorption takes place). So hind-gut fermenters get little,
if any, nutritional value from these micro-organisms. Undigested plant material can often be observed in
the faeces of animals such as horses, which demonstrates the inefficiency of their digestive system.
c Some species of animals that are hind-gut fermenters, such as possums and rabbits, overcome this
problem by producing two types of faeces. During the night one type of faeces comes directly from the
caecum and then is re-ingested by the animal. In this way the partially digested material passes through
the small intestine again, maximising the absorption of vitamins and products of cellulose digestion.
10 Cows are herbivores. The vegetable matter that they eat has a low energy content and a high proportion of
cellulose, which is very difficult to digest. Cows, therefore, have to eat continuously in order to obtain
sufficient energy. They also have to spend a significant amount of time chewing the cud.
Humans are omnivores and dogs are carnivores. Meat has a higher proportion of usable energy per gram than
does plant matter. As well, the nature of the food makes it easier to digest. Therefore, humans and dogs spend
less time than cows to obtain their energy requirements.
11 Hindgut fermenters have a much smaller stomach, similar length small intestine, and a much larger
caecum/colon when compared to foregut fermenters.
12 The liver and muscles store excess glucose as glycogen. Adipose tissue under the skin and around various
organs store fat.
13 Metabolism is the sum of all the processes that occur in an organism.
14 a Different species have different basal metabolic rates, depending on their requirements for body
temperature. Mammals and birds have a high rate as they maintain a constant body temperature.
b Factors such as the proportion of fat or bone to muscle.
1 D 2 B 3 B 4 C
5 Cooking makes the digestion of potatoes easier because the high temperature softens the potato by denaturing
the proteins present in the cell membranes. As the cell membranes rupture, water moves into the cells causing
them to swell if the cell wall remains intact. The starch granules concentrated in potato cells also swell and
burst, releasing their contents. The high temperature also makes it easier for the complex carbohydrates to be
broken down into smaller molecules, which can then be digested by enzymes such as amylase. The end
products are glucose molecules, which are readily absorbed from the small intestine.

6 a Pernicious anaemia is a condition resulting from a vitamin B12 deficiency. It is not a deficiency of the
vitamin in the diet but an inability to efficiently absorb the vitamin from the gut, which results in the
disease.
b Student research is required. Over the past century the treatment of this condition has changed as it was
realised that increasing the amount of vitamin B12 in the diet had little effect on the disease because the
body was unable to absorb this vitamin. Instead, injections of vitamin B12 directly into the bloodstream
are now used to treat this disease.
7 a Antibiotics disturb the normal function of the digestive system because they can kill the bacteria that are
normally present in the gut.
b Bacteria that normally live in the colon are vital for normal health and can be a good source of vitamins
such as K and B12. Antibiotics that kill these bacteria may then cause a vitamin deficiency as the body
loses these important sources of vitamins.
c Student research required. Antibiotics can be sensitive to the pH of the digestive tract. Some are absorbed
better in the acidic environment of the stomach and others in the more basic environment of the small
intestine. The presence of food in the stomach delays entry of substances into the small intestine.
Therefore antibiotics that are more readily absorbed in an acid environment are taken with food and those
in a basic environment before food. Other factors also have to be considered, such as some antibiotics
need to be taken with food or water to reduce the possible risk of gut irritation.
9 a Sugar is a carbohydrate.
b Sugar is a high-energy food. It is the main source of energy for cellular respiration.
c The graph indicates that where there is a high sugar intake in a country, then there is also likely to be a
higher incidence of coronary heart disease in men, as shown by data obtained for USA, Canada and Italy.
However, the data obtained for France, Britain and Japan indicate that there are other factors in these
countries that override the effect of a high sugar intake. (Note, there is not enough information in the
graph to draw any certain conclusions.)
d Sugar consumption might be linked directly to heart disease, but it might be only one of several
contributing factors. The data obtained for France show that, although this country had a moderately high
intake of sugar, the relative rate of deaths from coronary heart disease in men was low.
10 a In anorexia nervosa, the body reserves would be used up in the following order:
1 carbohydrate stores in the liver and muscles
2 stored fats broken down and converted to glucose
3 breakdown of protein from muscle tissue.
b A sufferer of anorexia nervosa may experience fatigue and metabolic dysfunction even before much
weight has been lost. This is caused by nutrient and vitamin deficiency, as well as a reduction in the
availability of energy-rich glucose molecules required by the body for normal functioning. A lack of
glucose will result in a slow rate of cellular respiration, which in turn results in less energy being made
available for cell functions; so fatigue occurs. A lack of essential amino acids in the diet may also cause
dysfunction.
10 a Although humans cannot digest cellulose, and some plant foods are deficient in one or more of the
essential amino acids, vegetarians can exist on plant foods only. By eating a combination of many types
of plant foods, vegetarians can ensure that all the essential amino acids are present in their diet.
b Vegetarians can maintain a balanced diet by eating carefully planned meals. Individual plant foods do not
normally contain all amino acids so vegetarians must be sure to eat an appropriate combination of plant
foods in a given meal so that a balanced diet is achieved. For example, beans are a good source of the
amino acids isoleucine and lysine but have a deficiency in tryptophan; while rice, although deficient in

isoleucine and lysine, forms a good source of other amino acids. A combination of grains and pulses can
make a nutritionally balanced diet.
11 Initially excess glucose is converted to glycogen. Further excess food is converted to fat.
12 Glucose is not stored as it is used by cells in cellular respiration. Both glycogen and fat are stored, but much
more energy is stored in one gram of fat than in one gram of glycogen.

Chapter 8: Exchanging gases
Key questions
1 a A plant takes in carbon dioxide for photosynthesis and releases oxygen. When it is not photosynthesising,
there is a net input of oxygen and a net output of carbon dioxide.
b An animal takes in oxygen and emits carbon dioxide. There is always a net input of oxygen and a net
output of carbon dioxide.
2 This is called diffusion. The direction and rate of diffusion is dependent upon the concentration gradient of the
substance being transferred across the exchange surface. Molecules will move to a region of lower
concentration and they will move more quickly if there is large concentration gradient.
3 The main factors that affect the concentration of oxygen in water are temperature, salinity and depth.
Feature Importance
Large surface area Greater gas exchange per unit of time.
Thin and moist Allows gases to pass through easily. Gas can only pass across an
exchange surface if it is in solution, thus the surface must be moist.
It is hard for gases to pass through thick barriers.
Good ventilation Provides an adequate supply of the gas being transferred or the gas
will become scarce and the rate of exchange will drop.
Good blood supply Inadequate blood flow means oxygen accumulates and so diffusion
slows down.
Protection/support Respiratory membranes are delicate, so they need protection from
physical damage and, in terrestrial animals, protection from water
loss.
5 a Gills are not suitable for breathing air because they are external respiratory surfaces. Being external, gills
would be prone to water loss due to evaporation of water from the respiratory surface.
b Lungs rely on the ventilating medium being able to exit the body by the same route it entered. Water is a
heavy medium compared with air and a great deal of energy would be required to move water across the
respiratory surface in two directions. Also, water contains less oxygen than air, and it would not be
possible to maintain an effective exchange gradient for oxygen in the lungs.
6 Fish gills need physical support from water to maintain the necessary surface area, and also must have water
constantly moving over their surfaces. When a fish is taken out of water the gills collapse, and water is no
longer moving over their surfaces.
7 a Gas exchange in insects occurs directly between the atmosphere and the cells. Unlike mammals, insects
do not have lungs.
b Insects have a tracheal system that enables efficient gas exchange with all cells. The tracheal system
consists of a network of fine internal air-filled tubesthe tracheae and finer tracheolesacross which
gas exchange takes place. The tracheae open to the atmosphere through spiracles, which can usually open
and close to regulate gas exchange and water loss.
8 The functions of various parts of the respiratory system are as follows:

Nasal passages filter, moisten and warm air.
The trachea and bronchi make up the passages along which air travels.
The trachea and bronchi are lined with ciliated cells and secrete mucus. Particles of dust or bacteria are
trapped by the mucus and swept by the cilia back up to the pharynx, where they can be swallowed.
Alveoli are the site of gas exchange.
9 a Asthma, emphysema, pneumonia and anaemia all leave the sufferer tired and gasping for breath during
exercise. Each of these illnesses interferes with the exchange of oxygen between the air in the lungs and
the cells of the body. When cells are deprived of oxygen, the rate of cellular respiration slows, resulting
in inadequate energy for normal body functioning.
b During an asthma attack, small airways become swollen; they fill with mucus and constrict, reducing the
space through which air can flow. More effort is required to get air through these narrowed airways and
the amount of oxygen available for gas exchange is greatly reduced.
In a person suffering from emphysema the alveoli break down, reducing the surface area available for gas
exchange.
As a result of pneumonia the alveoli become filled with white blood cells and fluid. This interferes with
respiration because the fluid filling the alveoli reduces the area of the lung surface that is available for
gas exchange. The inflamed lung tissue is also swollen, so that oxygen has to diffuse further before it can
enter the blood.
The amount of oxygen that can be carried from the lungs to the cells of the body is reduced in an anaemic
person because they have less haemoglobin per red blood cell, or fewer red blood cells.
10 a During inhalation:
the diaphragm contracts downwards
the ribs are raised outwards by contraction of the intercostal muscles
the chest cavity increases in volume.
During exhalation:
the diaphragm relaxes and moves up
the intercostal muscles relax and the ribs lower
the chest cavity decreases in volume.
b Raising the ribs and lowering the diaphragm during inhalation increases the volume of the chest cavity
and draws air into the lungs. Relaxing these muscles during exhalation reduces the volume of the chest
cavity and forces air out of the lungs.
11 Tidal volume is the volume of air moved by each breath. It varies with the need for oxygen. The vital capacity
is is the maximum amount of air that can be moved in and out of the lungs.

12 a Haemoglobin and its complexes (including, myoglobin, carbaminohaemoglobin, oxyhaemoglobin),
haemocyanin.
b Respiratory pigments make it possible to carry much more oxygen than could be carried by the fluid
(plasma) alone. They increase the oxygen-carrying capacity of the blood.
c Respiratory pigments provide energy savings for an animal by increasing the oxygen-carrying capacity of
the blood. An increased oxygen-carrying capacity results in a reduction in the amount of energy that must
be spent pumping the blood. It also means that the animal can have a much smaller volume of blood, and
that it can be pumped more slowly.
13 Breathing carbon monoxide can be fatal because it binds irreversibly to the same position on haemoglobin as
oxygen, thus preventing haemoglobin molecules from carrying oxygen. Death can occur if the oxygen-
carrying capacity of the blood is reduced below tolerable limits.
14 a About 7% of the carbon dioxide is transported in the plasma. About 23% of carbon dioxide transported in
blood combines with haemoglobin molecules forming carbaminohaemoglobin. The carbon dioxide binds
to a different site on the haemoglobin molecule to the site where oxygen binds.
About 70% of carbon dioxide transported in the blood exists as hydrogen carbonate ions and is
transported in plasma.
b The amount of carbon dioxide dissolved in blood plasma must be kept low because when it combines
with water in the plasma carbon dioxide forms carbonic acid which results in a decrease in the pH of the
plasma. Low pH can affect the structure of proteins (e.g. enzymes) thus affecting their function.
15 Diving mammals have several adaptations that ensure an adequate supply of oxygen to vital organs:
Higher levels of haemoglobin in their blood than non-diving mammals. This gives diving mammals a
greater oxygen-carrying capacity and allows them to take more oxygen with them when they dive.
A greater blood volume than non-diving mammals, which also increases their oxygen-carrying capacity.
Increased levels of myoglobin in muscle, which allows greater oxygen stores in tissues.
Increased ability to carry out anaerobic metabolism which increases the ability of such mammals to
continue functioning without oxygen.
Increased ability to buffer pH changes resulting from the accumulation of carbon dioxide and lactic acid.
Reduced blood flow to many organs conserves oxygen for vital organs such as the heart and brain. This
also means that the heart does not have to do as much work, so the heart rate slows, further conserving
energy.
16 a The bends, which is painful and dangerous condition caused by bubbles of nitrogen in the blood.
b As a diver descends to greater and greater depths, more and more air is dissolved in the blood because of
the greater pressure. If the diver surfaces too quickly, the extra nitrogen dissolved in the blood cannot be
removed quickly enough, and bubbles of nitrogen form in the blood. These can block blood vessels and
cause extreme pain, and might lead to death.
c It is avoided by ascending very slowly so that the excess nitrogen can be removed via the lungs. It is
treated by placing the patient in a decompression chamber. (The air pressure is first raised to redissolve
the nitrogen bubbles, and then very slowly lowered to allow the excess nitrogen to be removed.)

17 a In plants, gas exchange occurs mainly through the stomata in green stems and leaves. (Exchange also
occurs across root hairs in the soil, and through lenticels in woody tissue.)
b In general, plants do not need special exchange organs because living cells are organised in thin layers
near the surface of plants. The roots, stems and leaves exchange carbon dioxide and oxygen directly with
the external environment by diffusion. Plant cells are loosely packed, allowing rapid diffusion of gases
through the intercellular spaces.
18 a Stomata regulate the exchange of gases such as water vapour, oxygen and carbon dioxide.
b
c Conditions favouring the opening of stomata are abundant water, bright light and low internal carbon
dioxide concentrations.
19 a There are stomata in green stem epidermis through which gas exchange takes place. In woody stems the
epidermis is surrounded by a layer of cork cells that are waterproof and airproof. Scattered throughout
this layer there are groups of loosely packed cells, called lenticels, through which air can pass to cells
beneath.
Roots exchange gases with the air in spaces in the soil. Oxygen diffuses into the film of moisture
surrounding the root hairs, and then into the roots.
b When plants are overwatered the soil becomes water-logged and the spaces in the soil fill with water
instead of air. Since the amount of oxygen in water is considerably less than the amount of oxygen in air,
the roots may be unable to gain sufficient oxygen to meet their needs. The root cells may die, and this
will lead to the death of the plant.
1 B 2 C 3 A 4 D 5 D

6 Fish gills are more efficient at extracting oxygen from water than lungs are at extracting oxygen from the air
because water flows in one direction over the gills. Fish gills also have counter-current flow. Blood flows
through the lamellae of the gills in the opposite direction to water flow. In this way the gills are able to extract
8090% of the oxygen in water. Mammalian lungs are only able to extract about 25% of the oxygen in the air
they breathe. The flow is two-way (in and out) and there is no counter-current flow.
7 Frogs carry out mouth breathing and lung ventilation. When mouth breathing, they raise and lower the floor of
their mouth, drawing air in and out of the nostrils; the airways to the lungs are closed. Mouth breathing is an
example of a suction pump mechanism.
During lung ventilation, frogs open the airways to the lungs to let stale air out. Then, with a mouth full of air,
they close their nostrils and raise the floor of their mouth, thus pushing the air into the lungs. The airways are
then closed, trapping the air in the lungs. This is an example of a pressure pump mechanism for the
movement of air.
8 a Flat worms are long and wide, but only a few layers of cells thick. Hence, all cells are close to the
external environment and efficient gas exchange occurs across the body surface.
Flat worms live in moist environments; oxygen is directly available from the environment.
They are not very active, so their oxygen requirements are not very great.
b Bony fish are complex multicellular organisms and gas exchange with cells cannot occur by diffusion
alone.
Bony fish live in an aquatic environment.
Bony fish have a specialised gas exchange system that is made up of: respiratory pigments, gills (with
counter-current exchange), hearts, and blood vessels. The more active the fish, the greater the rate at
which water must be moved across the respiratory surface to supply sufficient oxygen.
c Due to the size of mammals, many of the cells of these animals are too deep within the body for
adequate gaseous exchange by diffusion alone. A specialised respiratory organ is required.
Mammals typically live in terrestrial environments and breathe air. They have specialised respiratory
organs (lungs) which enable O2 to be obtained from the air. The lungs are moist, have a large surface
area, and a rich blood supply to enable efficient gas exchange.
Mammals are endothermic and usually very active and therefore require a relatively high rate of gas
exchange.
9 a Myoglobin carries a reserve store of oxygen that muscles can use if the amount of oxygen in the blood
suddenly decreases to a very low level.
b The myoglobin dissociation curve must lie to the left of the haemoglobin curve because it binds to
oxygen more strongly than does haemoglobin. As oxygen levels decline, haemoglobin releases its
oxygen first. Only after haemoglobin has released most of its oxygen, and the oxygen levels continue to
decline, is oxygen released from myoglobin.
10 At high altitudes the air is less dense, so a lungful of air contains less oxygen (and other gases) than it does at
lower altitudes. This means that oxygen exchange will be reduced.

11
Plant type Location of most stomata Reason for stomata location

Seagrass No stomata. The plant is under the water; gas exchange occurs across the
epidermis.
Water lily Upper epidermis of the leaves. The leaves float on the water, allowing them access to the
oxygen in the air. The risk of evaporation as a result of
having stomata on the upper surface of the leaf is not
significant since the plant is in a watery environment.
Camellia bush Most stomata are on the Limits water loss by evaporation.
underside of the leaves.
Cactus In depressions on the plants Reduces the direct flow of air across the stomata and so
surface. reduces water loss by drying.

Chapter 9: Distributing materials
Key questions
1 Smaller organisms can survive without a specialised transport system because all their cells are close to the
external environment. Materials can diffuse across the small distance between the external environment and
body cells. In larger organisms, the movement of substances by diffusion between the external surface and
internal cells would be inadequate or too slow. Such organisms require a specialised transport system to
deliver nutrients to body cells and to remove wastes.
2 a The transport systems of larger organisms are responsible for the movement of nutrients, respiratory
gases, wastes, hormones, cells and heat.
b Transport systems contribute to maintaining a stable body temperature in endothermic animals. Heat is
transported by the blood throughout the body, and between the external surface and the interior of the
body, in order to maintain a reasonably uniform body temperature.
3 a Intracellular fluid is the fluid inside the cells. All other fluid in the body is extracellular fluid.
b The exchange of material between blood and body tissues occurs between the plasma and the interstitial
fluid.
4 a In open circulatory systems the interstitial fluid is circulated throughout the body. There is no special
transporting fluid such as blood. There may be a heart but the circulating fluid is not always contained in
vessels, and circulation times may be long.
In closed circulatory systems the circulating material (blood) is entirely enclosed in a system of vessels as
it is rapidly pumped around the body by the heart. It is separate from the interstitial fluid.
b Organisms with open transport systems include insects, molluscs (except squids and octopuses),
crustaceans and arachnids.
Organisms with a closed transport system include squids, octopuses and vertebrates.
5 The advantages of a closed circulatory system are that blood can be returned to the heart rapidly, higher blood
pressures are possible, and blood is separated from the interstitial fluid by vessel walls.
6 a Valves are located in the heart, and also in the veins. The purpose of valves in the mammalian blood
circulatory system is to maintain blood flow in one direction. They work by preventing the backflow of
blood. Back pressure causes the valves to close and seal the vessel, while forward pressure causes the
valves to open.

7 a
b The wall of the left ventricle is thicker than that of the right ventricle. As a result it contracts with more
force, and the blood pressure in the left ventricle and aorta is greater than the pressure produced by the
right ventricle. Greater pressure is required in the left ventricle as this moves blood around the body
whereas the right ventricle only moves blood to the lungs.
c The coronary arteries supply oxygenated blood to the heart; they are the first arteries to branch off the
aorta.
8 Blood pressure is caused by the contractions of the ventricles. Blood pressure is described by two
components: the systolic pressure when the ventricle contracts, and the diastolic pressure, when the ventricles
relax.

9
Arteries Veins Capillaries

Carry blood away from Carry blood towards the heart Narrow exchange vessels in between
the heart arteries and veins
Thick, muscular walls Veins are thin-walled and have many Thin walls made of only a single layer
one-way valves to maintain blood flow of flattened epithelial cells
towards the heart
Blood pressure in the Blood pressure is low

arteries is high
10 a Small molecules (including gases, nutrients and wastes) move into and out of the capillaries by diffusing
across the capillary wall. Diffusion is driven by concentration gradients between the blood plasma and
the interstitial fluid, and occurs along the length of the capillary.
The balance between blood pressure and osmotic pressure regulates bulk fluid movements across
capillary walls. The blood pressure caused by the contraction of the heart forces fluid out of the
capillaries. The osmotic pressure of blood is caused by a high concentration in the plasma of large
molecules such as proteins, which do not easily diffuse across the capillary walls. The osmotic pressure
created draws water into the capillary from the interstitial fluid.
At the arteriole end of the capillary, the blood pressure is greater than the osmotic pressure, so fluid
moves out of the capillary. At the venous end of the capillary, the osmotic pressure is greater than the
blood pressure, and fluid moves into the capillary.
b There is not enough blood to fill all the capillaries at the same time, so blood flow to the capillaries is
regulated to ensure the right amount of fluid flows to particular tissues, according to their needs.
c Blood flow to the capillaries is regulated by precapillary sphincters (rings of muscles) that can contract to
prevent blood flowing into the capillary.
11
Constituent Function
Plasma Fluid part of blood consisting largely of water containing ions,
dissolved gases, proteins, hormones, nutrients and wastes.
Red blood cells Red blood cells have no nucleus and contain haemoglobin. They
(erythrocytes) transport respiratory gases.
White blood cells There are two main types of white blood cells: phagocytes and
(leukocytes) lymphocytes. Phagocytes remove debris and fight infections.
Lymphocytes produce antibodies.
Platelets Platelets contain substances that are important in preventing

blood loss and promoting blood clotting.

