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For other uses, see English (disambiguation). and sometimes also vocabulary, grammar and spelling
English-speakers from around the world are able to com-
municate with one another with relative ease.
English is a West Germanic language that was rst spo-
ken in early medieval England and is now a global lingua
franca.[4][5] Named after the Angles, one of the Ger-
manic tribes that migrated to England, it ultimately de- 1 Classication
rives its name from the Anglia (Angeln) peninsula in the
Baltic Sea. It is most closely related to the Frisian lan- Germanic
guages, although its vocabulary has been signicantly in- West Germanic North Germanic East Germanic
United Kingdom, the United States, Canada, Australia, East Midland Middle English
1
2 2 HISTORY
nology, diplomacy, art, and formal education all con- 3 Geographical distribution
tributed to English becoming the rst truly global lan-
guage. English also facilitated worldwide international See also: List of territorial entities where English is an
communication.[45][46] As England continued to form ocial language, List of countries by English-speaking
new colonies, these in turn became independent and de- population, and Anglosphere
veloped their own norms for how to speak and write the As of 2016, 400 million people spoke English as their
language. English was adopted in North America, In-
dia, parts of Africa, Australasia, and many other regions.
In the post-colonial period, some of the newly created
nations that had multiple indigenous languages opted to
continue using English as the ocial language to avoid
the political diculties inherent in promoting any one in-
digenous language above the others.[47][48][49] In the 20th
century the growing economic and cultural inuence of
the United States and its status as a superpower following
the Second World War has, along with worldwide broad-
casting in English by the BBC[50] and other broadcast-
ers, signicantly accelerated the spread of the language Percentage of English speakers by country.
across the planet.[51][52] By the 21st century, English was
more widely spoken and written than any language has rst language, and 1.1 billion spoke it as a secondary
ever been.[53] language.[59] English is probably the third largest lan-
A major feature in the early development of Modern guage by number of native speakers, after Mandarin
English was the codication of explicit norms for stan- and Spanish.[8] However, when combining native and
dard usage, and their dissemination through ocial me- non-native speakers it may, depending on the estimate
dia such as public education and state sponsored publi- used, be the most commonly spoken language in the
cations. In 1755 Samuel Johnson published his A Dictio- world.[53][60][61][62] English is spoken by communities on
nary of the English Language which introduced a stan- every continent and on oceanic islands in all the major
dard set of spelling conventions and usage norms. In oceans.[63] The countries in which English is spoken can
1828, Noah Webster published the American Dictionary be grouped into dierent categories by how English is
of the English language in an eort to establish a norm used in each country. The inner circle[64] countries
for speaking and writing American English that was inde- with many native speakers of English share an interna-
pendent from the British standard. Within Britain, non- tional standard of written English and jointly inuence
standard or lower class dialect features were increasingly speech norms of English around the world. English does
stigmatised, leading to the quick spread of the prestige not belong to just one country, and it does not belong
varieties among the middle classes.[54] solely to descendants of English settlers. English is an of-
cial language of countries populated by few descendants
In terms of grammatical evolution, Modern English has
of native speakers of English. It has also become by far
now reached a stage where the loss of case is almost com-
the most important language of international communi-
plete (case is now only found in pronouns, such as he and
cation when people who share no native language meet
him, she and her, who and whom), and where SVO word-
anywhere in the world.