12
Xylem Phloem
a Structure of cells Xylem tissue consists of long, narrow, Phloem tissue consists of sieve tubes,
water-filled xylem vessels, tracheids, companion cells and supportive fibres.
supporting fibres and parenchyma.
b Properties of the cells Mature xylem vessels are dead cells; each Sieve tubes have non- lignified cell walls;
end of the cell wall is perforated or sieve tubes form linear rows of elongated
completely open, so that fluid can flow cells; their cell walls are perforated at each
directly through them like a pipe. The side end, like a sieve. Companion cells regulate
walls of the xylem also have perforations the movement of sugars into and out of the
that allow sideways movement of sieve tubes. Both sieve tubes and
substances between vessels. The cell walls companion cells have thin walls.
are strengthened with lignin, providing
strength and support. Tracheids are single
large, tapering water-filled cells that have
pits in their lignified walls. They are not
connected end-to-end; they are dead. They
have no nucleus or cytoplasm. Parenchyma
is the surrounding cells that support the
xylem tissue.
c The substances that are Water and inorganic nutrients (i.e. mineral Sugars produced during photosynthesis.
transported ions).
d The direction in which From the roots upwards to all tissues and Upwards to new growing tissues and
they are transported cells of the plant. downwards to the roots and storage
organs.
e Source of energy for Water rises up xylem by the process of Translocation requires the expenditure of
transport transpiration. Transpiration is the loss of energy by the plant.
water from the leaves of plants. The
energy from the Sun drives transpiration.
14 a Transpiration stream
b Factors that drive the transportation stream are root pressure and transpiration at leaves, which is
increased by wind and higher temperatures.

15 Sucrose is moved in the phloem by translocation. It is then converted to starch for storage.
16 Guttation is the appearance of small water droplets along the margins of leaves. It is a consequence of root
pressure pushing water through the xylem, up through the stems and leaves of a plant.
1 B 2 C 3 C 4 A 5 C
6 Insects do not rely on the circulatory system to deliver oxygen to cells during flight. The oxygen is supplied
by the tracheal system; the oxygen from the air is brought directly to the active muscles.
7 a
b Red blood cells are flattened and biconcave, rather than spherical. This shape gives them a greater
surface area to volume ratio, which increases the efficiency of oxygen uptake while optimising the
overall oxygen-carrying capacity of the blood. The cells are also flexible, so they can pass through tiny
capillaries and come into close contact with the capillary epithelium for maximum gas exchange.
c The advantages for red blood cells of not having a nucleus are:
It can be biconcave in shape which increases the SA:V ratio.
It can hold a greater amount of haemoglobin.
However, the nucleus controls all the activities of the cell, including maintenance and repair. The
disadvantage for red blood cells of not having a nucleus is that the cells cannot repair the damage done to
them as they move through the circulatory system.
d Red blood cells are slightly larger than the capillaries, so as they move through the capillaries they fold
over to squeeze through increasing the surface in close contact with the capillary wall thus reducing the
distance for gaseous exchange.

8 a The diagram shown represents a vein; this is indicated by the presence of a valve.
b The direction of blood flow is from left to right. This allows the valve to open to allow blood to flow, but
close if there is backflow from right to left.
c i Blood moves along veins towards the heart, largely as a result of the local compression of thin-walled
veins by muscles during body movements. Standing motionless for long periods of time limits the
blood flow through the veins back to the heart and thus to the lungs to obtain oxygen. Reduced levels
of oxygen in the blood may cause fainting.
ii To overcome this problem, individuals should contract muscles, particularly in their legs, periodically.
9 a Passengers on long plane trips often suffer swollen feet as a result of being in a sitting position for a long
period of time without exercising. The lymphatic system relies on the activity of skeletal movement to
move lymphatic fluid. With little muscular movement, the fluid settles in the body tissues resulting in
swelling. Also, blood may accumulate in the veins.
b Exercise would help to move the lymphatic fluid back towards the heart by squeezing the thin-walled
vessels.
c The lack of movement can cause clots to form in veins, which can move to the heart or lungs and cause
serious problems. Their incidence can be reduced by drinking water and not alcohol on flights, doing
exercises during the flight, and taking aspirin to thin the blood before flying.
10 The disadvantages of the old method of treating snake bite include:

sucking the blood could result in ingestion of venom
cutting open the bite will increase blood flow to the area and may increase the rate at which the venom
moves throughout the body
applying a tight tourniquet could prevent blood flow to tissues below the bite, which could cause further
damage.
The reasons for using the pressureimmobilisation method include:
the pressure bandage reduces blood flow in the bite area, so venom is unlikely to move from there into
the circulatory system.
immobilisation of the bitten body part reduces the blood flow, so that any venom in the circulatory
system will take longer to reach vital organs and will be more likely to be attacked by the bodys
defences
it will not result in damage to tissues, and there is no risk to the person giving the treatment.
11 The leaves of fresh vegetables wilt after being picked because water continues to be lost by transpiration from
the leaves, but no water is drawn into the plants via the stems. When plants lose too much water the cells lose
their turgidity and the plant wilts.
Wilting can be minimised by limiting water loss by evaporation. This could be achieved by placing the fresh
vegetable into an airtight plastic bag or container and keeping it in the dark so that the stomata stay closed.
Wilting can also be minimised by replacing the water that is lost; that is, by placing the stems in water so that
water lost by transpiration is replaced by water drawn up through the xylem.
12 a Celery strings are the plants vascular bundlesthe xylem and the phloem.

b Celery stalks curl because the cut surfaces take up the water causing increased turgidity of the cells. This
means that cells near the cut surface expand and because the strings remain the same length the stalks
curl.
13 a The bark is removed in ringbarking, taking the phloem and thus preventing sucrose moving into the
roots. Water can still be taken up from the roots, which eventually die and the tree then dies.
b Ringbarking can occur when animals eat the bark, when wire or rope is tied around a tree (e.g. for a
fence), or the bark is cut when mowing around the tree base. Bark bridges can be used to link the phloem
and re-establish translocation in the cut area.

Chapter 10: Removing wastes
Key questions
1 a Excretion is the removal of substances that once formed part of the body of an organism.
b Excretions of humans are: exhaled air containing carbon dioxide and water vapour; urine, which contains
urea, excess water and salts; sweat, which contains urea and other wastes; faeces, which contain broken
down blood pigments.
2 Faeces consist mainly of cellulose and other undigested food, which are not wastes. The bile pigments that are
the products of the breakdown of blood pigments are wastes.
3 Excretory organs contribute to a stable internal environment in animals by:

controlling pH
controlling solute concentration
maintaining water balance
removing waste and toxic substances.
4 a When carbohydrates or lipids are broken down during cellular respiration, carbon dioxide and water are
produced. Carbon dioxide is released into the external environment across respiratory membranes. Some
of the water produced is incorporated into body fluids and the excess water is released to the exterior
most is removed through the kidneys, some is lost through evaporation of sweat, and some is lost through
the lungs during exhalation.
b When proteins are broken down, nitrogenous parts are split off and the remainder of the molecule is
converted into carbohydrates or lipids. The carbohydrates and lipids produced can be used as a source of
energy.
c The three forms in which nitrogenous wastes can be excreted are:
ammonia which is highly toxic and very soluble in water
urea which has low toxicity and is very soluble in water
uric acid which has low toxicity and is insoluble in water.
5 a Ammonia can diffuse away rapidly and easily. A plentiful supply of water is required for excretion of
ammonia so that it is quickly diluted.
Land animals need to conserve water, so ammonia is converted into urea or uric acid, which are less toxic
and require less water for their excretion. Birds and reptiles tend to form uric acid; mammals mostly form
urea.
b Other factors that determine the type of nitrogenous waste excreted by a particular group of animals
include:

the toxicity of the wasteammonia is highly toxic and must be removed from the organism rapidly;
urea is less toxic and therefore can be removed less rapidly; uric acid is relatively non-toxic and is
insoluble so it can be stored as crystals
energy cost in producing the nitrogenous wasteenergy is required to convert ammonia to urea, and
even more is required to convert urea to uric acid
the pattern of development of the speciesembryos that develop in water can excrete ammonia;
however, bird and reptile embryos, which develop inside a shelled egg with a limited supply of water,
convert ammonia to uric acid. Nitrogenous waste cannot be removed from the shell and a build-up of
ammonia or urea would be harmful. Uric acid crystals are non-toxic and can be stored in the egg.
Mammalian embryos excrete nitrogenous waste as urea. The urea is excreted into the mothers blood
supply across the placenta.
6 a Many simple aquatic animals have no excretory organs. They dispose of nitrogenous waste in the form of
ammonia by simple diffusion directly into their watery environment.
b The basic principle by which excretory organs operate is to separate a portion of body fluids into a
discrete compartment and then actively pump ions and excretory wastes either into or out of the
compartment depending on the immediate needs of the animal.
c It is inappropriate to describe skin as an excretory organ because the loss of water and salts as sweat is
primarily for temperature regulation; the loss of salts is purely incidental.
7 The liver prepares various substances for excretion. It detoxifies a variety of harmful chemicals such as
alcohol and barbiturates. It is also responsible for the break down of amino acids to ammonia, which is then
converted largely to urea. The liver also breaks down old red blood cells to produce bile pigments, which are
excreted into the gut.
8 a Insects conserve water by excreting nitrogenous wastes in the form of uric acid.
b The excretory organ of an insect is called the Malpighian tubules.
c The Malpighian tubules are blind-ending tubules that empty into the gut at the junction between the mid-
gut and hind-gut. Salts, including uric acid, are pumped to the end of the tubules; water follows into the
tubules along the osmotic gradient. The fluid then passes into the hind-gut where salts and much of the
water is reabsorbed. This causes the uric acid to precipitate out of solution and the remainder of the water
is reabsorbed in the rectum. The combined urine and faeces contain almost no water when eliminated.
9 Some reptiles and birds have adapted to a salty environment by having specialised salt glands to excrete
excess salt.
10 a The structural and functional unit of the kidney is the nephron. A nephron is composed of a Bowmans
capsule surrounding a glomerulus and a tubular region (consisting of the proximal tubule, loop of Henle,
and distal convoluted tubule), leading to a collecting tubule.
b The glomerulus is a clump of looping capillaries embedded in the Bowmans capsule. Blood is filtered
from the glomerulus into the Bowmans capsule. Only small molecules and water can pass through; cells
and large proteins remain in the glomerular capillaries. This primary filtrate in the Bowmans capsule has
the same composition as blood plasma, without the large proteins.
The proximal and distal convoluted tubules are responsible for the reabsorption of glucose, amino acids,
salts and water.
In the loop of Henle, sodium chloride is actively transported out of the primary filtrate. But the walls of
the loop of Henle are impermeable to water, so water does not follow. Sodium chloride is retained in the
medulla of the kidney, producing a very high salt concentration.
When the urine passes down the collecting tubules towards the ureter, it passes through the region of
high salt concentration in the medulla. The collecting tubule is permeable to water, but not salt, so water
passes from the collecting tubule back into the kidney and into blood vessels. As a result the urine
becomes concentrated.
11 The permeability to water of the collecting tubule of the mammalian kidney can be regulated so it is possible
for the individual to maintain a relatively stable osmotic concentration of body fluids. This is regulated by
hormones that alter the water-permeability of the collecting tubules. For example, if a lot of salt has been
consumed the salt concentration of blood increases and more water must be reabsorbed to return the salt level
to normal. The water permeability of the collecting tubules is increased so that more water is reabsorbed from
the urine into the blood. The converse could also occur.
12 The glucose and amino acids present in the primary filtrate are completely reabsorbed by active transport in
the proximal convoluted tubule; hence, their absence in the urine. The proteins in the blood are too large to
pass across cell membranes in the glomerulus and therefore are not found in the primary filtrate or the urine.
Urea and salts are in greater concentrations in the urine than in the primary filtrate. The reabsorption of water
by the collecting tubules increases the concentrations of these substances in urine compared with that in the
primary filtrate.
Diabetes is a disorder that results in higher than normal concentrations of glucose in the blood. The kidney
tubules are unable to absorb much of the excess glucose so it passes out in the urine.
Kidney damage due to a heavy blow could result in damage to the glomerular blood vessels. This affects the
normal filtration process and may result in blood leaking from the glomerulus into the Bowmans capsule.
This would result in the presence of red blood cells or large proteins in the urine.
Excessive alcohol consumption will result in a decrease in the release of antidiuretic hormone (ADH) from the
pituitary gland. ADH is necessary for the production of concentrated urine. A decrease in ADH levels will
result in increased urine production. In this way, excessive alcohol consumption can cause dehydration due to
the large amounts of water excreted in dilute urine.
13 The internal environment of plants is different from that of animals. In plants, there is no clear distinction
between intracellular fluids and the fluids of the external environment. In animals, the composition of the
internal environment is carefully regulated; there is no such regulation in plants.
14 Land plants manage metabolic wastes by storing waste products within the plant. Annual plants leave wastes
in their cells until they die back. Woody plants deposit wastes in non-living hardwood, and in leaves that are
shed in autumn. Wastes may be stored in living cells as insoluble crystals or dissolved in fluid in vacuoles.
Wastes may also be deposited into organelles, such as salt bladders in the salt bush, so that they do not
interfere with cell function. Plants also deposit cell waste into cell walls; these substances are modified to
form lignin.
15 Halophytes are able to survive in saline conditions, because they have mechanisms for excreting excess salt.
For example, the bladder saltbush stores excess salt in specialised salt hairs on its leaves. These hairs have an
excretory stalk cell and a bladder cell where salt accumulates. As the plant ages, the bladder eventually bursts
releasing the salt as crystals on the leaf surface.

1 A 2 D 3 C 4 C 5 C
6 Possible advantages of unselective filtration followed by selective reabsorption by the mammalian kidneys
include:
Unselective filtration uses the existing blood pressure for the process of filtration. Therefore, less energy
is required than is required for selectively removing unwanted substances by active transport.
It is easier to reabsorb known requirements than to predict what unknown substances may be encountered
and have mechanisms to excrete all of them.
7 The glucose and amino acids present in the primary filtrate are completely reabsorbed by active transport in
the proximal convoluted tubule; hence, their absence in the urine. The proteins in the blood are too large to
pass across cell membranes in the glomerulus and therefore are not found in the primary filtrate or the urine.
Urea and salts are in greater concentrations in the urine than in the primary filtrate. The reabsorption of water
by the collecting tubules increases the concentrations of these substances in urine compared with that in the
primary filtrate.
8 Mammalian kidneys receive a large blood supply because:

they play a vital role in homeostasis, maintaining stable osmotic and solute concentration of the blood
the kidney cells require energy for reabsorption which involves the active transport of salts, amino acids
and glucose against the concentration gradient. This energy need is met by cellular respiration and so a
constant supply of blood carrying oxygen and nutrients is needed.

9 The concept maps produced will be different for each student. An example for higher land plants is given.
The concept map for the maintenance of water balance in higher land plants should include some of the
following key terms: transpiration, xylem, stomata, leaves, guard cells, factors affecting rate of transpiration
(i.e. temperature, wind, humidity, stomatal aperture), evaporation.
The concept map for the maintenance of water balance in an animal such as a mammal should include some
of the following key terms: excretion, nitrogenous waste, urine, kidney, nephron, Bowmans capsule,
glomerulus, tubules, loop of Henle, collecting tubule, filtration, reabsorption, secretion, ADH.
10 Insects have Malpighian tubules that are involved in the production of the nitrogenous waste (uric acid) with
the faeces, which conserves large amounts of water.

11 a When you drink a large amount of water, a large volume of dilute urine will be produced. Increased
water intake results in a decrease in the salt concentration of the blood plasma resulting in a decrease in
the permeability of the collecting tubules and less water is reabsorbed. Producing large volumes of dilute
urine helps to restore the osmotic pressure of body fluids.
b When you play vigorous sport on a hot day, a lot of water is lost from the body as sweat. This results in
an increase in the salt concentration of the blood plasma because of an increase in the permeability of the
collecting tubules, and more water is reabsorbed. The body then produces only small volumes of
concentrated urine, which helps to restore the osmotic pressure of body fluids.
c When large amounts of alcohol are consumed, a large volume of dilute urine is produced. Excessive
alcohol consumption will result in a decrease in the release of antidiuretic hormone (ADH) from the
pituitary gland. ADH is necessary for the production of concentrated urine. A decrease in ADH levels
will result in increased urine production. Large amounts of water are excreted in dilute urine, so
excessive alcohol consumption can cause dehydration.
d Low blood pressure results in less primary filtrate being produced and therefore a decrease in the volume
of urine produced.
12 The excretion of nitrogenous waste is important for animals but not for plants because:
there is less turnover of proteins in plants as the structural components of plants are carbohydrates, while in
animals they are proteins
nitrogenous waste produced by the plant can be recycled into amino acids
plants have lower rates of metabolism than animals and so produce wastes at a lower rate.
13
Excreted substance Costs Benefits

Ammonia Toxic. Readily diffuses in water.
Urea Requires energy to produce. Reduces water loss. Low toxicity.
Uric acid Requires much more energy to Insoluble in water. Low toxicity.
produce.

Chapter 11: Ways of reproducing
Key questions
1 a Mitosis is the type of nuclear division involved in asexual reproduction.

b Mitosis involves the nuclear division of body or somatic cells. The genetic material present in one
parent cell is replicated so that two identical daughter cells are produced as a result of cell division.
2
Advantages Disadvantages
Only one parent cell required. Lack of variation present in the population.
A rapid increase in a population can occur Rapid increase in population may lead to competition for available
when favourable conditions arise. resources.
The desirable features of an organism are May result in a population that is unable to respond to an environmental
passed on to the next and subsequent change, reducing the populations chance of survival.
generations.
3 Vegetative reproduction is an example of asexual reproduction that involves the separation of part of one
plant to form a new, individual plant. Gardeners regularly use cuttings to produce new plants so that they can
replicate all the features of the parent plant in the new plant and in subsequent generations. Cuttings are
generally easy to grow and therefore can result in a rapid increase in the population of a particular plant.
Horticulturists frequently use this technique.
4
Fission Fragmentation Vegetative reproduction
Occurs in single-celled organisms, Occurs in multicellular organisms, such Occurs in plants. For example: rhizomes
such as bacteria and protozoa as flatworms, marine worms and (underground stems; e.g. austral bracken,
echinoderms couch grass), runners (e.g. strawberries),
tubers (i.e. swollen underground stems;
e.g. potatoes), lateral buds (e.g. daffodil
bulbs, gladioli corms)
Two new organisms develop as a Regeneration occurs where the body of Separation of part of one plant to form a
result of one parent cell splitting in an organism breaks apart into two or new individual plant.
two, approximately equal, parts more parts, with each part regenerating
after a mitotic division. the missing parts and forming a new
complete organism.
In budding, new individuals arise as

outgrowths of the parent.

5 Parthenogenesis is a type of cloning. It is an unusual form of asexual reproduction that has arisen from sexual
reproduction. There are many examples that can be used; e.g. in bees, wasps and ants, fertilised eggs develop
into females and unfertilised eggs develop into males.
6 a A gamete is a highly specialised male or female sex cell, known as a sperm or egg. These cells combine
in sexual reproduction as a result of fertilisation.
b Somatic cells make up the body of an organism. Germ cells are the sex cells such as egg or sperm, and
these contain only half the number of chromosomes or genetic material present in somatic cells.
7 a Meiosis is described as a reduction division because it reduces the number of chromosomes present in the
cell to half the number of chromosomes found in the mother cell. In contrast, during the process of
mitosis, the newly formed daughter cells have the same amount of genetic material as the original or
mother cell.
b The two features of meiosis that give rise to genetic variation are:
gametes have only half the genetic information of their parent cell because they receive only a single
set of randomly chosen chromosomes
exchange of genetic information between chromosomes when they pair up during meiosis (this is
called recombination).
c Meiosis increases the chance of survival for a species as a result of the increased genetic combinations
formed when gametes are produced. This leads to genetic variation present in the population. Even if
environmental conditions change, it is likely that some individuals within the population will be more
suited to surviving and reproducing in these conditions. If the population is more homogeneous, an
adverse environmental change may make it impossible for any member of the population to survive.
8 A hermaphrodite is an animal with both female and male reproductive systems, e.g. most flowering plants,
many parasites such as tapeworms.
9 The primary sex organs in animals are the gonads. Females possess ovaries, which produce eggs, and males
possess testes, which produce spermatozoa.
The secondary sex organs are glands and organs that are involved in mating and reproduction. These organs
may be involved in providing nutrition, lubrication, ducts or chambers for mating and the protection of the
gametes. Where internal fertilisation occurs, secondary sex organs play an important role in the process of
mating and in protecting the developing embryo.
10 a Gametes are produced by meiosis.

b In mammals, meiosis occurs in the gonads.
c The products of meiosis are sperm and eggs (ova).
11 a Follicle stimulating hormone (FSH) causes oocytes to resume meiotic division and mature to eggs within
a group of nutritive cells called a follicle. In males, luteinising hormone stimulates the production of
testosterone, which is required for sperm maturation. Follicle stimulating hormone (FSH) acts to
stimulate sperm production by the testes.
b FSH and LH are produced by the anterior pituitary gland. Testosterone is produced in the testes.

12 a Fertilisation occurs when a male and a female gamete fuse. This involves three distinct steps:
recognition and penetration of the egg by the sperm cell
activation of the egg which enables the cytoplasm to be reorganised and development to be initiated
fusion of the nuclei of the sperm and egg.
b In order for fertilisation to occur, the eggs and sperm must be mature cells and they must have the
potential to come into contact with each other.
13 a Autosomes are all chromosomes other than the sex chromosomes, X and Y. An individual will have one
pair of sex chromosomes, and a number of paired autosomes, depending on the species.
b In most animal species the genetic content of the sperm determines the sex of the new individual. As a
result of meiosis, each gamete ends up with only one member of each pair of chromosomes. The sperm
usually contain either an X or a Y chromosome, while the egg cells all contain an X chromosome. At
fertilisation, one X chromosome will be donated by the egg cell, however, either an X or a Y
chromosome is donated by the sperm. Therefore the sperm is responsible for determining the sex of the
offspring.
14 a Ovulation is the release of a mature egg from the ovary of the female. Oestrus usually occurs around the
time when ovulation occurs. Oestrus is a state where the female is receptive to mating and fertilisation is
likely to occur. The term oestrus arises because in this state female mammals often show oestrus or
heat (a rise in body temperature).
b Oestrus and ovulation are initiated by the release of hormones from the anterior pituitary gland. Follicle
stimulating hormone (FSH) causes eggs in the ovary to develop and luteinising hormone (LH) triggers
oestrus and ovulation.
15 Birth is under the control of hormones. At a certain stage of development, the pituitary gland of the fetus
releases a hormone that stimulates the release of cortisol from the fetal adrenal glands. Cortisol causes the
placenta to decrease progesterone secretion and increase the secretion of oestrogen and prostaglandin. This
changes the levels of these hormone in maternal blood and this causes the release of oxytocin which promotes
contraction of the uterus, thus initiating the birth process.
Birth can be induced in humans using prostaglandin gel or an intravenous drip of oxytocin.
16 Breast milk provides antibodies that are unavailable in baby formula. These antibodies provide the baby with
passive immunity against some diseases until the babys own immune system is fully developed.

17
18

19 In flowering plants, the male gamete (pollen) is produced in the anthers, and the female gamete (ovule) is
produced in the ovaries.
20 The appearance of a flower indicates the mode of pollination of a plant. For example, most plants are
pollinated by wind or by animals such as insects. Plants that are pollinated by wind generally have smaller,
less showy and unscented flowers, with large amounts of pollen.
Insect pollinated plants have brightly coloured flowers that may be scented; nectar is often present.
21 a The seed develops from the ovule.

b The fruit develops from the ovary in which the ovule is contained.
22 Fruits are specialised structures that protect the seeds and may enhance seed dispersal. After fertilisation, the
ovule becomes a seed. It consists of a tough outer coat surrounding the embryo and endosperm. Fruits develop
from the ovary and may be fleshy or dry. Fleshy fruits may aid seed dispersal as they are an attractive food for
animals; after eating the fruits, the animals later disperse the undigested seeds. Dry seeds may be dispersed by
wind, water, animals, etc.
23 The major environmental factors that cause a seed to start germinating are water, oxygen, temperature, and
light.
24 Primary growth in plants occurs as a result of the rapid division of cells from apical meristematic tissue found
in root tips and shoot tips. Mitosis, elongation of cells, early thickening of roots and stems, and expansion of
leaves and flowers are examples of primary growth. Secondary growth occurs in woody plants as a result of
the rapid division of cells in the secondary meristematic tissuesthe vascular cambium and cork cambium.
Secondary xylem and phloem, which allow water and nutrients to be conducted through the stem, is produced
in the vascular cambium. Cork cambium is located in the outer regions of the roots and shoots and produces
cork, which forms a covering to protect the growing plant. Secondary growth increases the circumference of
the plant (i.e. the girth of the trunk).
1 C 2 A 3 C 4 B 5 D
6 a Mitosis is the process of cell division in which the chromosomes of the mother cell are replicated and one
complete set of chromosomes is passed to each daughter cell.
In meiosis, the chromosome number of the mother cell is first halved and a half set of chromosomes goes
to each daughter cell.
b Asexual reproduction involves the production of individuals that are genetically identical to each other
and to their parent. Sexual reproduction involves the fusion of the nuclei from haploid gametes (egg and
sperm)a process called fertilisationto produce a diploid zygote. Unlike asexual reproduction, the

offspring that are produced as a result of sexual reproduction are genetically unique, inheriting half of
their characteristics from each parent.
7 a asexual reproduction: underground couch grass runners give rise to new shoots (no fusion of gametes)
b asexual reproduction: a tulip bulb develops a new shoot in the spring (no fusion of gametes)
c sexual reproduction: two bacterial cells fuse and mix their genetic material, and then subsequently divide
(fusion of gametes)
d sexual reproduction: wind-borne pollen form a wheat field is dispersed and pollinates the stigmas of
neighbouring wheat flowers (fusion of gametes)
e sexual reproduction: the sperm and eggs of coral polyps released into the sea meet and fuse
f budding (asexual reproduction): an adult hydra develops a bud which grows and separates into a new
individual (no fusion of gametes)
8 The diagram represents a chromosome that could be observed during metaphase in either mitosis or meiosis.
It has two chromatids joined by a centromere. The chromosome would appear like this after condensing from
fine threads.
9 a Fruit-growers usually graft cuttings from a particular parent plant onto a rootstock, rather than grow
their trees from seeds because cuttings can easily be produced as a result of vegetative reproduction.
Growing new fruit cuttings ensures that the desired characteristics of a particular plant species are
duplicated in large numbers (i.e. genetically identical plants can be cultivated). Seeds form as a result of a
fertilisation event, which causes genetic mixing and great variability. This is not desirable if you want to
produce fruit of the same cultivar
b The advantage of using rootstocks as the base on which to graft desirable cuttings is that the rootstock
will grow successfully in the chosen environment.
10 A vasectomy involves cutting the vas deferens. The role of the vas deferens is to move sperm into the urethra;
if the vas deferens has been severed, sperm are produced but are not delivered to the urethra at ejaculation. So,
the amount of ejaculate will be reduced only marginally and will be devoid of sperm.
11 Tight fitting jeans results in the scrotum and thus the testes being held close to the body. The role of the
scrotum is to keep the testes at a temperature that is about 3C lower than that of the body. By holding the
testes close to the body the temperature of the testes rises and sperm production may be severely reduced.
12 a The oestrus cycle in women is often referred to as the menstrual cycle because if fertilisation does not
occur during the oestrus cycle, menstruation occurs.
b i If the woman was trying to become pregnant, she should engage in sexual intercourse between days
11 and 15. The graph shows an increase in core temperature on day 13, which can be an indication
that ovulation has occurred. Eggs and sperm can survive in the female reproductive tract for about 2
days.
b ii The women can be most confident of avoiding pregnancy between days 110 and days 1628. Days
110 are likely to be prior to ovulation and so fertilisation will not occur. Assuming ovulation occurs
around day 13 and the egg can only survive 2 days, fertilisation is unlikely between days 16 and 28.
c A bout of influenza may result in increased body temperature due to fever and may therefore limit the
reliability of the temperature method of birth control.
d The decrease in temperature at day 28 indicates that menstruation is commencing.

13 a Various environmental factors can adversely affect the embryo, especially in the first 8 weeks of
gestation. The major organs of the body, such as the heart, kidneys, limbs, the eyes and the brain, develop
during the first 8 weeks of gestation.
b Fetal alcohol syndrome is caused by excessive alcohol consumption by the mother. The effects on the
baby include smaller brain and abnormal face.
c Babies born to drug-addicted mothers must go through a period of withdrawal. The drugs taken by the
mother pass through the placenta to the developing embryo; therefore the baby inherits the drug
addiction of its mother. After birth, the baby ceases to receive the drug and therefore undergoes a period
of withdrawal. The treatment offered to babies to assist with withdrawal symptoms depends on the
mothers drug of addiction. Babies born to heroin-addicted mothers may be treated with methadone.
d The nicotine in tobacco affects the blood flow to the placenta, slowing the growth of the developing
fetus. Thus infants born to smoking mothers often have low birthweights making them more susceptible
to a number of complications after birth.
14 a A fruit is a matured or ripened ovary that contains the seed or seeds of a plant.
b Fruits are produced as a result of sexual reproduction.
15 a The age of a tree can be determined by examining its trunk in cross-section. This is possible because
woody rings are formed each time xylem is laid down in a growing season; hence, each ring represents
the xylem tissue laid down in one year. This will only be accurate if climatic conditions have been
suitable for regular growing seasons.
b Mallee eucalypts grow in semi-arid ecosystems. Their age cannot be determined by examining the
number of growth rings in cross-section because the climate is predominately dry, and the growing
season does not occur regularly within a given year but is dependant on rainfall.

Chapter 12: Classifying organisms
Key questions
1 a Biodiversity is the variety of living organisms on Earth.

b Biodiversity is important because we rely on a diverse range of organisms for our wellbeing. Other
organisms:
are a source of food
are used for making shelters
are a source of medicines
provide us with clean air, water and healthy soil
are a source of pleasure and enjoyment.
2 Many plants that are used as food source for humans or for other animals have closely related species that can
be poisonous. It is important to identify food which is safe to eat, e.g. potatoes and tomatoes are related to
Deadly Nightshade, a very poisonous plant.
3 a There are many examples of animals that are dangerous to humans. It is important to be able to identify
these animals, e.g. snakes and spiders, so that if bitten the correct antivenom can be given.
b Common names do not reflect the relationships between species. Different species sometimes have the
same common name, and one species can have different common names. Because scientific names are
unique to each species and are used world-wide, there is much less chance of confusion about what
species is being discussed. This is especially important in relation to potentially harmful species, and
species threatened by extinction.
4 Members of the same species:

look alike (they are more alike in appearance than other organisms)
are able to interbreed in nature and their offspring are fertile (if they reproduce sexually)
have the same, or very similar, habitat requirements.
5 All dogs are theoretically able to interbreed and produce fertile offspring. There are many other examples of
animals that have different sizes, colours and shapes but belong to a single species.
6 a A hybrid results from the interbreeding of two closely related species. Hybrids can occur in both the plant
and animal kingdoms.
b A mule results from mating between two closely related speciesa male donkey and a female horse. The
offspring are usually sterile and unable to reproduce, so mules are not considered a species.
7 a Binomial literally means two names. Genus and species are the classification groups or levels of the
hierarchy used in the name of a species.

b The genus name (generic name) and species name (specific epithet) are Latinised words. The genus name
starts with a capital letter, and the specific name starts with a lower-case letter. The whole name is
written in italics. For example, Canis familiaris, the domestic dog.
8 a Aboriginal people have named organisms so that it is possible to identify plants and animals that are
sources of food or dangerous. This information can be learned and shared between members of a clan,
and also passed on to the next generation.
b There are many different Aboriginal languages, so the same plant or animal could well have a different
Aboriginal name. The important thing is that all members of a clan use the same name.
c The binomial naming system is used by scientists throughout the world. Each species has only one
accepted name, and no two names are the same (at least in each kingdom). Common names can apply to
totally unrelated species, and one species might have several common names.
9 a The names of the groups at the different levels of classification are: kingdom, phylum, class, order,
family, genus, species.
b The species is the taxonomic level in which organisms are most alike.
c Organisms are first place into a kingdom.
10
11 a The domain Eukarya. The features are the presence of a nucleus, and separate organelles that are
membrane-bound.
b Answer in consultation with the appendix at the end of Heinemann Biology One.
Mushroom
Kingdom Fungi Cells organised into thread-like filaments (hyphae) that form a mass
(mycelium). The mycelium secretes digestive enzymes and absorbs breakdown
products.
Phylum Basidiomycota Spores produced on club-shaped structures (basidia) on the surface of the gills
which are on the undersurface of the fruiting body.
Moss
Kingdom Plantae Multicellular terrestrial or aquatic organism. Cells contain chloroplasts. Minute
leaves present.
Phylum Bryophyta No internal transport tissue. Spores in capsule on coloured stalk. Small, green
plants.
Snail
Kingdom Animalia Multicellular. Does not photosynthesise but consumes other organisms.
Phylum Mollusca Soft body enclosed in shell, moves on muscular foot.
Class Gastropoda Coiled shell, distinct head with well-developed sense organs.
Mosquito
Kingdom Animalia Multicellular. Does not photosynthesise but consumes other organisms.
Phylum Arthropoda Segmented body, jointed exoskeleton and jointed legs.
Subphylum Uniramia One pair of antennae.
Class Insecta Body divided into three distinct sections: head, thorax, and abdomen.
Order Diptera One pair of membranous wings for flight, and piercing, sucking mouthparts.
Platypus
Kingdom Animalia Multicellular; does not photosynthesise but consumes other organisms.
Phylum Chordata Notochord (skeletal rod) and gill slits at early stage of development; dorsal
nerve chord.
Class Mammalia Mammary glands that secrete milk; body covering of hair; endothermic.
Order Monotremata Lays eggs; mammary glands lack nipples.
Kelp
Kingdom Protista Unicellular or colonial. Plant-like, but leaves not present. Photosynthetic.
Division Phaeophyta Large multicellular, brown marine alga or seaweed (green photosynthetic
pigment hidden by brown pigment).
Tomato
Kingdom Plantae Multicellular photosynthetic land plant.
Phylum Magnoliophyta Forms flowers and produces seeds enclosed in fruits.
Class Magnoliopsida Embryos in seed have two leaves; leaves show network venation.
Family Solanaceae Flower parts in fives, petals form a tube, stamens joined to petals.
12 a Viruses that are common to humans are: cold, mumps, influenza, measles, rabies and smallpox. Viruses
common to other species are: myxomatosis and calicivirus in animals and tobacco mosaic virus in plants
(look up plant books for others).
b Viruses are not cellular, thus they cannot be classified in the kingdom Monera or kingdom Protista.
Viruses are not able to reproduce on their own, they must be inside the cells of a host organism.
13 a You would expect to find corals (polyps), algae (seaweeds), arthropods (chelicerates and crustaceans),
cnidarians, sponges, bryozoans, flatworms, polychaetes, molluscs, echinoderms, seasquirts and tunicates,
bony and cartilaginous fish, reptiles (turtles), birds, and possible mammals (dolphins, whales, and of
course humans). There would also be other groups in the plankton.

b Techniques would include direct observation, trapping using nets and pots, and sampling the water and
sand.
14 Keys are a systematic way of identifying organisms. They vary in their level of detail, some identifying
organisms to class, order, or family level, while others that are more detailed enable accurate identification to
the species level. Keys are developed only after a large amount of very detailed observation about the
organisms has been made. Computer technology is changing the way we think about and use keys.
15 This is an example of using a dichotomous key, at each step one of the two options is chosen. Using the key
for the common species of Banksia in Victoria shown on page 232 of Heinemann Biology One (4th edn), the
specimen can be identified as follows:
1a Adult leaves always regularly toothed along the edge.
2b Leaves broader coarsely toothed, flowers creamy-grey.
3a Leaves 815 cm long by 24 cm wide (etc.).
The specimen is the saw banksia, Banksia serrata.
16 Keys will vary depending on the leaves collected.
1 A 2 A 3 A 4 B
5 a The main groups used in classification, from most similar to least similar, are: species, genus, family,
order, class, phylum, kingdom
b The features that are useful in classifying organisms are those which can be easily observed and
objectively described by measurement or counting. For example, the number of body segments, number
of legs, type of body covering, number of petals, arrangement of veins in leaves, etc.
The features which are not useful for classification of organisms are those that are subjective and open to
interpretation; for example, colour, height, etc.
6 a Many species of mushroom look similar but some are very poisonous, so accurate identification of the
edible varieties is essential.
b The spores of edible agarics are usually brown. (Examine the spores of some mushrooms under a stereo
microscope.)
7 Cacatua leadbeateri and Cacatua galerita are most closely related because they are in the same genus,
Cacatua. They are both cockatoos and have many characteristics in common, whereas Gymnobelideus
leadbeateri is a possum and is classified in a different class. The fact that the species name leadbeateri is the
same for two of the organisms is a coincidence; both species were named after the same person.

8 a Pufferfish can be identified by the presence of a deadly toxin, tetraodotoxin, which causes respiratory
failure.
b Porcupinefish are related to pufferfish and share the ability to inflate when threatened. Porcupinefish,
however, have many large spines that are often ridged.
9 Lichens are a symbiotic relationship between a green alga (or cyanobacterium) and a fungus. They vary in
shape, colour, and growth habit. They do not form a true group of organisms, but are classified according to
their fungal partner. They are therefore in Kingdom Fungi, and are called lichenised fungi.
10
11 First level of sorting:

they are all animals
Second level of sorting:
a, b, c, f, h, i all vertebrates (phylum Chordata, subphylum Vertebrata)
d, e, g, j all arthropods (phylum Arthropoda).
Third level of sorting:
a, b class Mammalia
c class Amphibia
f class Reptilia
h class Chondrichthyes
i class Aves.

12 a You would need to record as much objective detail as possible:
description of habitat, including the exact location
special features such as size, body colour and patterning, types of scales, positions, shapes and sizes of
fins (whether paired or not), presence or absence of teeth, structure of gill openings
a photograph or drawing of the fish from different angles.
b To determine whether it is a lungfish or not might require dissection to see whether it had lung-like
internal structures as well as gills. Since this might be illegal, you would need instead to give your
observations to a fish specialist, or find a fish key that you could use to work out the fishs identity.
13 You would need to know which adults particular larvae develop into. You would need to observe and describe
the whole insect life cycle to avoid the problem of describing larvae and adults as two different organisms.
This avoids the problem of giving two different scientific names when they are in fact the same organism at
different stages of their life cycle.
14 Some people argue that because the macadamia evolved naturally, humans do not have the right to restrict its
availability by patenting cultivars for financial gain.
Because it is a hybrid, the cultivar would most likely not produce fertile seed. The only means of reproduction
would be by purchasing new plants from the patent holder, who would probably have grown them by tissue
culture. Patent holders can control both the availability and price of new plants. Purchasers of patented plant
material usually have to sign a document stating that they will not propagate further plants by cuttings. If
plants are patented and monopolised, ordinary growers are not able to develop further cultivars from the
patented material.
15 All humans belong to a single species, as they are able to produce vigorous, fertile offspring. Different groups
are characterised by physical features that most suitable for particular environment. Today, however, very few
human populations are geographically isolated.

Unit 1, Area of Study 2 review
1 C 2 C 3 A 4 B 5 D 6 C 7 A 8 D 9 B 10 C
11 a 6CO2 + 12H2O C6H12O6 + 6O2 + 6H2O

b i Photosynthesis is represented by the points P, Q and Y.
ii Cellular respiration is represented by the line that joins the points P and X.
c P is the compensation point.
d i As light intensity increases the rate of photosynthesis increases until it reaches its maximum rate
(regardless of further increases in light intensity).
ii The rate of respiration is independent of light intensity, so increasing light intensity has no effect on
the rate of cellular respiration. It remains constant.
e i The shaded region shows the levels of light at which the rate of photosynthesis exceeds the rate of
cellular respiration.
ii Excess sugars can be stored in the form of starch as energy stores in swollen underground stems (e.g.
potato tubers), swollen roots (e.g. carrots) and fleshy leaves (e.g. onions).
f Three factors that affect the rate of photosynthesis in plants are:
light intensity
ambient temperature
concentration of carbon dioxide.
g The dip in the graph at point Q indicates a decrease in the rate of photosynthesis. This could be caused by
a decrease in the ambient temperature, a decrease in the concentration of carbon dioxide, or a lack of
water during that period of the experiment.
12 a Smaller organisms can survive without a specialised transport system because all their cells are close to
the external environment. Materials can diffuse across the small distance between the external
environment and body cells. In larger organisms, movement of substances by diffusion between the
external surface and internal cells would be inadequate or too slow. Such organisms require a specialised
transport system to deliver nutrients to body cells and remove wastes.
b The mammalian heart can be referred to as a double pump because it has two pumping chambers. The
right side of the heart pumps blood to the lungs and the left side pumps blood to the rest of the body. This
system keeps oxygenated and deoxygenated blood separate. Blood passes through the heart twice in each
cycle.
c Pump A is the right ventricle and Pump B is the left ventricle.
d The wall of the left ventricle is thicker than that of the right ventricle. As a result it contracts with more
force, and the blood pressure in the left ventricle and aorta is greater than the pressure produced by the
right ventricle. Greater pressure is required in the left ventricle as this moves blood around the body
whereas the right ventricle only moves blood to the lungs.
e i O represents the pulmonary artery and P represents the pulmonary vein.
ii The pulmonary artery has a relatively low oxygen concentration and a relatively high carbon dioxide
concentration. The pulmonary vein carries blood that has just passed through the lungs; this blood has
a relatively high oxygen concentration and a relatively low carbon dioxide concentration.
f i M, N and P are all veins since they are carrying blood towards the heart; these vessels have valves.
ii Valves in the blood vessels maintain one-way blood flow in the circulatory system.
13 A is phloem. It transports carbohydrates, nitrogenous compounds and other molecules from the their site of
production (usually the leaves) to the growing areas where they are needed to make more complex molecules.
B is xylem. It transports water and mineral nutrients to the sites where photosynthesis occurs (mainly the
leaves).
14 a i A large surface area optimises the amount of gas exchanged per unit of time.
ii A thin gas exchange surface allows gases to pass through easily. Moisture is also important, as gases
can pass across a surface only if the gas is in solution.
iii A rich supply of capillaries rapidly removes oxygenated blood and replaces it with deoxygenated
blood, thereby maintaining the oxygen concentration gradient.
b Gas exchange across the cell membranes of alveoli occurs by diffusion.
c Emphysema is characterised by a breakdown in the walls of alveoli so that the alveoli fuse to form larger
air sacs. This reduces the surface area across which gas exchange can occur and thus reduces the
efficiency of gas exchange in the lungs.
15 a Cell W is a guard cell.

b Guard cells differ from other epidermal cells in that they contain chloroplasts.
c The feature that has been omitted from the diagram is the bands of inelastic fibres that run around each
cell wall.
d When water passes into guard cells, the turgor increases, causing the guard cells to expand. Because the
inner walls are thick, the guard cells expand lengthways causing the cells to buckle and open the stoma.
16 a The functional unit of the kidney is the nephron.

b The presence of proteins in the primary filtrate and the urine suggests that a kidney is not functioning
normally. In a normally functioning kidney large proteins do not pass from the glomerulus into the
Bowmans capsule to form part of the primary filtrate; only small molecules such as glucose, salts and
water move through the walls of the glomerular capillaries.
c The structure that has been damaged is most likely the glomerular blood vessels. Damage to these vessels
would enable the proteins to pass into the Bowmans capsule forming part of the primary filtrate and
hence the urine.
d i Glucose is reabsorbed in the convoluted tubules.
ii Glucose is reabsorbed by active transport. Active transport is the transfer of a substance across a
membrane against the concentration gradient. This process requires an input of energy.
17 a The anterior pituitary gland is located in the brain.

b i FSH stands for follicle stimulating hormone and LH stands for luteinising hormone.
ii FSH causes maturation of the follicle in females, and stimulates sperm production in males. LH
triggers ovulation in females, and brings about the release of testosterone in males.

c i The corpus luteum is a burst follicle.
ii The corpus luteum produces oestrogen and progesterone.
iii Oestrogen and progesterone cause the lining of the uterus to thicken.
d A represents the oviduct.
e i When the corpus luteum disintegrates it no longer produces the oestrogen and progesterone that cause
the wall of the uterus to thicken and the uterine wall breaks down.
ii The disintegration of the corpus luteum is triggered if the egg is not fertilised.
18 a i X represents the endosperm which provides nutritious tissue for the developing embryo.
ii Z represents the embryo plant.
iii The seed coat is thick and tough, so it is able to protect the softer contents until the seed is mature.
iv This seed is a dicotyledon as indicated by the presence of two seed leaves.
b Wind would be the vector for seed B; it has special tufts that aid wind dispersal.
Animals would be the probable vectors for seed C; this is indicated by the fleshy fruit that would
encourage animals, especially birds, to consume the fruit and disperse the seeds.
Animals would be the likely vectors for seed D; the burrs on the seed would attach to passing animals,
aiding seed dispersal.
19 a False. They have different species names.

b True. Because they are in the same genus (Petaurus), they must be in the same family.
c True. X and Y are in the same genus, but Y and Z are in different genera.