order is mostly xed.[54] Some changes, such as the use
of do-support have become universalised. (Earlier En-
glish did not use the word do as a general auxiliary as
Modern English does; at rst it was only used in ques-
3.1 Three circles of English-speaking
tion constructions where it was not obligatory.[55] Now, countries
do-support with the verb have is becoming increasingly
standardised.) The use of progressive forms in -ing, ap- Braj Kachru distinguishes countries where English is spo-
pears to be spreading to new constructions, and forms ken with a three circles model.[64] In his model, the in-
such as had been being built are becoming more common. ner circle countries are countries with large communi-
Regularisation of irregular forms also slowly continues ties of native speakers of English, outer circle countries
(e.g. dreamed instead of dreamt), and analytical alter- have small communities of native speakers of English but
natives to inectional forms are becoming more common widespread use of English as a second language in edu-
(e.g. more polite instead of politer). British English is also cation or broadcasting or for local ocial purposes, and
undergoing change under the inuence of American En- expanding circle countries are countries where many
glish, fuelled by the strong presence of American English learners learn English as a foreign language. Kachru
in the media and the prestige associated with the US as a bases his model on the history of how English spread in
world power. [56][57][58] dierent countries, how users acquire English, and the
range of uses English has in each country. The three cir-
cles change membership over time.[65]
6 3 GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION
counted in this chart). Most people learn English for practical rather than ideo-
US (64.3%) logical reasons.[103] Many speakers of English in Africa
UK (16.7%) have become part of an Afro-Saxon language commu-
Canada (5.3%) nity that unites Africans from dierent countries.[104]
Australia (4.7%) As decolonisation proceeded throughout the British Em-
South Africa (1.3%) pire in the 1950s and 1960s, former colonies often
Ireland (1.1%) did not reject English but rather continued to use it
New Zealand (1%) as independent countries setting their own language
Other (5.6%) policies.[48][49][105] For example, the view of the English
language among many Indians has gone from associat-
ing it with colonialism to associating it with economic
progress, and English continues to be an ocial language
3.2 Pluricentric English of India.[106] English is also widely used in media and lit-
erature, and the number of English language books pub-
English is a pluricentric language, which means that lished annually in India is the third largest in the world
no one national authority sets the standard for use of after the US and UK.[107] However English is rarely spo-
the language.[87][88][89][90] But English is not a divided ken as a rst language, numbering only around a couple
language,[91] despite a long-standing joke originally at- hundred-thousand people, and less than 5% of the popu-
tributed to George Bernard Shaw that the United King- lation speak uent English in India.[108][109] David Crys-
dom and the United States are two countries separated tal claimed in 2004 that, combining native and non-native
by a common language.[92] Spoken English, for example speakers, India now has more people who speak or under-
English used in broadcasting, generally follows national stand English than any other country in the world,[110] but
pronunciation standards that are also established by cus- the number of English speakers in India is very uncertain,
tom rather than by regulation. International broadcasters with most scholars concluding that the United States still
are usually identiable as coming from one country rather has more speakers of English than India.[111]
than another through their accents,[93] but newsreader
Modern English, sometimes described as the rst global
scripts are also composed largely in international standard
lingua franca,[51][112] is also regarded as the rst world
written English. The norms of standard written En-
language.[113][114] English is the worlds most widely
glish are maintained purely by the consensus of educated
used language in newspaper publishing, book publish-
English-speakers around the world, without any over-
ing, international telecommunications, scientic pub-
sight by any government or international organisation.[94]
lishing, international trade, mass entertainment, and
American listeners generally readily understand most
diplomacy.[114] English is, by international treaty, the
British broadcasting, and British listeners readily under-
basis for the required controlled natural languages[115]
stand most American broadcasting. Most English speak-
Seaspeak and Airspeak, used as international languages
ers around the world can understand radio programmes,
of seafaring[116] and aviation.[117] English used to have
television programmes, and lms from many parts of the
parity with French & German in scientic research, but
English-speaking world.[95] Both standard and nonstan-
now it dominates that eld.[118] It achieved parity with
dard varieties of English can include both formal or in-
French as a language of diplomacy at the Treaty of Ver-
formal styles, distinguished by word choice and syntax
sailles negotiations in 1919.[119] By the time of the foun-
and use both technical and non-technical registers.[96]
dation of the United Nations at the end of World War
The settlement history of the English-speaking inner cir- II, English had become pre-eminent [120] and is now the
cle countries outside Britain helped level dialect distinc- main worldwide language of diplomacy and international
tions and produce koineised forms of English in South relations.[121] It is one of six ocial languages of the
Africa, Australia, and New Zealand.[97] The majority of United Nations.[122] Many other worldwide international
immigrants to the United States without British ances- organisations, including the International Olympic Com-
try rapidly adopted English after arrival. Now the major- mittee, specify English as a working language or ocial
ity of the United States population are monolingual En- language of the organisation.
glish speakers,[98][66] although English has been given of-
Many regional international organisations such as the
cial status by only 30 of the 50 state governments of the
European Free Trade Association, Association of South-
US.[99][100]
east Asian Nations (ASEAN),[52] and Asia-Pacic Eco-
nomic Cooperation (APEC) set English as their organi-
3.3 English as a global language sations sole working language even though most mem-
bers are not countries with a majority of native English
English has ceased to be an English language in the speakers. While the European Union (EU) allows mem-
sense of belonging only to people who are ethnically ber states to designate any of the national languages as an
English.[101][102] Use of English is growing country-by- ocial language of the Union, in practice English
[123]
is the
country internally and for international communication. main working language of EU organisations.