Unit 2, Area of Study 1: Adaptations of organisms
Chapter 13: Environmental factors and adaptations
Key questions
1 a Abiotic factors that would affect a fish living in a pond would include:
availability of oxygen
pH range
water temperature
light and mineral nutrients.
Note: These last abiotic factors are linked indirectly to the survival of fish in a pond by the biotic process
of photosynthesis, and so they are important. Plants need light energy and carbon dioxide for
photosynthesis. This releases oxygen into the water, which is then available for use by fish. Plants also
need mineral nutrients for growth. As well as being a source of oxygen, plants may provide shelter and
food for fish in a pond.
b If oxygen was in short supply, the fish would die as respiration could not occur. If light intensity was
reduced as a result of increased sediment, plants could not photosynthesise properly. This would upset
the stability of the pond for the reasons explained in answer a. An increase in water temperature would
decrease the amount of oxygen dissolved in the water and this could affect the fish. Changes in pH may
affect some of the biochemical reactions that occur in the fish.
c A limiting factor is an environmental requirement that is in short supply. A shortage of this particular
requirement (light in the example above) can have effects on a number of other aspects within an
ecosystem.
2 a An adaptation is a characteristic feature of an organism that enables it to survive and reproduce in a

particular environment.
b Individuals which are suited to the environment, through training etc cannot pass their characteristics
onto their offspring.
3 Structural fur, flippers. Physiological ability to dive and not breathe for long periods. Behavioural
maintains territory.
4 a Refer to Figure 13.2 on page 246 of Heinemann Biology One (4th edn). In deep water during summer,
the surface layers absorb heat from the Sun. This warm water is less dense than cold water, and floats
above the denser cooler water, creating a layer effect.
b Most fish will be found in the warmer upper layers of the lake because it is this layer that has abundant
life for photosynthesis due to availability of light, maximising plant growth and the release of oxygen
into the water. Smaller herbivorous fish will be found here, and these in turn will attract the larger
carnivorous fish. A contrary point that may be considered is the fact that less oxygen dissolves in warmer
water. This may affect fish distribution.

5 The main problems faced by an aquatic plant are the lack of oxygen in gaseous form, and lower light levels.
6 Answers may vary. Some examples are as follows.

a Water boatmen have paddle-like legs that enable them to live and move about easily on the surface of the
water.
b Duckweeds have large air-filled spaces and a thick cuticle, enabling them to float.
c Sea grass has flat leaves with few or no stomata and a thin cuticle, enabling the diffusion of gases.
d Marine barnacles can close their valves tightly to reduce water loss at low tide.
7 a Mangroves survive in shallow, muddy edges of coasts. Their roots, and often most of the rest of the
plant, are submerged under sea water at high tide.
b Mangrove can excrete salt from their leaves to maintain water balance; many have pneumatophores
(aerial roots) that enable them to exchange gases with the atmosphere at low tide; and they have buoyant
seeds that can, in some species, germinate on the plant.
8 Basks at right angles the sun, basking parallel to the sun, or retreating to a burrow, to regulate its body
temperature.
9 a Some animals hibernate when food availability is low and energy requirements are high, e.g. in winter.
Hibernation reduces the need for energy, and hence food, to maintain a high body temperature.
b Hibernation appears to be triggered by low food availability, low environmental temperatures and
possibly day length.
c During hibernation the animal falls asleep, its core temperature drops to a level close to that of the
environment but always above freezing, and its heart rate, metabolic rate and respiration rate drop.
10 a A xerophyte, such as marram grass, that is able to survive in extremely arid habitats such as deserts.
b i Thick cuticle prevents water loss by evaporation from the leaves.
ii Hairs on leavestraps layer of humid air and reduces water loss.
iii Number and size of stomata fewer and smaller stomata compared to temperate region plants.
iv Reduced leaf surface area less water loss.
v Leaf curling traps a layer of humid air and reduces water loss.
vi Leaf shedding reduces number of stomata and hence water loss.
11 a Functional adaptations of halophytes include CAM and C4 mechanisms of photosynthesis, higher

osmotic pressure in their cytoplasm, and mechanisms to control salt such as excluding salt from the
leaves, return of salt to the roots, dilution of incoming salt in increased growth, shedding of salt-laden
leaves and excretion of salt from salt glands.
b Proteoid rots are dense clusters of hairy roots near the soil surface that can extract minerals from the soil.

12 a Bark insulates the live tissues from the heat of the fire.
b Epicormic buds produce new leafy branches after a fire, enabling photosynthesis to resume.
c A lignotuber stores food reserves underground away from the heat of the fire, and produces new stems.
d A hard seed coat enables a seed to survive until the heat of a fire cracks it open, allowing the seed to
germinate in conditions that are ideal for rapid growth.
13 The seeds of Acacia require considerable heat to germinate. In the bush this is provided by bushfires, but
boiling water is a convenient and safer way to achieve the same result.
14 For predatory animals a fire provides more food, because the ground cover is usually burnt off and prey are
more easily seen. The flush of new growth (especially grasses) after a fire can provide more food for grazing
and browsing animals such as kangaroos and wallabies.
1 C 2 B 3 D 4 A 5 B
6 Xerophytes: light is greater, water is limited, nutrients are varied as with hydrophytes, support is from the
plant itself, gases are in higher concentrations, temperature is variable.
Hydrophytes: light decreases with depth, water is abundant, support is from the buoyancy of the plant
(upthrust), gases are limited, temperature is relatively stable.
Organism Feature S, B or P Benefits for organism

mangrove pneumatophore S enables the mangrove to exchange
gases at low tide
honey possum long brush-like tongue S enables honey possum to obtain
nectar from flowers
kangaroo sleeps under trees during the day B reduces water loss from the body
echidna goes into torpor P reduces the animals need for energy
eucalypt produces epicormic shoots S enables the plant to recommence
photosynthesis
saltbush salt secretion from leaf glands P minimises water loss
8 Answers will depend on the organisms that are chosen.
9 Halophytes are adapted to grow in saline environments. They can take up salt from the water and excrete it,
which would remove it from the water table.
10 a Mangrove seeds are buoyant, so they can disperse on tides to different areas. Some seeds germinate on
the plant, so they can become established very quickly once they fall.
b Abiotic factors might include air and water temperature, amount of sunlight per day, and possibly soil
nutrients. Biotic factors might include animals that might eat the seeds or plants, or animals needed for
pollination.
11 Reptiles are ectothermic and rely on an external energy source to maintain body temperature. Once the sun
has set, they have lost their energy source. Mammals, however, can generate their own heat to maintain a
constant body temperature and are therefore able to remain active.
12 This is a functional adaptation that enables the organism to divert blood to its extremities, which would then
lose heat and cool the rabbit.
13 The advantage to the animal is that less energy is required to supply the same amount of oxygen to the cells.

Chapter 14: Plant tropisms and hormonal control
Key questions
1 Plants have no endocrine system similar to that found in animals. Hormone-producing cells in plants are not
organised into glands; plant hormones are produced by the cells that receive the stimulus; plant hormone
responses are much slower than those of animals; and plant hormones are distributed from cell to cell, through
xylem and phloem or through the air.
2 Hormonal communications are relatively slow as there is no muscular system to aid their release or transport,
e.g. the heart. The hormones either diffuse or are translocated in the phloem, which is far slower than transport
in a circulatory system.
Hormone Role of hormone

Auxins elongation of cells in roots and shoots;
inhibition of lateral buds
Gibberellins stimulate cell division and growth in whole
plant
Cytokinins cellular differentiation
Abscisic acid involved in abscission by inhibiting cell
growth in part being lost; stomatal
movement
Ethylene involved in abscission, fruit ripening;
promotes cellular respiration;
promotes breakdown of starches and oils to
sugar
4 Note: Diagram should be similar to those in Figures 14.2 on page 265 of Heinemann Biology One (4th edn).
Auxin is produced by cells in the tip of a shoot. It promotes cell growth by softening the cell walls and
allowing turgor pressure to increase the size of the cell.
Light causes auxin to concentrate on the darker side of the shoot. Cells on the darker side of the shoot
elongate more than cells on the lighter side. This causes the shoot to grow unevenly, with the darker side
growing faster than the lighter side. The shoot bends towards the light.
5 a A tropism is a plant growth response to a specific stimulus such as light, touch or gravity.
b Geotropism is a growth response of a plant to gravity. For example, if a plant is place on its side in a dark
room, after a few hours the growing tips will begin to grow upwards.

6 a Day length influences flowering in some plants. Short-day plants flower after they have experienced
long periods of darkness. Long-day plants flower after they have experienced short periods of darkness.
b Long-day plants are more accurately described as short-night plants, because it is the period of
uninterrupted darkness that controls flowering.
7 An example of a rapid response in a plant is the folding of the leaves of the sensitive plant Mimosa pudica
when they are touched or stimulated in other ways. (Other examples in the textbook are the closing of a Venus
fly trap when an insect lands on a leaf, and the sudden snapping of the column in a trigger plant when a bee
triggers it.)
8 a Bud dormancy is stimulated by low temperatures and short day length and is controlled by ABA.
b Evidence that bud dormancy is localised is shown by cooling one branch of a plant. Only the buds of the
treated branch remain dormant.
9 a Seed dormancy is controlled by ABA.

b Seed dormancy is broken by exposure to cold for a period of months or by exposure to enough water to
leach the controlling hormone from the seed.
1 A 2 B 3 C 4 A 5 D
6 Student research will be required.
7 The diagram will show the shoot tip bending towards the light.
Stimulus light. Receptor shoot tip. Hormone auxin. Effector cells on the side of the coleoptile, away
from the light. Response bending towards the light.
8 Student examples should clearly relate the result to the variable being tested. All other variables must be
controlled. Examples include:
Gravity: Gravity must be varied. A centrifuge or trip in a space shuttle could accomplish this.
Colour of light: Use cellophane to vary the colour of light and measure the degree of bending.
9 Red light produces phototrophic responses.
10 Geotropism is a growth response of a plant to gravity. Roots are positively geotropic and move in the same
direction as gravity, whereas shoots are negatively geotropic and move away from the direction of gravity.

11 The plants require a long continuous period of darkness, as occurs around Christmas time in the northern
hemisphere (winter). This could be organised artificially in a greenhouse where the amount of darkness can be
regulated so that flower formation occurs.
12 The old friuit releases large amounts of ethylene, speeding up the ripening of the fresh fruit. Ripe fruit is more
palatable to microorgansims, so it decomposes more quickly. The rotting fruit is also a rich source of
contamination by microorgansims.
13 The coiling is caused by thigmotropism, which is a growth response that occurs as a result of contact with a
surface. The vine grows upwards because it is also phototropic (i.e. it grows towards the light).
14 Triggers for seeds to germinate vary and are species-dependent; e.g. desert plants require large amounts of
water to dissolve abscisic acid which inhibits germination, seeds which grow or flower in spring require a
period of cold, and many Australian natives require fire to open the seed coat.
15 a Dormancy is a period of no growth and little activity. It is a time when the organisms food reserves are
conserved as environmental conditions are not suitable for growth. Seeds can also remain dormant for
long periods of time. This often prevents them from germinating when conditions are unsuitable for
growth and survival such as during dry periods.
b Harsh (e.g. extremely hot or dry) environments, when an organism needs will not be met or factors go
outside its tolerance limits.
c Conditions rarely reflect the answer given in b.
16 Answers will vary.

Chapter 15: Regulatory mechanisms in animals
Key questions
1 a Homeostasis is the maintenance of a relatively stable internal environment with a changing external
environment.
b Factors under homeostatic control are blood glucose concentration, body temperature, ion concentration
and oxygen and carbon dioxide concentration
2 A negative feedback mechanism must include a recptor (detects a stimulus or disturbance), a means of
transmitting a message (nerves or hormones) a control system (that compares the disturbance to some set
point) and an effector (which brings about a response).
3 a The cells that respond to the hormones are called target cells.
b They respond because they have receptors on their cell membrane.
4 One group is the hormones derived from fatty acids; they are lipid-soluble and can pass easily through plasma
membranes, and include steroids. The second group is the protein-based hormones, which are water-soluble
and bind to receptors in the plasma membranes.
5 Endocrine glands are ductless glands that secrete hormones into the bloodstream.
6 The hypothalamus sends releasing factors to the pituitary gland, instructing it to produce other hormones,
including thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH) which instructs the thyroid gland to produce thyroxine.
7 The nervous systems message is primarily electrical, however neurotransmitters are chemical. There are
specific pathways for the impulse to travel which arrives quickly at its destination and has a short duration.
The endocrine system relies upon hormones, which are chemical, travel all round the body and only affect
target cells. Their action is slow and prolonged.
8 The peripheral nervous system is outside the spinal cord and consists of sensory and motor neurons. The
central nervous system consists of the brain and spinal cord, it contains interneurons.
9 A reflex response is one that does not involve conscious thought. The simple nerve pathway may only involve
two or three nerve cells. It helps to avoid further injury from the stimulus, and also helps to regulate certain
functions in the body that are not under voluntary control. There are many examples. Ones mentioned in the
textbook are: involuntary movement in response to a painful stimulus (heat, sharp pressure, etc.), the
monosynaptic (knee-jerk) reflex, the adjustment of muscles for balance, and the baroreceptorheart rate
reflex.
10 The autonomic system is involved in unconscious responses and is divided into two main divisions, the
sympathetic and the parasympathetic systems.
11 a Chemoreceptors respond to levels of chemical substances such as oxygen, carbon dioxide, pH, water,
salts and organic compounds.
b Mechanoreceptors respond to sound, sonar, touch, pressure and gravity.
c Photoreceptors respond to visible light and infrared radiation.
d Thermoreceptors respond to heat and cold.
12 A nerve impulse is the transmission of an electrical potential along a neuron. When a nerve is stimulated its
cell membrane is depolarised so that the inside of the cell becomes less negative. The potential is conducted
along the axon to the axon terminal. At the dendrite it stimulates the release of a chemical transmitter, which
diffuses across a synapse. The transmitter binds to receptor sites on the postsynaptic cell membrane to
stimulate the generation of another impulse.
13 a An action potential is a wave of electrical charge that passes rapidly along the membrane of an axon.
b The size of the stimulus determines whether or not an action potential is generated.
c The intensity of a stimulus is affected by the number of sensory neurons that respond and by the rate at
which action potentials are generated.
14 Myelin acts as an insulator and increases the speed of transmission of the action potential.
15 At a synapse an action potential stimulates the release of neurotransmitter molecules from vesicles. These
move to the nerve cell membrane and diffuse across the membrane to the outside. They diffuse across the
synapse gap and bind to specific receptors on the postsynaptic membrane, where they may stimulate or inhibit
activity in the postsynaptic cell.
1 C 2 C 3 D 4 A 5 D
Activity Stimulus Receptor Means of Effector Response

transmission
A person steps on an pain pain receptor in nervous muscles in the leg lift leg and foot
upturned drawing pin the skin away from the pin
A child hears a dog sound of dog ears nervous muscles in the leg muscles cause legs
barking furiously on barking to move
the other side of a
fence, and runs away hormonal heart muscle increased blood
pressure

Your breathing rate increased chemoreceptor hormonal and intercostal and increased muscle
increases after carbon dioxide in the nervous diaphragm muscles movement
strenuous exercise concentration hypothalamus
in the blood
7 The method must demonstrate that the area of tissue produces a molecule that can be transmitted in the blood
system and act on target cells and that the activity of the gland does not cease if the nerve supply to the area is
cut. Suitable methods include:
comparison of the effect of removing the tissue from several animals, surgically treating several animals
in the same way, but without removal of the tissue, and several control animals that are not treated
taking an extract from the tissue and injecting it into the animals whose tissue has been removed to look
for a return to normal function.
8 a oxytocin
b adrenaline
c follicle stimulating hormone (FSH)
d thyroxine
e oestrogen
9 a It is involved in unconscious actions.

b Any four of the following are acceptable:
controls the rate and strength of the heartbeat and the distribution of blood to different organs
controls mixing and movement of food through the gut and secretion of digestive enzymes
controls the diameter of major airways of lungs and secretion of mucus over respiratory surfaces
promotes emptying of the bladder and controls the rate of production of urine
controls contraction of parts of reproductive tract in males and females
controls the formation and release of hormones affecting overall metabolism
controls cutaneous blood flow and sweating
controls the diameter of the pupil, secretion of tears and focusing of the lens.
10 a Myelination increases the speed of transmission.

b The distances travelled are short, so the time saved would be negligible. Myelin would increase the
volume of the brain, which would make the head heavier and more difficult to support.

Chapter 16: Temperature regulation and water balance
Key questions
1 a Endothermic organisms, e.g. birds and mammals, are able to maintain a relatively stable internal
temperature. They use physiological mechanisms and behaviour to regulate heat.
b Endotherms are able to live in more varied environments because they can maintain their own
temperature and are not dependent on the external temperature.
2 a An ectotherm is an animal that cannot raise their body temperature by internal heat production. They
must obtain its heat wholly from the external environment.
b Some animals, such as reptiles, can maintain their body temperature by changing their behaviour.
3 Heterotherm means other heat. The internal temperature of these fish depends mainly on the external
temperature of the water, but they can generate large amounts of heat at times and so act as endotherms.
4 a By hibernating, animals reduce their energy and respiration requirements.

b Factors include a short day-length and low external temperature.
5 a The control centre in endotherms is the hypothalamus, which contains misalignment detectors.
b The set point is the optimum temperature for functioning; in humans this is about 37C.
6 a Skin receptors are disturbance detectors.

b Skin receptors reduce the size of fluctuations in arterial blood temperature.
7 Conduction direct transfer of heat energy from a warmer object to a cooler one when they are in contact
Radiation heat energy radiated into the air at infrared wavelengths
Evaporation evaporation of water from a surface, which takes heat energy from the surface
Loss of body fluids loss of heat energy stored in body fluids
8 a Feathers and fur insulate by trapping a layer of air against the skin; air is a good heat insulator, so it
prevents heat loss to the environment.
b Fur and feathers lose some of their insulation effectiveness when they are wet. Fat layers are less
effective if they become thin.
c Fat (blubber) under the skin of whales, dolphins and seals prevents heat loss to the surface because fat is
a poor conductor of heat.

9 Physiological means of controlling heat loss include:
changes in circulation by selective constriction of blood vessels so that less blood flows near the skin,
where heat is lost to the environment
countercurrent arrangements of blood vessels so that heat from arterial blood is transferred to venous
blood returning from the periphery
contraction of hair erector muscles so that hairs stand up and trap air to insulate the skin against heat loss.
Behavioural means of controlling heat loss include:
huddling in a group to reduce the surface area of the animal exposed to the cold
curling up to reduce the surface area exposed to the environment
changing posture so that more surface area is exposed to the sun
changing body shape by flattening so that a greater surface area is exposed to the sun.
10 The artery runs close to the vein, so heat lost from the artery is absorbed by the vein, reducing the temperature
difference.
11 The osmotic concentration of most marine invertebrates is equal to that of sea water. Marine bony fish have
body fluids with a lower concentration than sea water. Freshwater bony fish have fluids more concentrated
than the water in which they live.
12 Freshwater fish maintain water balance by rarely drinking water, excreting large amounts of very dilute urine,
actively absorbing salts using specialised cells in the gills. Marine fish maintain water balance by drinking
almost continuously, producing small amounts of urine, and actively secreting salts from specialised cells in
the gills.
13 The saltwater frog maintains a high concentration of urea in the blood so that its body fluids have a slightly
higher concentration of salts than sea water.
14 a The structure of the mammalian kidney that is involved in water balance is the loop of Henle. It
concentrates urine and so reduces the excretion of water.
b Desert mammals have a large medullary region in the kidneys, with longer loops of Henle.
15 The kangaroo rat does not sweat or pant, and spends the day in a burrow where the humidity is higher and
stored food absorbs moisture. It feeds at night when the air temperature is lower.
1 D 2 D 3 C 4 A 5 C

6 As night falls in a desert, lizards (ectotherms) and mammals (endotherms) are equally active since each is
warm. As the night wears on, the temperature falls. The body temperature of the ectotherms falls and they
become less active. They seek shelter to reduce heat loss and avoid predation. The body temperature of the
mammals remains constant and thus they are able to remain active.
7 Blood vessels near the skin allows rapid exchange of heat with the environment. Large ears with a network of
veins close to the skin allow the loss of heat by convection and radiation. When a kangaroo licks its forearms,
saliva is left on the skin. Body heat evaporates the water from the saliva and the body is cooled.
8 Water may be lost by urination, defecation, sweating, evaporation from the respiratory surfaces, when milk is
expressed, menstruation and from tears. Water loss during urination is under homeostatic control since the
water concentration in the blood, and hence in the urine, is controlled by water reabsorption in the kidneys.
Water loss by other means is not under homeostatic control. However, water balance is under homeostatic
control.
9 It is an advantage to a squirrel that the oxygenhaemoglobin dissociation curve shifts to the left because this
indicates that oxygen is held more strongly to haemoglobin and only released into the tissues when the oxygen
concentration in the cells is very low. More oxygen is loaded onto haemoglobin in a single breath. This is an
advantage since the breathing rate of the hibernating squirrel is lower than normal.
10 From the data, it appears that the proportion of ammonia in the urine of turtles decreases and the proportion of
uric acid increases the less water there is available in their habitat. This notion is supported by the fact that
turtles that are almost totally aquatic produce urine with the highest proportion of ammonia, while those in
very dry conditions produce urine with the highest proportion of uric acid.
The data indicate that all the species of turtle convert at least some of their nitrogenous waste to urea. Urea is
less toxic than ammonia, so conversion from ammonia to urea may enable the waste to be retained in the body
for longer without harm. This is important if the rate of production of ammonia exceeds the rate at which
ammonia can be excreted.
11 a When you drink a large amount of water, a large volume of dilute urine will be produced. Increased
water intake results in a decrease in the salt concentration of the blood plasma resulting in a decrease in
the permeability of the collecting tubules and less water is reabsorbed. Producing large volumes of dilute
urine helps to restore the osmotic pressure of body fluids.
b When you play vigorous sport on a hot day, a lot of water is lost from the body as sweat. This results in
an increase in the salt concentration of the blood plasma because of an increase in the permeability of the
collecting tubules, and more water is reabsorbed. The body then produces only small volumes of
concentrated urine, which helps to restore the osmotic pressure of body fluids.
c When large amounts of alcohol are consumed, a large volume of dilute urine is produced. Excessive
alcohol consumption will result in a decrease in the release of antidiuretic hormone (ADH) from the
pituitary gland. ADH is necessary for the production of concentrated urine. A decrease in ADH levels
will result in increased urine production. Large amounts of water are excreted in dilute urine, so
excessive alcohol consumption can cause dehydration.
d Low blood pressure results in less primary filtrate being produced and therefore a decrease in the volume
of urine produced.

12 a If the barley fed to the kangaroo rat was soaked in water before feeding, the water intake of the animal
would increase. This would result in the excretion of larger volumes of more dilute urine.
b If the laboratory mouse was allowed only 30 mL of drinking water, it would be getting 28.6 mL less than
it required to maintain water balance. Water loss in urine and faeces, and by evaporation would have to
decrease. The rat is likely to become dehydrated.

Chapter 17: Animal behaviour
Key questions
1 Behaviour refers to the coordinated activities of an animal that are produced in response to internal and
external stimuli. Certain behavious increase the chances of an organisms survival. An example is an animal
fleeing from a predator. The stimulus is the predator and the behaviour is to flee.
2 a See answer to question 1.

b An animal will seek food when it is hungry. Hunger is triggered by low blood glucose and lack of
distention of the stomach. The response is to seek food.
3 a Innate behaviour is described as inborn as it is not learned. It is a result of genetic factors that are present
at birth.
b The migratory behaviour of warblers is innate because the adult birds leave their chicks to migrate alone,
so the chicks cannot learn the migration route from their parents.
4 The silhouette contains a visual cuethe shortness of the predators headthat is easily recognised even
from a distance. It is not the shape of the beak or the colour of the feathers, or some other feature that would
be more difficult to recognise from a distance.
Animal Releaser(s) Behaviour shown Purpose of Adaptive value for

behaviour survival
Robin Red colour Aggression To drive other males Food, water, mates,
away from its territory other resources within
the territory
Stickleback Red colour Aggression To drive other males Successful mating
away from its territory with female
Abalone Presence of Raises shell and Avoids predator Individual survival
predatory sea star rotates away from
stimulus
6 Learning depends on memory, which is the ability to store and retrieve information about past events. It
requires a neuronal organisation that allows information to be stored, integrated and retrieved.
7 A young chicken is preprogrammed to peck at dark spots. Through trial and error learning it learns whick is
good and which is not.
A young child learns to speak via observational learning.

8 a i An example is the imprinting of a duckling on its mother which is the first moving object it
encounters after hatching.
ii An example is the imprinting of a duckling on a farmer which is the first moving object it encounters
after hatching from an incubator
b i Ducklings are most sensitive to imprinting about 15 hours after birth.
ii They are unable to be imprinted before they are about 6 hours old, and after they are about 22 hours
old.
c Imprinting can, for example, help young animals to feed successfully (e.g. a young goat), migrate in the
correct direction (e.g. migratory birds imprinting on the Pole Star), and enable young animals to
recognise their parents (for safety) and animals of the same species (for reproduction).
9 Two examples are crows ignoring a scarecrow after initially being frightened by it, and a blue-ringed octopus
initially flashing its colours when the side of its tank is tapped, but gradually ignoring it if the tapping is
repeated. Other examples can be any fading of a startle or escape response. The advantage of habituation is
that the individual does not waste time and energy responding to a stimulus when there is no danger.
10 This is an example of associative learning. The dogs salivated at the sound of the bell because they learned to
associate the sound with feeding.
11 Grooming keeps an animal clean and removes parasites and other potentially disease causing organisms. In
highly social groups of organisms such as primates it increases the social cohesiveness of the group.
12 Herbivores such as cattle and kangaroos are grazers, so collecting food is just a matter of finding some
suitable plants and eating them. Carnivores must hunt and catch their prey, which involves complex thought
processes to minimise effort and maximise results. Some carnivores are scavengers, and rely on finding
animals that have already been killed.
13 a Feeding in a flock gives an individual a better chance of survival as disturbance by a predator alerts the
entire flock and the flock response (eg flapping wings, tacking off) may confuse the predator.
b A squid can release ink that hides it from a predator, allowing it to escape.
c An orb-web spider weaves a web to capture prey. When it is resting it keeps its legs in contact with
special lines in the web, so that it can detect when potential prey touches the web.
14 Circadian rhythms are daily cycles, whereas circannual rhythms are yearly cycles. Examples of circadian
rhythms are the daily cycles of sleep and activity in most animals, and changes in hormone levels caused by
light entering the eyes. Examples of circannual rhythm are annual migrations of whales and birds, and the
hibernation of animals in winter.

15
Animal Cycle Stimulus Behviour Survival

advantage
Barnacle Tidal tide At low tide they close Avoids drying out
their shells
Get food when
At hiugh tide they open available (plankton
their shells and filter in the water)
feed
Bat Seasonal Daily light cycle Hibernation Prevents animal
expending more
Or
energy than it can
food avialbility obtain from the
available food
Or
temperature
Possum nocturnal light Forage for food Avoids predators
Avoids heat of the
day
Lack of competition
Prey animals may be
active at night
16 a Body position in relation to the sun.

b In two major ways. (1) Keeping clean, maintaining body covering and removing parasites; and
(2) maintaining group behaviour, e.g. pair bonding, heirachy within the group.
17 Comminication benefits the sender and/or receiver of a message. Animals may communicate to warn
each other of predators and other dangers, as part of social bonding in pairs or groups (e.g. courtship)
or to benefit others in a cooperative way (e.g. honey bee dance; see Heinemann Biology One p. 333).
18 Visually Monarch Butterfly orange and balck pattern communicates that it tastes bad
Sound Mating call in frogs, speech in humans
Chemically Dog marking its territory
Touch grooming
19 a Visual allows the message to travel rapidly between sender and receiver. It may put the sender at risk,
can pass through obstacles and does not work at night.
b Auditory can be distinct (e.g. mating call), can be sent when out of sight and works at night. It may
attract predators.
20 Two advantages of submissive behaviour are that it reduces the risk of injury and does not require expending
a lot of energy. Possible disadvantages are that it might make obtaining food, shelter and mates harder when
there is competition for them.

21 A dominant animal has greater access to resources such as food or mates. Some examples are a dominant
male in a spotted hyena pack, a dominant female in a wolf pack, male kangaroos fighting for dominance, and
the hierarchy of male and female dominance in baboon populations.
1 A 2 C 3 B 4 A 5 D
6 a This is an example of innate behaviour, because the baby kangaroos has had no opportunity to learn it.
b The baby kangaroos knows what to do because the behaviour is programmed into its nervous system.
c Because the baby kangaroos eyes and ears are not functional, the stimulus cannot be visual or aural. It is
likely to be a chemical stimulus (i.e. smell).
7 a Observational learning; the finch probably learned to use a cactus spine by watching other finches do the
same thing. The survival benefit is that the finch can obtain more food than it otherwise could.
b Observational learning; the otter probably learned how to open a clam by watching other otters do this.
The survival benefit is that the otter can obtain more food than it otherwise could.
c Insight learning; the elephant . The survival benefit is that the elephant can remove a distracting stimulus
that might interfere with its ability to detect danger.
8 Associative learning, trial and error (e.g. rewarding good behaviour), observational learning. All involve
coomunication from parent to offspring.
9 Lions have an acute sense of smell, and very good eyesight. They are also very powerful, and can run fast
over short distances. Lions are able to move very stealthily, crouching low in the tall grass. They also try to
keep downwind of any intended prey. They try to get close enough to their prey so that a short sharp burst of
speed can bring about a quick kill. Lions also show cooperative behaviour, hunting in small numbers to assist
in catching a single prey.
Because they are herbivores, zebras need to feed most of the time. They feed in herds; many eyes, ears, and
noses are better than one, for detecting the presence of a predator and this can be communicated quickly to
other members of the herd. They are capable of covering much greater distances at speed than are lions.
Forming a large herd, combined with the pattern of their coats, also distracts a predator making it difficult for
one individual to be separated out from the herd.
10 The three main reasons for this behaviour would be: (1) it makes the leopard less vulnerable to attack from
other animals while it is feeding, (2) it prevents other leopards from trying to share or steal the meal, and (3) it
reduces the chance that other potential prey would see the leopard and move away from the area.
11 Krill are very small crustaceans. As humpback whales are filter feeders, it is more efficient for them to take in
a large number of krill with one gulp of water than to expend a lot of energy chasing small numbers. By
swimming in a circle and blowing bubbles the krill are concentrated into the centre of the circle. When the
whales lunge up through the centre of the circle with their mouths open they maximise the number of krill that
are taken in with each gulp. This is an energy-efficient way of feeding.
12 a i By defending its territory, the male stickleback increases its chances of finding a mate and having the
resources to raise young. ii The female stickleback fish do not have a red patch on their bellies as they do
not need to communicate territoriality to other female or male stickleback fish. It is also important that
the females do not also exhibit a red patch as they may be mistaken as males and chased away by the
dominant male.
b The experiment would involve displaying differently coloured and shaped models to male sticklebacks,
and recording the results. To draw valid conclusions, it is important that the fish consistently show
aggressive behaviour when the model is red, regardless of shape.
13 Group-forming in open habitats would help in detecting the approach of a predator, communicating the danger
to individuals, and defending against an attack. In closed habitats it is easier to hide or escape from a predator,
so group-forming has less advantage.
14 This behaviour is intended to distract the predator away from the nest. The predator might think that the bird
is injured and cannot fly, and so would be easy prey. To determine whether the behaviour is innate or
learned would require a controlled experiment.
1 Observe the birds for some time to determine possible chances to learn.
2 Hatch a group of eggs in an incubator and raise the birds without contact to others.
3 Expose these birds to a predator. If they display the injured behaviour it is probably innate. If the do not
it is probably learned. To determine type of learning, go back to observations made at 1 and carry out
appropriate further observations and controlled experiments to determine the type of learning.
15 Factors might include the local climate, the availability of food, and the likelihood of being caught by a
predator. Feeding involves expending energy, so more energy must be gained from the food eaten than is used
in obtaining it.

Chapter 18: Life cycles and reproductive strategies
Key questions
1 In the life cycle of a sexually reproducing organism there is an alternation of diploid and haploid stages.
2 The cells produced by meiosis are gametes, e.g. ova and sperm. They differ from the parent cell in that they
have only half the number of chromosomes, i.e. one from each pair of parental chromosomes.
3 a A hermaphrodite is an organism that has both male and female reproductive organs and is therefore able
to produced both male and female gametes.
b Possible strategies would be to release the male and female gametes at different times, and to have the
male and female reproductive organs widely separated.
4 a Seasonal breeding is caused by hormones produced by the animal in response to environmental triggers,
e.g. change in day length, temperature, or abundance of food.
b The advantage of seasonal breeding is that environmental conditions are more likely to be better for the
survival of both the parents and the offspring, e.g. food availability and temperature.
5 A pheromone is a chemical signal that passes between members of the same species. Pheromones may
indicate that individuals are ready to mate.
6 Courtship behaviour enables animals to recognise each other and indicates that they are ready to mate when
fertility is high and mating is welcomed. Examples are tail displays and dancing by male lyrebirds, and
bower-building and decoration by male bowerbirds.
7 The more eggs produced by an animal, the lower the parental care and so the lower the chances of survival of
the offspring.
8 a In all mammals, fertilisation is internal and the embryo develops within the mothers body. Eutherian
and marsupial mammals develop in uterus and are nourished via a placenta. Eutherian young are well-
developed (although often helpless) when born. Marsupial young are relatively underdeveloped at birth
and continue development in a pouch. Monotremes develop in eggs and the young are helpless when
born.
b The gestation period is long in eutherians and short in monotremes and marsupials, but in marsupials the
young spend a long period in the mothers pouch.
9 a Amniocentesis involves taking a sample of the amniotic fluid (which contains cells shed from the
developing fetus) at about 1415 weeks into the pregnancy. The fluid and fetal cells are tested for
evidence of an abnormality in the developing fetus.
Chorionic villus sampling involves taking a small sample of fetal cells from the outer membrane around

the fetus at about 10 weeks into the pregnancy. The sample is tested for evidence of abnormality in the
developing fetus.
b Amniocentesis enables the identification of fetal abnormalities early in the pregnancy. However, there is
a small risk of spontaneous termination (1 in 100).
Chorionic villus sampling also enables the identification of fetal abnormalities. The advantage of this test
over amniocentesis is that it can be performed at 10 weeks whereas amniocentesis cannot be performed
until 1415 weeks into the pregnancy. It also carries a small risk of spontaneous termination (1 in 200).
One disadvantage of this test compared with an amniocentesis is that it cannot be used to detect spina
bifida.
c An ultrasound would not be able to detect the same range of abnormalities as an amniocentesis or
chorionic villus sampling. An ultrasound procedure is only useful for identifying physical abnormalities.
An amniocentesis or chorionic villus sampling involve testing samples of fetal cells, so these tests can
detect genetic abnormalities.
10 In in vitro fertilisation, the egg and the sperm are placed together in a petri dish and, hopefully, fertilisation
occurs. About 20 hours after the egg and sperm are introduced the embryos are transferred to the womans
uterus. If all goes well, the embryo implants in the womans uterus and continues to develop normally.
Surrogacy involves transplanting an in vitro embryo into a female other than the donor of the egg.
Such reproductive methods raise a number of ethical issues:
What should happen to embryos that are produced and then not needed (frozen embryos)? Should they be
used for research?
Are we likely to increase the frequency of people with reproductive problems in the next generation?
Who has rights in regard to a surrogate child? The birth mother? The biological parents?
Whether to terminate or not, depending on the results of screening tests.
11 a Premature babies have less chance of survival compared with babies born after 40 weeks gestation
because many of their body systems are still immature. For example, a premature baby may not have
sufficient lung surfactant, may have inappropriate breathing responses to carbon dioxide, an immature
gut and immature breathing reflexes.
b Many new technologies have given premature babies a greater chance of survival. For example:
incubators which control environmental temperature and humidity
sensors which monitor the babys temperature, heart rate, and breathing
lung surfactant which can be sprayed into the lungs
oxygen levels can be increased
the baby can be artificially ventilated
nutrients can be delivered into the stomach or directly into the bloodstream.
12 a By mitosis, a diploid zygote becomes a sporophyte, which by meiosis produces haploid male or female
spores. The female becomes a megaspore and the male becomes a microspore. These produce haploid
gametes by mitosis. A new diploid zygote is formed when male and female gametes unite.
b Plants spend a longer period in the haploid stage. Gametes are not the direct result of meiosis.
Gametophytes produce gametes by mitosis.

13 Bisexual means producing both male and female gametes gametes although this may be at different times in
their life cycle. Three different fertilisation strategies are:
self-fertilisation, in which a male gamete and female gamete from the same plant unite
cross-fertilisation, in which a male gamete from one plant unites with a female gamete from another plant
apomyxis, in which the megaspore divides by mitosis to form an embryo, and no fertilisation takes place
14 Dormancy ensure that seeds do not germinate until conditions are favourable for the growth of the seedling.
1 B 2 A 3 D 4 D 5 A
6 a A small spot of blood in a n egg is the beginning of embryonic development in a fertilised egg.
b Free-range eggs are more likely to contain small spots of blood because the hens are more likely to have
opportunities to mate with a rooster and produce fertile eggs, compared with battery hens which are
restricted to cages and therefore always produce infertile eggs.
7 a Many parasites produce millions of offspring to increase the chance that some will find a new host.
b Many parasites are often hermaphrodite because this reduces the need to find a mate in order to
reproduce. . This is particularly the case with endoparasites where the chance of meeting a mate is
remote.
c Many parasites have a larval stage because the larvae can undergo many cycles of asexual division, thus
increasing millions of organism from one egg.
8 Induced ovulation increases the chance of survival of some species, because ovulation only occurs when
mating and courtship behaviour occurs. Therefore, eggs are not wasted but produced on a needs basis.
9 a i At 1 year of age the average rate of growth is 18 cm/year.

ii At 2 years of age the average rate of growth is 11 cm/year.
iii At 3 years of age the average rate of growth is 9 cm/year.
iv At 6 years of age the average rate of growth is 6 cm/year.
b During the first 10 years of life, the growth rate initially decreases rapidly until it levels out by the age of
6 years.
c i Puberty is occurring at this time.
ii At puberty girls and boys develop the secondary sex characteristics. For girls, this includes enlarged
breasts, rounded hips, pubic hair, and the onset of menarchy. The secondary sex characteristics in
boys are increased muscle mass, broadening of shoulders, facial and pubic hair, deeper voice, and
production of sperm ejaculate.

iii As the peaks of the two graphs occur at different ages, it suggests that females reach maturity before
males.
10 a Self-fertilisation is prevented in most flowers by the rejection of pollen grains from the same individual
at a number of different stages of pollination, depending on the plant species. This can occur on the
surface of the stigma, as the pollen tube grows through the style, or when the sperm cell attempts to
fertilise the egg. Self-fertilisation is also prevented in some species as pollen is shed from a flower at a
time when the stigma is not receptive.
b Prevention of self-fertilisation is desirable as it increases the degree of genetic variation possible within
the population as a consequence of sexual reproduction.

1 C 2 B 3 A 4 A 5 B 6 C 7 C 8 B 9 C 10 C
11 a The growing tips of plant shoots are cut off and mounted on blocks of agar for about an hour. Then, in
the dark, the agar blocks are placed off-centre on the cut stumps. The direction in which the stumps bend
is then observed.
b The hormone responsible for the bending response in the shoots is auxin.
c Auxin has its effect on cells on the side of the plant away from the light.
d As above is supported.
e When the light is directly above the plant equal concentrations of auxin are released down both sides of
the plant from the tip. This accumulates in the gelatin blocks. When the gelatin block (contaning auxin) is
placed on one side of the plants, the cells increase in size in reposnse to the auxin and the palnt bends.
12 a The general name for the responses shown by plants in relation to daynight length is photoperiodism.
b The length of time to which the plant is exposed to uninterrupted darkness triggers flowering in plants.
c Long-day (or short-night) plants would be expected to flower in summer, because that is the time of the
year when the nights are shortest.
d i During the dark period only a few flowers were produced and the number stabilised.
ii During the light period a greater number of flowers were produced and the number increased.
13 a Homeostasis is the process by which the internal conditions of an organism are maintained in a relatively
stable state.
b They are both involved in communication between different parts of the body. They are both involved in
regulating the functions of various systems. In vertebrates they both involve the brain.
c Any three rows from the following table are acceptable.
Nervous system Endocrine system

speed is very fast speed is slow
signal is electrical signal is chemical
transmission is along neurons transmission is through blood vascular system
affects cells to which a neuron is connected affects cells with specific receptors
14 a i The muscle temperature for skipjack tuna is 35C.

ii The muscle temperature for bluefin tuna is 30C.
b The bluefin is endothermic because its body temperature does not vary with the water temperature. The
skipjack is ectothermic because its body temperature varies with the ambient temperature.
c i An endotherm maintains its body temperature within close limits. An ectotherm depends on its
environment as a source of heat, so the body temperature of these animals varies with the ambient
temperature.
ii The muscles of both species generate some heat since they are both warmer than the water. The
skipjack generates the same amount of heat regardless of water temperature. The bluefin generates or
retains different amounts of heat in different water temperatures.
15 a B is a haploid phase. C, D and E are diploid phases.

b X represents fertilisation, when the male and female gametes unite.
c The abrupt transition from the larval form to the adult form is called metamorphosis.