8 4 PHONOLOGY
All sonorants (liquids /l, r/ and nasals /m, n, /) devoice as in y or sly; s and a voiceless stop, as in stay; and s, a
when following a voiceless obstruent, and they are syllabic voiceless stop, and an approximant, as in string.[145] Clus-
when following a consonant at the end of a word.[143] ters of nasal and stop are only allowed in codas. Clus-
ters of obstruents always agree in voicing, and clusters
voiceless sonorants: clay [kl] and snow [sn o] of sibilants and of plosives with the same point of artic-
ulation are prohibited. Furthermore, several consonants
syllabic sonorants: paddle [pad.l], and button [bt.n]
have limited distributions: /h/ can only occur in syllable
initial position, and // only in syllable nal position.[146]
4.2 Vowels
Main article: English phonology Vowels 4.4 Stress, rhythm and intonation
often used as standards for education internationally. inection, a fairly xed SVO word order and a complex
Some dierences between the various dialects are shown syntax.[158] Some traits typical of Germanic languages
in the table Varieties of Standard English and their persist in English, such as the distinction between irreg-
features.[152] ularly inected strong stems inected through ablaut (i.e.
English has undergone many historical sound changes, changing the vowel of the stem, as in the pairs speak/spoke
some of them aecting all varieties, and others aect- and foot/feet) and weak stems inected through axa-
ing only a few. Most standard varieties are aected by tion (such as love/loved, hand/hands). Vestiges of the
the Great Vowel Shift, which changed the pronunciation case and gender system are found in the pronoun sys-
tem (he/him, who/whom) and in the inection of the cop-
of long vowels, but a few dialects have slightly dierent
results. In North America, a number of chain shifts such ula verb to be. As is typical of an Indo-European lan-
guage, English follows accusative morphosyntactic align-
as the Northern Cities Vowel Shift and Canadian Shift
have produced very dierent vowel landscapes in some ment. English distinguishes at least seven major word
classes: verbs, nouns, adjectives, adverbs, determiners
regional accents.
(i.e. articles), prepositions, and conjunctions. Some anal-
Some dialects have fewer or more consonant phonemes yses add pronouns as a class separate from nouns, and
and phones than the standard varieties. Some conserva- subdivide conjunctions into subordinators and coordina-
tive varieties like Scottish English have a voiceless [] tors, and add the class of interjections.[159] English also
sound in whine that contrasts with the voiced [w] in wine, has a rich set of auxiliary verbs, such as have and do, ex-
but most other dialects pronounce both words with voiced pressing the categories of mood and aspect. Questions are
[w], a dialect feature called winewhine merger. The marked by do-support, wh-movement (fronting of ques-
unvoiced velar fricative sound /x/ is found in Scottish tion words beginning with wh-) and word order inversion
English, which distinguishes loch /lx/ from lock /lk/. with some verbs.
Accents like Cockney with "h-dropping lack the glottal
fricative /h/, and dialects with th-stopping and th-fronting The seven word classes are exemplied in this sample
like African American Vernacular and Estuary English sentence:[160]
do not have the dental fricatives /, /, but replace them
with dental or alveolar stops /t, d/ or labiodental fricatives
/f, v/.[153][154] Other changes aecting the phonology of
5.1 Nouns and noun phrases
local varieties are processes such as yod-dropping, yod-
English nouns are only inected for number and posses-
coalescence, and reduction of consonant clusters.
sion. New nouns can be formed through derivation or
General American and Received Pronunciation vary in compounding. They are semantically divided into proper
their pronunciation of historical /r/ after a vowel at the nouns (names) and common nouns. Common nouns are
end of a syllable (in the syllable coda). GA is a rhotic in turn divided into concrete and abstract nouns, and
dialect, meaning that it pronounces /r/ at the end of a syl- grammatically into count nouns and mass nouns.[161]
lable, but RP is non-rhotic, meaning that it loses /r/ in
Most count nouns are inected for plural number through
that position. English dialects are classied as rhotic or
the use of the plural sux -s, but a few nouns have ir-
non-rhotic depending on whether they elide /r/ like RP or
[155] regular plural forms. Mass nouns can only be pluralised
keep it like GA.