Unit 2, Area of Study 2: Dynamic ecosystems
Chapter 19: Living in an ecosystem
Key questions
1 a An ecosystem is a system formed by a community of living organisms interacting with one other,
together with their physical surroundings.
b A community consists only of living organisms. An ecosystem includes the physical surroundings such
as rocks, dead organisms, air and water. Many examples of communities and ecosystems could be given.
Examples of communities are the organisms on a tree trunk, birds living together in a forest, Examples of
ecosystem are a mountain ash forest, a Mallee woodland, an ocean, and a coral reef.
2 a Yes it is a community, because the different species are interacting with each other in a particular place at
a particular time.
b The aviary is not an ecosystem because it is not self-sustaining. Food and water must be added regularly,
and pests and diseases have to be controlled.
3 a A rock pool can be considered to be an ecosystem because it contains a largely self-sustaining

community that is interacting with its physical environment.
b A sea anemone depends on the physical environment to provide a place to anchor itself, water and
oxygen, and a suitable temperature.
c The sea anemone depends on neighbouring species for food, and might also be eaten by other organisms
such as sea stars.
d At high tide the rock pool is inundated, so it becomes part of the ocean ecosystem.
4 a Almost all the native grasslands in Victoria have been lost through clearing and other human activities in
the last 200 years.
b Native grasslands are rich in plants and animal species and many are unique. The known benefits are
numerous, and possible unknown benefits could be lost of species become extinct because of habitat loss.
5 a i The geographic distribution of an organism is all the places in the world that it is found. For the grey-
headed flying fox, it is the east coast of Australia.
ii The habitat of an organism is the type of place that an organisms lives. For the grey-headed flying-
fox, it is forests and rainforests.
iii The niche of an organism is the particular environment where it is likely to persist indefinitely. For the
grey-headed flying-fox, it is places where its food trees grow.
b Many examples could be described. Some suggestions are as follows.
Crabs are protected under rocks on the bottom of rock pools. They are under water most of the time.
Sea anemones are fastened firmly to the rock face in open water and can withstand limited exposure to
the air.
Hardyhead fish are found in permanent water in rock pools. They shelter among algae.
Barnacles and mussels are fastened firmly to rock in the zone between high and low tide.
Polychaetes (marine worms) live in protective tubes in the sediment on the bottom of rock pools.
Limpets and periwinkles are fastened to rock when the tide is out, and graze on algae on the rock
surface when the tide is in.
6 a A microhabitat is part of a larger habitat, where particular organisms live.

b Various examples of microhabitats and the organisms that might inhabit them could be given. Some
examples are: the trunk of a tree-fern (filmy fern, insect), branches of a tall wattle (moss, lichen), a
boulder (lizard, lichen), the bank of a creek (platypus, fern), a hollow log (echidna, snake), a rotting log
(insect, fungus), and the bark of a tree (spider, moss).
7 a Biotic refers to the living organisms in an ecosystem. Abiotic refers to all the non-living components of
an ecosystem, such as water, rocks, air and dead organisms.
b Biotic frill-necked lizard, spinifex grass, rabbits, termites, emu, marsupial mice, insects, flowering
desert pea.
Abiotic water droplets condensed on plant leaves, soil, heat, stones, termite mounds, oxygen, wind.
8 a A snails habitat is cool, moist, shaded, damp, leaf litter. Its biotic components include other organisms
found in the environment such as birds (which may be predators), insects, spiders, slugs, worms, etc.
b The habitat of a snow gum is cold and windy and at high altitudes (above the snow line). The biotic
components of the environment of a snow gum include other organisms such as alpine grasses and low
shrubs, lichens, birds, marsupial mice, echidnas, and a range of invertebrates.
9 Ecosystems can be named according to the abiotic environment (e.g. shallow wetland, tidal rock platform,
alpine) the dominant or most obvious species (e.g. oyster, red ironbark, saltbush), or the physical structure of
the plant community (e.g. closed-forest, open-forest, sparse open grassland). (Many other examples of names
are mentioned in the textbook.)
10 Freshwater ecosystem is not a complete description of an ecosystem because there are different types of
freshwater ecosystems, e.g. ponds, lakes, shallow wetlands.
11 a A biome is a broad, world-wide category of ecosystem based on climate. A biome occurs widely across
the Earth and has a characteristic structure.
b A rainforest biome includes densely vegetated closed-forests dominated by trees, where the rainfall is
high and reliable throughout the year. A desert biome includes sparsely vegetated regions, often
dominated by shrubs, where the rainfall is low and unreliable.
12 The names are decided by the percentage of canopy cover. In a closed forest there is 70100% canopy cover,
so little sunlight can get through to the forest floor. These forests are generally associated with uniform high
rainfall.

In an open forest the canopy cover is 3070%, and more light can get through to the lower layers. In Australia
open forests are usually dominated by eucalypt species. Differences in tree height relate to rainfall differences.
In woodland areas the canopy cover is less than 30%. The trees are spaced further apart, and occupy the drier
climatic areas.
13 a A quadrat is a way of sampling an area within the study zone using a marked out and enclosed square,
rectangle or circular shape. A transect is a line which is laid out through a study area where there appears
to be a pattern of zonation. Transects are often used to locate quadrats.
b A suitable number of quadrat areas is located within the study area. The species present in each quadrat,
and their abundance, are recorded. This information can then be statistically treated if necessary. Quadrat
areas of different size are chosen to match the size of the organisms within them. Larger quadrats are
used to estimate the distribution of trees, smaller quadrats are used for species like grasses. Quadrats are
usually located randomly within the study area.
A transect line can be used in several ways. Observations can be made about organisms all the way along
the line, or the line can be used as a location point for taking quadrat samples at regular intervals.
Differences between the quadrats along the transect line will show changes in species composition and
abundance. The physical aspects of the environment (soil pH, light intensity, soil profile, salinity, etc.)
can also be measured in quadrats along a transect, and correlated to changes in biological communities.
16 a By turning a rock over, the habitat of the organism is changed in a very major way. An organism whose
niche may have been on the cool, dark undersurface of a rock will suddenly be exposed to heat and bright
light, and drying winds. It will probably die.
b Besides the problem outlined above, other human impacts might be the indiscriminate collection of
organisms, pollutants and rubbish in the water, and mechanical damage caused by not taking care where
you walk.
c Protective steps that could be taken would be:
better public education such as clear and simple signs and/or programs run to educate people as to
why these environments need to be protected
exclusion of humans by some physical barrier
only allowing access to fragile areas on controlled guided tours.
17 If the native plant community can be re-established, this will provide the necessary habitats, niches, and
microclimates that can be occupied by other plants and animals. In this way a species-rich community can
begin to develop.
18 The size of a quadrat must be chosen to match the size of the area being sampled and the types of organisms
being counted, so that data from a statistically significant sample can be obtained. 30 m 30 m quadrats are
appropriate when sampling vascular plants in a forest, whereas 1 m 1 m quadrats might be used when
sampling mosses in a grassland.
1 C 2 B 3 D 4 B
5 a The grey fantail and the crimson rosella can coexist in the same tree layer because they have different
food requirements. Fantails are mainly insectivorous, while crimson rosellas are predominately seed and
fruit eaters.
b Although their food requirements are the same (insects), the treecreeper and the thrush do not compete
for the same resource. The treecreeper feeds in the upper canopy on insects collected from leaves and
branches, whereas the thrush feeds on insects it catches by scratching in the leaf litter on the ground.
6 a Niche means the particular environment where a species is likely to persist indefinitely.
b The size of the main prey of each lizard is different. C. schomburgkii eats prey mainly up to 0.006 mm3,
C. leonhardii eats mainly prey between 0.006 and 0.012 mm3, and C. grandis eats mainly prey larger
than 0.012 mm3.
7 Note that the following line should be inserted in the question before part a: Suggests reasons for:
a The removal of native vegetation may have destroyed some essential part of the habitat of Carnabys
cockatoo. This would most probably be the removal of a food source.
b Galahs are able to eat cereal seeds. Hectares of cereal crops means a large increase in food supply, hence
an increase in population numbers. Cereal crops also most probably covered a much larger area than the
original suitable native vegetation, hence the increase in the range of the galahs.
8 A compost heap can be studied as an ecosystem because it consists of a community of organisms that interact
with each other and with their environment. A compost heap can be self-sustaining for several months,
because most organisms are involved in decomposing organic matter, and as long as there is enough organic
material available the organisms will continue to interact with each other and their environment. However, as
the organic material is gradually decomposed, the community will change, and fresh organic matter would
have to be added to maintain the community.
9 a Quadrats and transects are generally most accurate for sampling things that do not move, such as plants,
sessile animals such as barnacles, animal nests, scats and tracks, soil and rocks.
b Other sampling techniques include trapping, netting, capturereleaserecapture, and collecting water
samples or mud samples of known volumes for analysis.
c Factors to consider when making generalisations from the results of samples include:
Does the sample accurately represent the ecosystem being sampled?
How accurate and reliable were the data-collecting methods?
Was the sample size, and the number of samples, large enough for valid statistical treatment?
10 a There was less cover overall in the unfenced area:

44% average cover in fenced area
19% average cover in unfenced area.
b Snow grass: unfenced cover was 68% of fenced cover.

Silver snow daisy: unfenced cover was 6% of fenced cover.
Scaly buttons: unfenced cover was 74% of fenced cover.
Alpine star-bush: unfenced cover was 17% of fenced cover.
c Two factors may be important:
Trampling by cattlethis could be expected to reduce the number of plants simply because of
mechanical damage. It may be that the alpine star-bush and silver snow daisy are more susceptible to
trampling than the other two species.
Preferential feedingcattle might prefer to eat the alpine star-bush and silver snow daisy rather than
the other two species.

Chapter 20: A web of interactions
Key questions
1 a An animal is described as a specialist feeder if it has a very limited range of foods that it can eat. The
giant panda is an extreme case of this, it has only one food sourcebamboo.
b If something happens to the supply of bamboo, such as large scale land-clearing, which causes
fragmentation of the bamboo forests, the giant panda does not have an alternative food source to turn to.
The consequence of this is that population numbers will decline to the point of extinction, due to lack of
food.
c Generally, the more food there is, the greater number of individuals the area can support (all other things
being equal). As well as this, the reproductive cycle of some animals is geared to an abundant food
supply. If food is scarce, some animals will not reproduce, or alternatively, some animals move to an area
where there is sufficient food. For example, budgerigars are nomadic birds of the arid and semi-arid areas
of Australia. When food becomes scarce in one area, they move on. They will only breed when there is
ample food, water, and nest holes.
2 a The three microhabitats described for the pond are:

the pond edge, where plants are able to take root in the mud. They either grow above the surface, or
their leaves float on the surface. Many other organisms use these plants as a source of shelter and
food.
the pond surface supports populations of free-floating plants such as duckweed, as well as a variety of
insects that make use of the elastic skin of the surface. Some insects skate over the surface, and
others use the surface tension to keep them suspended at the surface where they can breathe air.
the pond bottom tends to accumulate a thick layer of decaying debris, and this keeps the oxygen level
very low. Most organisms found here feed on this plant debris. Animals in this microhabitat include
protozoans, segmented worms, insect larvae, nematodes, and crustaceans such as yabbies.
b Different organisms occupy different microhabitats because their requirements are different; each
organism has its own particular niche. This means that the resources of the pond are shared among the
organisms that live there. For example, yabbies scavenge in the detritus on the bottom rather than being
in the clear water near the surface which is the microhabitat for green plants that are able to use the Suns
energy for photosynthesis.
3 Answers should include two of the following microhabitats:
the leaves and branches of the tree crown
the trunk of the tree and the bark covering
the base of the tree in the litter that the tree has shed
the soil beneath the litter.
Examples of organisms for two of the microhabitats give above are:
The tree canopy provides food and shelter for a variety of organisms. Koalas eat the leaves, as do insect
larvae. Ringtail possums feed on leaves and flowers. Gliding possums eat nectar and pollen. Honeyeaters
collect nectar from flowers, and rosellas crush the fruits to eat the seeds. Fungi attack the leaves, and lichens
may grow on the branches.

The tree trunk and bark is the microhabitat of small vertebrates such as insect-eating skinks and a large variety
of arthropods (insects, spiders, centipedes, millipedes, etc.). Insect-eating birds are also found here, as well as
kookaburras that feed on skinks.
4 Food chain is the term used to describe the linked feeding relationships between organisms.
5 a Green plants, algae and cyanobacteria are all photosynthetic. They all contain the green pigment
chlorophyll. Through photosynthesis, they are all able to produce (manufacture) their own food in the
form of sugars in the presence of sunlight and this is why they are called producers. Oxygen is one of the
substances produced by this process and released into the atmosphere.
b In most cases these organisms are the first link in the food chain. Photosynthesis is the main way by
which energy enters ecosystems and is stored in sugars. Animals eat the plants and utilise some of that
stored energy.
6 The six types of consumers are as follows. Examples will vary; some suggestions are shown here
herbivores: consumers that feed only on producers. The koala is a herbivore because it eats only eucalypt
leaves.
carnivores: consumers that eat other consumers. Kookaburras eat skinks found on eucalypt tree trunks.
parasites: consumers that live and feed on the surface of, or inside, other organisms. Phytophthora
cinnamomi parasitises eucalypt roots and causes dieback disease.
scavengers: consumers that eat dead animals. The Tasmanian devil scavenges dead animals in eucalypt
forests.
detritivores: consumers that eat small particles of dead plants and animals. Worms in the litter beneath a
eucalypt tree are detritivores.
decomposers: consumers that break down dead material by secreting enzymes and absorbing the
breakdown products. Bacteria and fungi that break down the litter beneath trees are decomposers.
7 moss producer; caterpillar herbivore; ant omnivore. scavenger; lichen producer (algal part); honey-
possum herbivore; sulphur-crested cockatoo omnivore (eats seeds and beetle larvae); magpie omnivore,
scavenger; penguin carnivore; kangaroo herbivore; dingo carnivore, scavenger; worm detritivore;
flatworm (planarian) detritivore, possibly parasite; domestic cat omnivore, scavenger; bread mould
decomposer; sparrow herbivore; cockroach detritivore, possibly scavenger; pitcher plant carnivore,
producer (photosynthetic part); Tasmanian devil carnivore, scavenger.
8 Many answers are possible. Some examples are given here.

a pasture cattle humans
b algae in pond Daphnia frog snake kookaburra
algae in pond Daphnia mayfly nymph frog heron
c eucalypt tree mistletoe
eucalypt tree Phytophthora cinnamomi
d pasture cattle dung beetle
9 a A food web is a series of food chains linked together.

b A complex food web is more stable than a simple food chain. In the food web show in Figure 20.15 on
page 392 of Heinemann Biology One (4th edition), if something happened to Daphnia, the catfish would
have another source of food (the beetle). This means that in complex food webs, organisms may have a
number of different food choices. This maintains diversity and stability in the ecosystem.
10 Answers will vary. Note that compost heaps are the site of a very complex web of interactions, so a diagram
of a food web that includes only the organisms listed in the question would not show many interactions at all.
In the food web there will be no producer organisms and therefore no herbivores.
11 a i algae Daphnia frogs kookaburra

ii algae Daphnia frogs snakes kookaburra
b i Autotrophs: algae, pondweed
ii Heterotrophs: Daphnia, fish, water beetles, frogs, snakes, kookaburra
12 Various answers are possible. Those given here are only examples.
a Predation involves an interaction between two animals (predator and prey). Therefore no predation
relationship can involve a eucalypt tree as one partner.
b A honeyeater obtains nectar from a eucalypt flower. Pollen brushed onto the honeyeaters face is
transferred to the stigma of a flower on another eucalypt of the same species, resulting in fertilisation.
13 The interaction between the mistletoe and the mistletoe bird is an example of mutualism. The mistletoe bird
eats the fleshy berry, in the centre of which is the hard, indigestible seed. The sticky seed passes out of the
bird and adheres to the branch of another tree where it can germinate. The benefit to the mistletoe is that the
bird helps disperse its seed. The benefit to the bird is that the mistletoe is a source of food.
14 a mutualism (the fungus protects the alga from a harsh environment, and the alga produces carbohydrates
that the fungus can take up)
b environmental resource use
c parasitism (humans do not benefit from the presence of the hookworms)
d mutualism (protozoa obtain nutrients from wood ingested by the termites, and the termites obtain
nutrients from the digested products)
e mutualism (cleaner fish obtain food, and the eel has parasites and other harmful matter removed)
f mutualism (the honeyeater gains food and the Grevillea has its pollen transferred)
g mutualism (the ants gain food and the acacia has its seeds dispersed)
1 B 2 D 3 D 4 C 5 C
6 a The main competitor for the organisms that the fish eats is the yabby. If all fish are removed, then there
would be more food (Daphnia, skaters, beetles, rotifers, etc.) available for the yabbies. All other things

being equal, this might result in an increase in the number of yabbies. There may also be temporary
increases in the populations of those organisms that were food for the fish.
b The yabby population of the pond would have to be sampled before and after the fish were removed, to
see if yabby numbers increased. In practice, this would be quite a sophisticated exercise in sampling.
There is also an ethical question about interfering with a natural ecosystem for a scientific experiment.
7 There could be many representations of this information. An example is shown.
8 a The horse trough could be regarded as an ecosystem, provided the water level was renewed by natural
rainfall. The greenish colour indicates that there are some photosynthetic microorganisms present. There
is a variety of consumer organisms, and there is also an accumulation of detritus on the bottom.

b The grass would be at various stages of decay, so you would expect to find mostly detritivores and
decomposers feeding on it. A suggested food web for the horse trough is shown.
9 a If the kestrels were killed, there would be an increase in the population of grasshoppers, provided there
was enough food for them, as their predator is no longer present in this ecosystem.
b An increase in grasshopper numbers would have an increased negative effect on the crop.
c If the ecosystem was more complex, there would most likely be a variety of different predators of the
grasshopper. Removal of kestrels would mean that the other predators would still eat the grasshoppers, so
numbers would probably be kept in check. Also, the population of other predators might increase.
10 A detritivore food chain involves the consumption of the remains of dead organisms or organic wastes, such
as fallen eucalypt leaves, dead insects, animal carcasses and dung. A predatorprey food chain involves
hunting or trapping live animals, and consuming them
In a eucalypt forest, leaves fall form the trees all year round, and they do not decompose quickly, so there is a
constant supply of food for detritivores that feed on the leaves. Eucalypt forests also support large numbers of
insects and vertebrates, so there is also a good supply of dead animal matter and dung for detritivores.
12 a Foxes eat a very diverse range of foods. They can function as carnivores, herbivores, and scavengers.
Being nocturnal minimises their chances of being seen, and they are able to sneak up on potential prey.

b There would be a local population of foxes on Phillip Island. In the short term, the penguin rookeries
could be protected by a physical barrier such as a wire fence, although this might be difficult as the
rookery must be open to the sea. In the longer term, a fox eradication program using poison baits would
be necessary, and this would involve local residents and farmers. Encouraging local residents and farmers
to remove other potential sources of food and shelter (such as rubbish and thorny weeds) would also
help. In the long term, it would probably be necessary to construct a fox-proof barrier on the bridge so
that foxes could not recolonise the island from the mainland.
13 a The wasp is using the tree as a nest site, so the tree is an environmental resource. The wasp could also
be thought of as a parasite, because the larvae live within a host plant and gain benefit from it, while the
tree gains no advantage and may be injured.
b This is a producerherbivore food chain. The tree is a producer because it photosynthesises, and the wasp
larvae are herbivores because they feed on the leaves.

Chapter 21: Movement of energy and matter in ecosystems
Key questions
1 a The original source of most of the energy on Earth is the Sun; this energy enters ecosystems via
photosynthesis.
b During photosynthesis, light energy is used to combine water and carbon dioxide into sugar molecules in
plant cells, at the same time, releasing oxygen and water back to the environment. Light energy is
converted to chemical energy, stored in green plants.
2 a Primary productivity is the rate at which producers convert light energy to chemical energy via new plant
growth (biomass). Biomass is the amount of productivity available for eating in an ecosystem. For
example, in a forest, only about 50% of the primary productivity accumulates as new plant growth
(biomass). The rest of the energy is used by the plant for its own life processes.
b Biomass is the dry weight of organic matter that accumulates in a unit area. It is measured in grams per
square metre. Primary productivity is the rate at which biomass accumulates. It is measured as grams per
square metre per year.
c Deep ocean low; rice crop high (grows new biomass faster than a forest); desert low; tropical forest
high.
d The limiting environmental factors for deep oceans include low temperatures, low levels of mineral
nutrients, and possibly low light intensities. For deserts, the limiting environmental factors include low
rainfall and low soil fertility.
3 a Approximately 10% of plant biomass is converted to animal biomass in herbivores.

b The rest of the plant biomass consumed by herbivores is used for the animals daily activities (30%) and
is essentially lost as heat energy through cellular respiration; or it is not digested (60%) and is eliminated
as waste.
c From one step in the food chain to the next, there is a decline in the amount of energy that is converted to
new biomass. At each step, much energy is lost as heat energy due to cellular respiration.
d Food chains are limited in size because there is only a certain amount of energy available from the
producers to start with. If only 10% of the available energy is converted to biomass between one level
and the next, then after four or five steps there will only be a very small amount of energy available for
conversion to biomass.
4 a Energy is lost from ecosystems as low-grade heat energy.
b Energy is constantly entering ecosystems via photosynthesis, in which light energy is converted to
chemical energy.
5 a Populations of hunters and gatherers were small because a large area of land was needed, and a lot of
energy had to be expended, to provide enough food for one human. Hunters and gatherers were just like
other animals that were part of natural ecosystems.
b Vegetarians are only one step away from the start of the food chain, consuming producers directly. Less
energy will be lost at each step compared with a longer food chain where humans are second, third,
fourth or even fifth-order consumers. In other words, less energy (and resources) are needed to feed one
vegetarian than are needed to feed a person who eats meat. For example, 10% of the energy stored in
wheat is available to a human who eats the wheat. However, if the wheat is fed to cattle, and then the
meat from the cattle is eaten by a human, only 1% of the original energy is available. If everyone was
vegetarian, it would be easier to feed all the people in the world.
6 cyanobacteria (containing ciguatera) herbivorous fish carnivorous fish human
7 a Non-biodegradable compounds are those that decomposer organisms are unable to break down.
b Non-biodegradable toxins such as DDT accumulate in the food chain. At each trophic level the
concentration of a toxin becomes greater because most or all of the toxin is taken up into a much smaller
biomass. For example, a DDT concentration of only 0.000005 parts per million in water can accumulate
to a concentration of 26.4 parts per million by the time the DDT reaches the highest trophic level (e.g.
fish-eating birds) in a freshwater ecosystem.
c The process is called biological accumulation (bioaccumulation) or biological magnification.
d Detritus is made up of the decaying remains of a large number of organisms from all levels of the food
chain. Whatever amount of DDT that each organism is carrying ends up being added to the total amount
of DDT in the detritus.
8 Because DDT is not biodegradable, its concentration increases at each trophic level. A concentration that is
not directly lethal to birds and fishes is likely to be lethal indirectly, once the DDT has moved up the food
chain. Also, a concentration that is not lethal to adult animals may interfere with the development of young
animals, such as making birds eggs more fragile so that they break before the young have developed to
hatching stage.
9 Energy flows through an ecosystem in a one-way path. It is continually lost as low-grade heat energy to the
surrounding environment. The supply of matter needed to support life is finite. Unlike energy, there is no
significant input from space. Matter must therefore cycle through ecosystems. These matter cycles may be
global or local.
10 a Biogeochemical cycles are cycles in which chemicals move from the non-living (abiotic) part of an
ecosystem, into the living (biotic) part of an ecosystem. They are then returned to the non-living part
again. There are a number of important biogeochemical cycles. Water and chemicals, such as carbon and
nitrogen, are global biogeochemical cycles, while chemicals such as phosphorus, calcium, potassium,
magnesium and others are cycled through local biogeochemical ecosystems.
b Biogeochemical cycles are important because they provide for the distribution and movement of
chemicals between the living and non-living components of an ecosystem.
c Decomposers provide the link between the living and non-living parts of the ecosystem. They break
down organic molecules, and release the chemical nutrients as simple compounds which become part of
the store of nutrients in air, water and soil.
11 a Carbon enters the food chain by photosynthesis. The carbon from CO2 is converted to carbon in
carbohydrate molecules.
b Three ways that carbon dioxide is released into the atmosphere are:
decomposition the breaking down of organic molecules by bacteria and fungi
cellular respiration in which organisms break down organic molecules
combustion the burning of fossil fuels or organic substances.
12 Beneficial effects: more CO2 available for photosynthesis, therefore increased plant growth and crop yields
(productivity). Some arid regions might become more fertile.
Harmful effects: climate change caused by the greenhouse effect. CO2 forms a blanket in our atmosphere,
preventing heat energy from escaping and, as a consequence, global temperatures rise. The rise in temperature
could cause changes to the sea level due to melting of polar ice caps and altered weather patterns, and also
interfere with the functioning and balance of ecosystems (e.g. coral bleaching).
13 Three consequences of deforestation of tropical forests:

Deforestation adds to the increase in CO2 in the atmosphere and therefore to the greenhouse effect,
because the removal of trees leads to a reduction in the total amount of photosynthesis occurring, and
also produces large amounts of organic wastes that generate CO2 during decomposition or burning.
Water runoff, and therefore soil erosion, is increased, because bare soil is exposed, there are fewer plants
to slow the flow of water over the soil, and there are fewer trees to absorb water from the soil.
Species that depend on the forest may become locally extinct.
14 a Nitrogen is an essential element used in the manufacture of proteins. All organisms contain some protein.
Nitrogen is also an essential component of DNA.
b Plants are unable to directly absorb and use atmospheric nitrogen (N2). Bacteria convert atmospheric
nitrogen to ammonium ions (NH4+), nitrite ions (NO2), or nitrate ions (NO3), which then become
available for plants to absorb and use. The process is known as nitrification.
c Nitrogen-fixing bacteria are found living freely in soil or inside the nodules on the roots of legume
plants.
d The nitrogen-fixing cyanobacterium Anabaena lives in cavities between the leaves of the water fern
Azolla. This fern floats on the water in the rice paddies, and the nitrogen compounds fixed by Anabaena
are released into the water around the rice plants. This is like adding a nitrogen fertiliser to the water, and
increases the productivity of the rice paddy.
e Animals obtain their nitrogen either by eating plants or by eating other animals which have eaten plants.
Seeds are a good source of protein and therefore nitrogen.
f Decomposers first return nitrogen to the soil by breaking down dead bodies, faeces, and other
nitrogenous wastes to ammonia. The a different kind of soil bacteria (denitrifying bacteria) complete the
process by releasing nitrogen back into the air as free nitrogen (N2).

15 Nitrogen is stored in the atmosphere as a gas, N2. Certain bacteria in the soil or in root nodules of legumes fix
N2 and convert it to ammonia (NH2). Other species of bacteria convert the ammonia to nitrate (NO2).
Nitrogen is absorbed by plant roots to form protein. Protein and nitrogenous wastes from food chains are
broken down by decomposers (bacteria and fungi). Eventually, denitrifying bacteria in the soil release N2 back
into the atmosphere.
16 a Legume plants include plants known as pulses: beans, peas, lentils, and chickpeas.
b There are two reasons:
Legumes have nitrogen-fixing bacteria in their root nodules so they effectively make their own free
fertiliser. Legumes can be ploughed in as a form of green manure, leaving the soil rich in nitrogen-
fixing bacteria, as well as other organic matter.
The proteins in legumes complement those of cereals, so for vegetarians, a combination of the two
(cereals and pulses) gives an excellent balance of proteins.
17 a The original source of phosphorus in an ecosystem is rocks. When rocks are weathered, phosphorus is
slowly released into water and soil.
b i Dissolved phosphates in the soil are taken up by plant roots and used to build plant tissues.
ii Animals eat plants that contain phosphorus, or other animals that have eaten plants. In this way,
phosphorus is passed through the food chain. Decomposers return the phosphorus to the soil.
c Phosphorus is much less common than nitrogen in soils, and this can be a limiting factor in plant growth.
By adding phosphorus (e.g. in superphosphate), it is no longer a limiting factor, and a greater biomass of
crops can be produced. Excess phosphorus can be washed into waterways and lead eutrophication and
excessive growth of water plants, algae and cyanobacteria.
18 On a global scale, water cycles between oceans, the atmosphere, and the land. On a local scale, because very
little water is recycled directly from organisms back to the soil, pond or river, water tends to flow through
local ecosystems rather than cycling. This is different from the other cycles considered in this chapter.
1 A 2 B 3 C 4 D 5 B
6 cyanobacteria (containing ciguatera) herbivorous fish carnivorous fish human
7 The productivity of the pond would probably increase during the summer, provided it did not dry up. This is
because the water temperatures would be higher and the light intensity would be greater, so the rate of
photosynthetic activity would be higher. This means there would be more plant and algal matter for
herbivores to eat, and this effect would continue on to the other consumer levels. The rate of accumulation of
biomass would therefore be greater.
8 a Sheep and cattle that are used as a source of meat may have accumulated toxins in their muscle and fat
tissue. These levels can be quite high, making the meat unsuitable for human consumption. The toxins
might also kill the animals outright, or cause defects in offspring.
b The Australian native animals have been exposed to the toxins over many generations and due to
evolution have developed as a species resistance. The introduced grazing animals would mostly be
susceptible to the toxin as there has been no previous experience
9 a Methyl mercury is a powerful fungicide but is also toxic to animals. It was probably sprayed on the grain to
prevent fungal attack during storage.
b Each wheat grain would have a small amount of methyl mercury on its surface. Chickens eat a very large
number of wheat grains, each one of which would contribute a little methyl mercury to the consuming
animal. Methyl mercury is not readily biodegradable, so it accumulates at increasingly higher
concentrations in chickens, and would accumulate in eggs as they developed in hens.

10 Clover is a legume, so its roots have nodules containing bacteria that fix nitrogen. This provides soil nitrates
that can be taken up by the grass, so fertiliser does not need to be added to the soil.
11 The amount of water on the Earth has stayed the same, because it is constantly being recycled through
ecosystems. However, the distribution of water is constantly changing.
12 If nitrogen-fixing bacteria could be introduced into wheat and other crops, it would greatly reduce the need for
the application of nitrate fertilisers. This would be a significant cost saving for the farmer. Also, the stubble
that remained behind after harvest would leave a reservoir of nitrogen-fixing bacteria and other organic matter
in the soil. Rivers and streams would not be polluted by excess soluble nitrate fertiliser.
13 Phosphate fertiliser would increase the rate at which algae and aquatic plants grew in the water, so there
would be more food available to the herbivorous fish. This would result in
14 a Waste water from a house, i.e. from the bathroom, shower, kitchen sink, etc., is likely to contain
detergents, salts, organic matter and microorganisms. These are all pollutants that could contaminate soil
and plants (including vegetables) in the garden.
b Water recycling and treatment facilities require an input of energy. If this energy came from conventional
sources such as coal-fired power stations, the extra energy use would increase the amount of carbon
dioxide put into the atmosphere by the power stations.
15 Points raised in a debate will vary. Some suggested issues are:

benefits of increasing the water flow in rivers
alternative uses for water in our society
water requirements for cotton crops and various food crops
necessity for growing the crops and cotton in Australia
consequences of importing food and cotton from other countries.

Chapter 22: Population dynamics
Key questions
1 a Various answers are possible. Two mentioned in the textbook are:

The southern right whale was almost hunted to extinction in the southern oceans in the 19th century.
The Brazil nut tree has declined because of the clearing of forests, hunting of agoutis and the
disappearance of pollinating bees.
b Sustainable use means that the forest ecosystem can replace the harvested trees, so that the resource will
continue to be available into the future.
2 a The distribution of a species is its geographic range and preferred habitat. The abundance of a species is
how many individuals there are.
b Factors that determine the distribution and abundance of organisms are:
characteristics of the environment; these are mostly the physical features like light, temperature,
availability of water, etc.
characteristics of the organism; each organism has its own unique set of requirements for food, shelter
and reproduction
interaction between organisms; these may include competition for resources, predatorprey
interactions and parasitehost interactions.
3 a The reason for the distribution of Macquarie perch in Dartmouth dam is that the water is warm and less
dense and has an abundance of plankton, whereas the water from the Mitta Mitta River is colder and has
fewer plankton.
b The grey teal is one of Australias most successful ducks because:
it is able to fly from water source to water source, depending on conditions, enabling the duck to
survive over a wide geographic range
its feeding and reproductive cycles are geared to changing water levels
adult grey teal can exploit a large variety of plant and animal food resources, so they can feed in a
range of habitats as they move around
adults court and mate quickly so that they can exploit temporary aquatic habitats after floods, when
there is an abundance of aquatic animals on which the ducklings feed
interactions (e.g. competition, predators) with other species are not significant in the life of the grey
teal, except for interactions with those organisms that are its food.
c Brazil nut trees are pollinated by a native bee, which has disappeared because the orchid on which it
depends has declined as a result of forest clearing. The Brazil nut tree also depends on the agouti to
disperse its seed, but that rodent has declined because of hunting by humans.
4 Immigration is the movement of organisms into a population. Emigration is the movement of organisms out of
a population. They size of the population will be affected by a net difference between immigration and
emigration, as well as the births and deaths that occur within the population.

5 a Exponential growth is a rapid growth in a population, characterised by the doubling of numbers in a fixed
time period.
b Exponential growth occurs in populations of organisms that reproduce in a short space of time, such as
bacteria and some insect species. It may also occur in species living in environments where there are very
marked seasonal changes, e.g. Antarctic penguin populations.
6 a Limiting factors are resources that become scarcer as the population size increases. As a population
increases there is greater intraspecific competition and population growth slows down. Examples of
limiting factors are food or nutrients, mates, nesting sites, area of land available, and waste accumulation.
b The greater the size of a population in a particular area, the greater will be the effect of the limiting
resource. For example, if there is a finite amount of food available (limiting resource), then as the
population size increases more individuals will be competing for this limited resource, and population
growth will slow down. Thus, population growth is density-dependent. An example is
c The carrying capacity is the population size at which the birth and death rates are in balance, so that the
population size is constant. This level should be able to be maintained indefinitely.
7 The following factors should be included in the discussion.
Salvinia Crown-of-thorns
Reproduction rate Very fast rate. Spreads vegetativelya small Very fast rate. Reproduce sexually,
piece of a single plant can start a new producing large numbers of eggs and
infestation. sperm. Conditions at the time of
reproduction usually ensure that a large
number of larvae survive.
Environmental Dams lead to the development of nutrient- Heavy rain and cyclones wash increased
conditions rich calm water. These conditions are ideal nutrients into the water. These conditions
for growth. lead to greater availability of food.
Predator control In countries other than where it originated, Has few natural predators, and the one
there are no natural predators such as which was effectivethe Tritonis in
herbivorous insects. severe population decline because of
collection by humans.
Dispersal Plants are free-floating so they are easily Not so important. They are slow-moving
spread by wind and water currents. Humans bottom dwellers that generally eat their
are also agents of dispersal by boats moving way over the reefs.
from one water body to another.
8 a (Note that a specific country of origin can be identified only for the rabbit.) Mosquito fish Gulf of
Mexico region. Prickly pear South America. European rabbit Great Britain. Cane toad South
America.
b Mosquito fish aquarium fish, control of mosquitoes. Prickly pear garden fences, food for beetle used
in dye-making. European rabbit food and sport. Cane toad control of cane beetle.
c Mosquito fish prolific breeding, effective predator avoidance strategy, lack of parasites. Prickly pear
not eaten by native herbivores. European rabbit rapid breeding, lack of grazing competition and
predators, can travel vast long distances quickly. Cane toad poisonous to predators; suited to tropical
climate.

d Mosquito fish preys on eggs and young of native fish, aggressive behaviour stresses other fish. Prickly
pear . European rabbit competition with native herbivores, overgrazing causes erosion, provides food
for feral foxes, cats and dogs. Cane toad preys on native animals, toxic to animals that eat it, few
parasites.
9 a Biological control is the use of a natural predator or parasite to limit the growth of a pest species.
b Before the introduction of the biological control agent, extensive research must be carried out. The
ecology and general biology of the pest species must be thoroughly investigated. Aspects such as
environmental requirements, feeding habits, reproduction, and inter-specific interactions must be fully
understood. A search must be made for a natural predator or parasite. The ecology of the control agent
must also be thoroughly researched to make certain that it will not become a pest. Biological control
cannot totally eradicate a population. It must be used in an integrated way with other control measures for
the pest.
1 B2 C 3 B 4 D 5 A
6 a The regions with the highest numbers of endangered plant species are southern Western Australia and the
northern coastal area of New South Wales.
b These regions are highly fertile and were cleared long ago for agriculture and settlement. Few areas of
native vegetation remain.
7 a The birth rate is a measure of the number of eggs laid. However, many of these would be eaten by
predators, and others would not hatch, and the numbers in these categories would be unpredictable. So it
would be more accurate to monitor the individuals that have reached the tadpole or fry stage.
b Most mammals are born well-developed and receive parental care, so their chances of survival are much
greater than fish or frog eggs.
8 a The carrying capacity is the population that can be supported when the birth rate plus immigration equals
the death rate plus emigration. It is the largest population that can be sustained indefinitely if the
resources used by the population do not diminish.
b Factors are loss or fragmentation of habitat, predation of nests by feral pigs, and being killed by cars.
c A fire might reduce essential resources needed to reach the original carrying capacity, such as food, nest
sites and shelter. The carrying capacity immediately after a fire would probably be much lower than
before.
9 a 3 1 metre square quadrats were sampled for each 75 m2 area.

Ungrazed area:
(46 + 54 + 41) / 3 = 47 per 1 m2

For an area of 75 m2, this gives (47 75) = 3525 worms
Grazed area:
(9 + 13 + 15) / 3 = 12.3 per 1 m2
For an area of 75 m2, this gives (12.3 75) = 923 worms
b Earthworms deeper in the soil would probably not be forced to the surface by the formalin, so the results
are probably underestimates.
c The grazed pasture would have less plant litter on the soil surface. Plant litter is a major part of an
earthworms diet, so earthworms are more likely to be found in areas where there is abundant litter; that
is, in the ungrazed pasture. There may also be a soil compaction effect caused by the hooves of grazing
animals, which could reduce soil aeration. Earthworms need an adequate supply of oxygen, and so they
are more likely to be found in areas where this occurs; again, this is the ungrazed pasture.
10 a The main concern was probably that predators that no longer could prey on rabbits would switch their
predation to native animals. Another concern might have been that the calicivirus might affect native
animals directly.
b Native herbivores that previously had to compete with rabbits for food now have a greater food resource.
The limiting factor of food availability has been removed.
c Calicivirus will not kill all rabbits, and some might have a natural resistance to the disease. If these were
allowed to repopulate areas, their resistance would be passed on to their offspring, and eventually the
rabbit population would be largely resistant to the disease and would once again increase rapidly.
11 a Inmost reserves there is a finite amount of food, nest sites and other resources available. If the population
of native animals exceeds the carrying capacity of the reserve, then culling might be necessary to ensure
that the population does not crash because of starvation or disease.
b After koala populations were devastated by hunting in the early 20th century, a program was started to
capture koalas in areas where they were still abundant, and move them to areas where they had become
very rare or extinct. This has enabled koala populations to increase and has helped to ensure the survival
of the species.
12 a Lantana is a vigorous grower that can grow in nutrient-poor soils. It establishes rapidly and grows into
dense thickets that shade out any native species. Lantana fruits are also attractive to animals, which then
disperse the seed to new areas.
b The climate of Queensland is very similar to that in tropical America, where Lantana occurs naturally, so
it grows vigorously and thrives well. In Victoria, where temperatures are much lower and frosts are
common, Lantana is probably at the coldest end of its environmental range. There are relatively few
suitable niches available for it to grow in, and these are mostly in urban gardens.
c A study would need to be made of the ecology of any potential insect predators:
Could they survive and reproduce in our climate?
Are they likely to introduce new diseases?
What is their reproductive cycle? (Are other plants necessary?)
Do they only eat Lantana, or could they move over to our native species and become a pest
themselves?

13 a Blackberries are very vigorous growers, and they produce masses of long, leafy canes. The canes climb
through and overgrow native vegetation. The native vegetation is deprived of light and is likely to die or
be severely weakened.
b Blackberries have extensive root systems that run beneath the surface at different depths. Removing one
layer of roots does not necessarily remove the blackberry. These roots can produce suckers, which grow
into new canes. Fragments of a root can also regrow. Canes can droop and take root when they touch the
ground. Blackberries can withstand burning, and will resprout from the burnt ground. Animals eat the
blackberry fruits, which have many seeds, and these seeds are spread in animal droppings. All these
features of a blackberry make it a very difficult weed to eradicate.
c Clumps of blackberries provide an excellent refuge for rabbits. The spiny canes dissuade predators from
trying to get into the thickets. The vegetation is not so dense inside the lower levels of a clump where the
rabbit warrens are. The dense outside vegetation cover almost to the ground, affords good protection
because rabbits tend to be smaller than their major predators and so can quickly reach safety.
14 Lists of species will vary from place to place. Environmental and agricultural weeds and pests could be
included in the list. Some weeds and pests might be Australian native species that have spread beyond their
natural range, e.g. the Cootamundra wattle.
15 a Ballast is necessary for a ships stability when it is not carrying much cargo. A ship coming to Australia
to pick up a load of cargo often fills its ballast tanks with sea water in the home port, which is often in an
Asian country. Before loading, this ballast water may be pumped out into the sea at its Australian port. If
there are organisms in the water they will be discharged here, far away from their home environment.
There is a number of examples of foreign species being introduced. One causing particular concern is a
species of starfish from Japanese waters (North Pacific starfish) which is now establishing in pest
proportions in the Derwent Estuary in Tasmania, and also in Port Phillip Bay.
b A species introduced via ballast water is away from its home environment and there are no predators to
keep its population numbers in check.
c Both oil spills and species introduced by ballast water can have far-reaching effects on our coastal flora
and fauna. Oil spills spread an impervious layer over the water so that oxygen cannot enter. Oil is toxic if
ingested. Oil prevents animals from moving properly. Oil spills are generally quite localised and visible
and are sometimes able to be cleaned up by physical means. All of these factors have a severe local
impact on marine organisms.
Unlike oil spills, organisms introduced in ballast water are not easily detected, and are not usually
discovered until populations are already large. Introduced organisms may spread quite rapidly because
there are often no natural predators. The damage to native species from competition, predation and
habitat disturbance can be very great, and eradication methods may be difficult to develop and put into
practice.

Chapter 23: Change in ecosystems
Key questions
1 Different time scales include: daily changes, seasonal changes, long periods (e.g. succession over decades or
centuries), and the much larger scale of geological time.
2 Assume that the rock pool has water in it all the time.
a i During the night all organisms are using oxygen from the water and none is being produced, so
oxygen levels will be lowered. During the day, with plants photosynthesising and releasing oxygen
into the water, the oxygen levels would increase, although there would still be a requirement for
oxygen by all organisms.
ii Some water would be lost from the rock pool by evaporation during the day. Water supply and some
nutrients would be replenished twice daily by the two high tides.
ii Water has a high capacity to absorb heat energy and minimise temperature fluctuations. The water
temperature of the rock pool would depend on when high and low tides occurred. If low tide occurred
in the middle of the day when the sun was high in the sky, then the water temperature of the rock pool
would be quite high. If the high tide occurred at midday, then the heating effect would not be as great.
If the low tide occurred at night, then the water temperature would get quite cold, and if the high tide
occurred at night, then the temperature variation would not be as great.
b Many examples can be given. Two suggestions are provided here.
When the tide is high enough so that a sea anemone is fully submerged, it opens its tentacles and feeds on
plankton drifting past. When the water level falls and the anemone is no longer covered by water, it
retracts its tentacles and closes its mouth opening tightly to prevent water loss, and waits like that until
once again covered by water.
The seaweed Neptunes necklace consists of fronds of air-filled sacs. When the tide is out the seaweed is
able to photosynthesise in full sunlight. When the tide comes in, the air sacs enable the fronds to float
close to the surface of the water, where it still has plenty of sunlight for photosynthesis.
3 a Seasonal changes in a pond can be seen in the changing composition of the floating phytoplankton. In
winter, the phytoplankton is mostly diatoms. In spring and early summer, as the pond warms, green algae
replace the diatoms, and in the full heat of the summer, cyanobacteria become the predominant species.
b A seasonal change in a eucalypt forest could be the development of flowers, the appearance of new
growth, the shedding of some old leaves, the appearance of certain insects, etc.
c Seasonal change in a garden includes the falling leaves in autumn, blossom flowers in spring, new leaf
growth in spring, etc.
4 Bats eat fruits and honeyeaters mainly feed on nectar. Both rely for their food on the seasonal flowering of
trees and shrubs. They migrate in response to the availability of their food resources at different times in
different areas.
5 a Ecosystems in some areas gradually change in an orderly sequence due to:

physical processes in the environment such as the weathering of rocks and the build-up of soil
the effects of organisms interacting with one another and their surroundings.
b The process is known as succession.
7 Primary succession occurs when a bare area is colonised by organisms for the first time. Secondary succession
occurs after a vegetated area has been disturbed.
8 a Plants found on the young foredune are the pioneer plants that can grow in, and stabilise, loose sand.
They are mostly grasses such as spinifex and marram grass, which can tolerate sea spray, sand blasting,
hot sun, and occasional burial.
b Once stabilised by grasses, the environment changes. Organic matter builds up, and other plant species
invade. The plant community changes to have a more shrubby form. Pioneer shrubs include coast wattles
and tea-tree.
c The foredune environment is very harsh and unstable. There are very few plant species (mainly pioneer
grasses and herbs) that can tolerate the wind, heat, salt and sand. There are very few animals, maybe a
few ants and beetles.
The environment of the older dune is much less harsh and extreme. Trees slow down the wind and
provide shade for the understorey. It is much more species-rich, with a well-developed tree layer, beneath
which there is a layer of healthy plants. Litter has accumulated on the soil surface, and organic matter has
been incorporated into the soil by the action of animals. There is a range of microhabitats, and a great
diversity of interacting animal species.
d For some of the reasons outlined above, the old dune environment is much more stable. There is much
greater biodiversity.
9 a i Native herbs, grasses, bracken, mosses and weeds will be the first to re-invade the farmland. Weeds
grow rapidly, and would thrive in the high light intensity of the open areas. Animals would be mainly
invertebrates and reptiles, but birds might arrive in spring to feed on grass seeds or prey on the reptiles.
ii The plants may have invaded by growing in from adjacent areas, seeds may have been carried by the
wind, or in the fur, feathers or faeces of animals. Some plants might have been present in the soil as
seeds.
b After the early colonisation, seeds of native shrubs and trees will blow in or be carried in by animals from
the surrounding forest. As these seedlings grow, they out-compete the herbs for moisture. Gradually the
habitat becomes more complex, and trees shade the herbs. Larger animals such as birds and possums
move back into the trees, the understorey increases in diversity, and litter builds up on the ground.
Consumers of all kinds can be found in the many ecological niches that are now available. There is a
great diversity of organisms, and much more complex food webs.
10 a Fire-stick farming was the practice of setting fire to woodlands and forests to promote new growth in the
understorey. This new growth attracted grazing and browsing animals that were good to hunt, such as
kangaroos and wallabies.
b They discovered that dugongs returned to feed at the same place on successive tides. This information is
useful because tracking of their movements indicates that management must be coordinated over many
communities on a regional scale.
11 Hunting has contributed to the disappearance of many large animals and birds. It is thought that, among other
factors, hunting was responsible for the loss of our megafauna (giant marsupials and birds) known today only
as fossils. In recent times, marine animals such as seals and whales have been hunted almost to extinction.
Hunting of the thylacine was a major factor in its extinction.
Exotic species, both plant and animal, have had a dramatic effect on native Australian organisms. Many have
been discussed in the answers to previous questions, e.g. salvinia fern, rabbit, cane toad, blackberry and
Patersons curse. Their effects are varied, and include destroying habitat, out-competing native species for
food, poisoning native species, and changing the environment for native species.
12 Reducing biodiversity makes populations less resistant to diseases or environmental change, because they
might not have the range of genetic variation that would enable some members of the population to survive. A
loss of species could alter communities and cause ecosystems to collapse. Reducing plant biodiversity
simplifies the food web because the food resources available will not be suitable for many species. For
example, far fewer native animals inhabit a pine plantation compared to a natural eucalypt forest in the same
area.
13 a Deforestation causes a number of soil problems. If soil fertility is not artificially maintained after
clearing, then the land declines in productivity and is eventually abandoned. Weed species can invade,
and soil erosion can occur. Removal of trees may also lead to increasing levels of soil salinity.
b Regreening programs have a number of advantages. Trees stabilise the soil, and lead to a lowering of the
watertable, thus reducing the risk of salinity. Productivity may be increased as trees provide shelter and
food for stock. There are also more habitats for organisms that may be useful in controlling pests; for
example, birds. These programs return degraded land to productivity by the establishment of native forest
plantations, giving both an environmental and economic benefit.
14 a Land degradation is the decline in the condition of land as a result of its misuse or overuse.
b i The introduced European rabbit has been a major cause of land degradation. Rabbits overcrop
pastures, leaving bare soil exposed to the agents of erosion (wind and water). Rabbit warrens are also
potential sites for erosion. (There are many other suitable answers here, e.g. cattle and sheep grazing
in alpine areas, water buffalo in Kakadu, feral pigs in south-eastern Australia.)
ii A number of farming practices could be discussed:
land clearing leading to a decline in native vegetation, dryland salinity and erosion
irrigation which causes salinity
overstocking which causes soil compaction and erosion
toxic pesticides which accumulate in the soil and cause soil poisoning
fertiliser overuse which causes soils to become more acidic and less productive; fertilisers can also
cause nutrient enrichment of waterways which can lead to eutrophication and the death of many
aquatic organisms.
15 The answer should be based around Figure 23.22 on page 461 in Heinemann Biology One (4th edition). The
main points are:
Many Australian soils have a high salt concentration because of the effect of salt-laden winds and
rain, and also the existence of inland seas in earlier geological times.
Deep-rooted trees keep the groundwater table, and therefore the salts, depressed.
Removal of these trees and replacement with shallow-rooted pastures leads to the groundwater table
rising closer to the land surface and bringing dissolved salts with it.

Once groundwater gets to within 1.53 m of the surface, natural capillary action causes it to rise to the
surface, where it evaporates and concentrates, often leaving a bare salt-encrusted area in which
vegetation will not grow.
16 a Nearly 75% of all the water used in Australia for domestic, industrial and agriculture purposes, comes
from the MurrayDarling River system. It supports much of our primary productivitycrops, sheep,
dairy and beef cattle.
b Over time, the salinity levels of the river system have increased greatly, and are continuing to do so.
c In the past, the amount of irrigation water used on the land has not been regulated. This has dissolved
salts in the soil and brought them to the surface, where they affect crops, and the excess runs back into
the river system. Irrigation techniques have improved greatly over the last decade, and so the amount of
water used for irrigation is now more suited to the immediate needs of the crop.
d Clearing native vegetation has also caused watertables to rise.
17 a Environmental pollution is defined as undesirable change in the physical, chemical or biological

characteristics of the environment as a result of the actions of humans. These changes can harm the
health, survival, or activities of living organisms.
b The list should focus on activities rather than sources of pollution. For example:
manufacturing and industrial processing
disposing of sewage on land or into water
transporting oil and other potential pollutants
burning wastes in tips and household incinerators
using fertilisers and pesticides for farming
using internal combustion engines and jet engines
generating electricity in coal-fired and nuclear power stations
using chlorofluorocarbons in aerosols and air-conditioners
dumping wastes in stream, lakes and oceans.
18 In the troposphere, the air normally gets colder with increasing eight above the Earths surface. A thermal
inversion occurs when a layer of warm air moves in and sits on top of a layer of colder air, like a blanket.
Pollutants emitted into the layer of cold air cannot disperse upwards, so high concentrations of pollutants can
accumulate close to the ground while the inversion persists.
19 a CFCs are chlorofluorocarbons, a group of chemicals whose molecules consist only of the elements
carbon, fluorine and chlorine.
b Products that originally contained CFCs were spray aerosols and refrigerating systems.
c CFCs have reached the upper atmosphere, where they cause the breakdown of ozone. The ozone in the
upper atmosphere stops most of the ultraviolet in sunlight from reaching the surface, and so protects
plants and animals organisms from damage.

20 Car exhausts and solid fuel heaters add gases and particulate matter to the atmosphere. These are the things
that cause smog to develop. By reducing the amount of material released into the air, some of the causes of
smog are reduced.
21 a Under normal conditions, the ozone layer prevents about 90% of the Suns damaging ultraviolet radiation
fro reaching the Earths surface.
b A thinning of the ozone layer will allow higher levels of ultraviolet radiation to reach the Earth, causing
an increase in skin cancers in humans and damage to plants and animals.
22 a A large amount of organic matter is an excellent food source for decomposers.

Decomposers use a large amount oxygen in breaking down organic matter, so the oxygen levels in the
water will be reduced.
Reduced oxygen levels affect other aquatic organisms (fish, worms, yabbies, etc.), many of which will
die. These organisms are necessary for a healthy balanced ecosystem.
Increased organic matter sediment in the water will also reduce the light available for photosynthesis.
The amount of oxygen released into the water by photosynthesis will be reduced, and therefore fish and
other animals that need oxygen will be adversely affected.
b In sewage treatment, the organic matter content is broken down by decomposing bacteria in the presence
of oxygen which is added during the treatment process. This is done to prevent a reduction in oxygen
levels caused by the action of bacteria on large amounts of raw sewage. As well, disease-causing micro-
organisms in human waste, will be killed. These treatment processes prevent the bulk of the organic
matter from entering our waterways.
23 a This means that species should be saved because they a role in ecosystems. The loss of a species from an
ecosystem could cause the system to become unbalanced and unsustainable. The survival of humans
depends on the continuing functioning of ecosystems to provide the resources we need, especially clean
air and water, and food.
b Any of a large number of species could be selected for this question. Plants would probably be easier to
discuss than animals. It will be necessary to look up a list of endangered species, possibly on the Internet,
and design an answer around this.
24 A road can result in edge effects that reduce the quality of a conservation reserve, e.g. by increasing the
penetration of wind, dust and sunlight, and reducing the biodiversity. Roads can also act as barriers to the
movement of animals, and expose them to the risk of predation or being run over by cars.
25 a The World Heritage List is a list of places throughout the world that are considered to be of great natural
or cultural significance for all people, and are to be given special protection to protect their values.
b Kakadu National Park is included on the World Heritage List because it includes one of the finest
wetlands in the world, and protects over 1000 highly significant Aboriginal sites, including ancient rock
paintings that are as old as the ancient art sites of Europe.

1 A 2 C 3 D 4 B 5
6 a If the natural flow of the river declined, then the soil would dry out, and the roots would not have access
to adequate water. The trees would probably die. Periodic floods are also necessary for regeneration, so a
reduction in flood frequency would affect the survival of this species.
b As above, if river flows are reduced, trees will suffer from lack of water. Also, if the purpose of the dam
is to control floods, then the necessary conditions for natural regeneration will have been removed, and
red gum populations will decline.
7 Answers will vary from student to student. Daily changes that should be considered include sunlight,
temperature, tides. Seasonal changes would include daynight length, rainfall, temperature, food availability,
breeding.
8 Human activity that disturbs the vegetation, e.g. trampling, fires, sand mining, will destabilise the dune
because the plant roots will no longer be able to bind the surface. Areas of the dune will blow away and will
take a long time to become recolonised by plants.
9 a The generation of electricity from a coal-fired power station involves burning coal to generate steam that
turns the generating turbine. Burning coal releases carbon dioxide into the atmosphere. On the other
hand, trees take up carbon dioxide and use it in photosynthesis to make carbohydrates that are then
incorporated permanently into the trees tissues. So planting a large number of trees can help to offset the
carbon dioxide produced from the power stations.
b As well as removing carbon dioxide from the atmosphere to combat the greenhouse effect, planting trees
in upland areas helps to lower watertables, which will reduce the impacts of salinity. Trees will also
provide habitat for many animals, especially insects, birds and small mammals, and could in the future
provide timber that would avoid the need to log native forests.
10 The traditional use of fire by Aboriginal people maintained a grassy understorey in many woodlands and
forests, preventing the growth of shrubs. Fire-stick farming is being re-introduced in National Parks in the
Northern Territory because the understorey in woodlands and forests has changed in the absence of fire, and is
not suitable for many native animals.
11 Grasses and legumes grow quickly. The grass roots bind the soil and prevent erosion, and the legumes fix
nitrogen, providing nitrates for other plants.
12 a Advantages are that wind farms do not produce carbon dioxide, so they do not contribute to the
greenhouse effect. They also use a renewable energy resource, whereas burning coal uses a non-
renewable resource. Less infrastructure (roads, buildings, pylons, etc.) is needed for wind farms, so their
environmental effects are localised.
Disadvantages are that at present they cannot generate the large amount of power produced but coal-fired
power stations, and they can have a large local impact on the landscape. Their output depends on the
strength of the wind so they are usually placed on the coast or high hills, where they can have a large
impact on the local landscape. Birds might fly into the blades and be killed or injured.
b A good starting point for this project would either be an Energy Information Centre, or the Internet.

13 The loss of ozone from the atmosphere occurs in the upper atmosphere, in the ozone layer. This increases
the amount of dangerous ultraviolet radiation reaching the Earths surface, which will increase skin cancer in
humans and injure plants and animals. Ozone produced by smog remains close to the ground, where it can
cause respiratory problems for humans and other animals, and injure plants.
14 Answers will depend on the area being studied.
15 a Shrub seedlings would be cut down by regular mowing and never be able to grow to maturity.
b If mowing stopped, shrubs might eventually become established in this zone and shade out the grasses
and herbs.
c If spraying and mowing stopped, the gradual process of succession would probably continue. Shrubs
would establish in the grass zone because they could reach maturity and produce seeds. Tree seedlings
could establish in the areas that was once sprayed by herbicides. Eventually the tree canopy would shade
out the shrubs, leaving an open-forest with a weedy ground cover.
16 a BOD (biological oxygen demand) measures the amount of oxygen used by organisms in the water. It is
an indirect measure of the amount of biodegradable organic matter in the waste water, because
decomposers use oxygen when they break down organic matter.
b Excessive phosphorus in the waste water could cause eutrophication of the water into which the waste
water is discharged. This would encourage the growth of cyanobacteria, algae and aquatic weeds that
could choke waterways and use up dissolved oxygen, leading to the death of fish and other aquatic
animals. Cyanobacteria can also release toxins into the water.

1 D 2 C 3 B 4 C 5 D 6 C 7 A 8 C 9 C 10 C
11 a Abundant food and lack of predators would cause an increase in the rabbit population.
b Rabbits are a source of food for foxes. Fox numbers build up when there is an adequate supply of food;
that is, when the rabbit population has increased.
c The rabbit population may decline because of a lack of food. Food availability is most probably seasonal.
To a lesser extent, predation and disease could have an effect.
d A small breeding population is able to survive over winter, and quickly reproduce when food sources
become more plentiful. Hence the overall number of rabbits will increase again.
e The graph should be extended to show that the fox population would also crash, because of the loss of its
major prey. An example is shown here.
12 a The sun is the original source of energy for organisms in the food web.
b The eucalypt is the only producer.
i There are a number of possible predatorprey relationships, e.g. lizardants, spiderants, birds
caterpillars.
c ii birds (including kookaburra) and fleas; eucalypt and fungi.
d i eucalypt leaf-eating insect or ant lizard kookaburra
(producer) (1st-order consumer) (2nd-order) (3d-order)
ii eucalypt ants spider lizard kookaburra
(producer) (1st-order consumer) (2nd-order) (3rd-order) (4th-order)
13 a Biomass is the mass of plant or animal matter that accumulates as a result of primary productivity. It is
the amount of primary productivity available for eating in an ecosystem. It is measured as the amount of
dry weight that accumulates in a unit area.
b i The level with the greatest amount of energy is the producer level (seaweed and phytoplankton).
ii The level with the least amount of energy is the top carnivore level (Eskimo).

c Energy is used up in biological processes such as cellular respiration and is eventually lost as heat energy
to the environment.
d The baleen whale is a filter feeder, and is only one or two steps away from the producer level of the food
chain. This means that, at best, there is only one transfer of energy, so very little of the original energy
from the producers is wasted, even though the individual food components of its diet are quite small.
14 a i Biogeochemical cycles involve the transfer of nutrients from the non-living (abiotic)
environment, through the living (biotic) environment, back to the abiotic environment again.
ii Other biogeochemical cycles include water, carbon, nitrogen and phosphorus cycles.
b Energy flows through ecosystems. It is continually entering ecosystems via photosynthesis and
continually being lost from ecosystems as low-grade heat energy.
Matter is finite and so must be recycled between the non-living and living parts of an ecosystem.
c i photosynthesis
ii photosynthesis.
d i oxygen
ii cellular respiration
iii Cellular respiration returns carbon dioxide to the atmosphere.
e Decomposer organisms are responsible for the return of mineral nutrients to the non-living environment
by breaking down complex substances into simple substances.
f Human activities that add to atmospheric carbon dioxide levels include:
deforestation
using fossil fuels for transport
burning fossil fuels for heating and industry.
15 a Succession is an orderly gradual change in ecosystems. One biological community is gradually replaced
by another as the environment changes.
b Flow chart of succession on Krakatau:
Lichens Pioneer organisms. Become established on bare rock and soil. Start
accumulation of organic litter. Stabilise soil, enabling other plants to become
(after 6 months)
established.

Mosses Pioneer organisms. Become established in build-up of mineral and organic
matter. Trap moisture and allow further organic matter to build up. Habitat for
(after 9 months)
small insects.

Grasses Pioneer plants. Become established and grow in accumulating matter. Soil
depth starts to increase. Insects, detritivores and decomposers are present.
(after 12 months)

Ferns Enough soil has now accumulated for these to grow. Start to provide
shade/shelter and a greater range of microhabitats. Soil formation continues.
(after 18 months)


Coconut trees Enough soil and protection to allow coconut seeds to germinate and grow.
Would also expect gradual increase in animal diversity.
(after 36 months)
c i Spores of mosses, lichens and ferns are very small and would most likely have blown in. This would
also be the case for some seeds. Birds might also have played a role (e.g. seeds carried in digestive
tract, or caught in feathers or feet). Coconuts would have arrived by floating across the sea from
nearby islands.
ii Insects could have flown in floated in on logs or other debris. Larger animals (e.g. lizards) could have
arrived on floating debris, or some could have swum from nearby islands.
16 a
b The Fly River and the Gulf of Papua are also likely to be affected by the tailings of the Ok Tedi mine.
c To reduce leaching, the tailings dumps must be removed from the river. New tailings dump sites must be
developed that are well away from the river, and that are impervious to leaching.
Because of the level of toxicity it will probably be many years before anything worthwhile can be done to
restore the environment. The first step must be to stop further damage. It is interesting to note that a
decision has been made to close the mine. It may be possible to dredge up from the river the tailings that
remain in the dumps, and attempt to stabilise the river banks. From here on, any restoration program
must start with attempts to re-establish vegetation cover both in the river and in the forest. This stabilises
the soil and provides the producer component of any ecosystems that it is hoped to re-establish.
d It is important to minimise ecological damage because habitat destruction causes reduced biodiversity
and this will reduce the accumulation of toxic substances in ecosystems. There are also aesthetic reasons
for reducing ecological damage.
17 a More people need more land and more of the Earths finite resources. This means more habitat
destruction and therefore reduced biodiversity. The industrialisation of countries such as China and India,
with their large populations, will also increase the pressure on resources and habitats. An increase in
inputs of carbon dioxide into the atmosphere will accelerate climate change, probably accelerating
species extinctions.
b Biodiversity promotes stability in ecosystems. Biodiversity ensures that we have a range of organisms for
food and medicines. Clean air, water and healthy soil are all dependent on a diverse range of organisms.
A diverse range of organisms can be a source of pleasure and enjoyment for us.

Biol1 Text Answers PDF

Transféré par

Informations du document

Titre original

Copyright

Formats disponibles

Partager ce document

Partager ou intégrer le document

Options de partage

Avez-vous trouvé ce document utile ?

Ce contenu est-il inapproprié ?

Droits d'auteur :

Formats disponibles

Biol1 Text Answers PDF

Transféré par

Droits d'auteur :

Formats disponibles

Unit 1, Area of Study 1: Cells in action

Chapter 1: Foundations of biology

5 All plants and animals:

Reed International Books Pty Ltd 1

Organic compound Elements Main function

Reed International Books Pty Ltd 3

Reed International Books Pty Ltd 4

1 The smallest functional unit of life. A building block of multicellular organisms

2 All organisms are composed of cells ( and the products of cells).

Reed International Books Pty Ltd 5

Chapter review questions

Reed International Books Pty Ltd 6

1 Enzymes are composed of proteins.

Reed International Books Pty Ltd 7

Reed International Books Pty Ltd 8

13 The primary product of photosynthesis is glucose. Oxygen is a byproduct.

16 a The nucleus controls the activities of a cell.

Reed International Books Pty Ltd 9

Chapter review questions

Reed International Books Pty Ltd 10

5 The plasma membrane

6 The nucleus, mitochondria and chloroplasts have a double membrane.

Reed International Books Pty Ltd 11

Chapter review questions

Reed International Books Pty Ltd 12

Object Surface area Volume SA : V ratio

iii (6 3 3) = 54 cm2 3 cm 3 cm 3 cm = 27 cm3 54 : 27 = 2 : 1

iv (2 2 1) + (2 4 2) + (2 4 1) = 28 cm2 2 cm 4 cm 1 cm = 8 cm3 28 : 8 = 3.5 : 1

v (2 3 1) + (2 9 1) + (2 9 3) = 78 cm2 3 cm 9 cm 1 cm = 27 cm3 78 : 27 = 2.8 : 1

b As the size of an object increases, its surface area-to-volume ratio decreases.

Reed International Books Pty Ltd 13

Reed International Books Pty Ltd 14

3 a The purposes of cell replication are:

Reed International Books Pty Ltd 15

9 a Apoptosis is programmed cell death.

11 a These cells are called stem cells.

13 Bacteria reproduce by binary fission.

Chapter review questions

Reed International Books Pty Ltd 16

Phase What occurs

Reed International Books Pty Ltd 18

11 a C6H12O6 + 6O2 6CO2 + 6H2O + 3638 ATP

Structure Function of structure

14 a The hypothesis is that the enzyme catecholase is denatured by heat.

Reed International Books Pty Ltd 19

15 a Temperature and light intensity.

Specimen A Specimen B Specimen C

Explanation Explanation Explanation

Reed International Books Pty Ltd 20

Reed International Books Pty Ltd 21

Chapter 6: Autotrophs are producers

Reed International Books Pty Ltd 22

10 a Macronutrients: nitrogen, potassium, calcium.

12 Modified stems e.g. potato tubers: store starch.

Chapter review questions

Reed International Books Pty Ltd 23

12 a Fixed means that an element is incorporated into a usable molecule or ion.

Reed International Books Pty Ltd 24

Disease Symptoms Treatment

Reed International Books Pty Ltd 25

6 Characteristics of an efficient digestive system are:

Reed International Books Pty Ltd 26

13 Metabolism is the sum of all the processes that occur in an organism.