through the use of a count noun classier, e.g. one loaf
There is complex dialectal variation in words with the of bread, two loaves of bread.[162]
open front and open back vowels / /. These
Regular plural formation:
four vowels are only distinguished in RP, Australia, New
Zealand and South Africa. In GA, these vowels merge
to three / /,[156] and in Canadian English they merge Singular: cat, dog
[157]
to two / /. In addition, the words that have each Plural: cats, dogs
vowel vary by dialect. The table Dialects and open vow-
els shows this variation with lexical sets in which these
sounds occur. Irregular plural formation:
Modern English grammar is the result of a gradual change Possession can be expressed either by the possessive
from a typical Indo-European dependent marking pat- enclitic -s (also traditionally called a genitive sux), or
tern with a rich inectional morphology and relatively by the preposition of. Historically the -s possessive has
free word order, to a mostly analytic pattern with little been used for animate nouns, whereas the of possessive
5.1 Nouns and noun phrases 11
has been reserved for inanimate nouns. Today this dis- have comparatives formed by periphrastic constructions,
tinction is less clear, and many speakers use -s also with with the adverb more marking the comparative, and most
inanimates. Orthographically the possessive -s is sepa- marking the superlative: happier or more happy, the hap-
rated from the noun root with an apostrophe. piest or most happy.[166] There is some variation among
Possessive constructions: speakers regarding which adjectives use inected or pe-
riphrastic comparison, and some studies have shown a
tendency for the periphrastic forms to become more com-
With -s: The womans husbands child mon at the expense of the inected form.[167]
With of: The child of the husband of the
woman
Nouns can form noun phrases (NPs) where they are the
syntactic head of the words that depend on them such as 5.1.2 Pronouns, case and person
determiners, quantiers, conjunctions or adjectives.[163]
Noun phrases can be short, such as the man, composed
only of a determiner and a noun. They can also include English pronouns conserve many traits of case and gen-
modiers such as adjectives (e.g. red, tall, all) and spec- der inection. The personal pronouns retain a dierence
iers such as determiners (e.g. the, that). But they can between subjective and objective case in most persons
also tie together several nouns into a single long NP, us- (I/me, he/him, she/her, we/us, they/them) as well as a gen-
ing conjunctions such as and, or prepositions such as with, der and animateness distinction in the third person sin-
e.g. the tall man with the long red trousers and his skinny gular (distinguishing he/she/it). The subjective case cor-
wife with the spectacles (this NP uses conjunctions, prepo- responds to the Old English nominative case, and the
sitions, speciers and modiers). Regardless of length, an objective case is used both in the sense of the previous
NP functions as a syntactic unit. For example, the pos- accusative case (in the role of patient, or direct object of
sessive enclitic can, in cases which do not lead to ambi- a transitive verb), and in the sense of the Old English da-
guity, follow the entire noun phrase, as in The President tive case (in the role of a recipient or indirect object of a
of Indias wife, where the enclitic follows India and not transitive verb).[168][169] Subjective case is used when the
President. pronoun is the subject of a nite clause, and otherwise
the objective case is used.[170] While grammarians such
The class of determiners is used to specify the noun they as Henry Sweet[171] and Otto Jespersen[172] noted that the
precede in terms of deniteness, where the marks a de- English cases did not correspond to the traditional Latin
nite noun and a or an an indenite one. A denite noun based system, some contemporary grammars, for exam-
is assumed by the speaker to be already known by the ple Huddleston & Pullum (2002), retain traditional la-
interlocutor, whereas an indenite noun is not specied bels for the cases, calling them nominative and accusative
as being previously known. Quantiers, which include cases respectively.
one, many, some and all, are used to specify the noun in
terms of quantity or number. The noun must agree with Possessive pronouns exist in dependent and independent
the number of the determiner, e.g. one man (sg.) but all forms; the dependent form functions as a determiner
men (pl.). Determiners are the rst constituents in a noun specifying a noun (as in my chair), while the independent
phrase.[164] form can stand alone as if it were a noun (e.g. the chair
is mine).[173] The English system of grammatical person
no longer has a distinction between formal and informal
5.1.1 Adjectives pronouns of address, and the forms for 2nd person plu-
ral and singular are identical except in the reexive form.
Adjectives modify a noun by providing additional infor- Some dialects have introduced innovative 2nd person plu-
mation about their referents. In English, adjectives come ral pronouns such as y'all found in Southern American
before the nouns they modify and after determiners.[165] English and African American (Vernacular) English or
In Modern English, adjectives are not inected, and they youse and ye found in Irish English.
do not agree in form with the noun they modify, as ad- Pronouns are used to refer to entities deictically or
jectives in most other Indo-European languages do. For anaphorically. A deictic pronoun points to some person
example, in the phrases the slender boy, and many slender or object by identifying it relative to the speech situation
girls, the adjective slender does not change form to agree for example the pronoun I identies the speaker, and
with either the number or gender of the noun. the pronoun you, the addressee. Anaphorical pronouns
Some adjectives are inected for degree of comparison, such as that refer back to an entity already mentioned or
with the positive degree unmarked, the sux -er marking assumed by the speaker to be known by the audience, for
the comparative, and -est marking the superlative: a small example in the sentence I already told you that. The re-
boy, the boy is smaller than the girl, that boy is the smallest. exive pronouns are used when the oblique argument is
Some adjectives have irregular comparative and superla- identical to the subject of a phrase (e.g. he sent it to
tive forms, such as good, better, and best. Other adjectives himself or she braced herself for impact).[174]
12 5 GRAMMAR
5.1.3 Prepositions of the auxiliary verbs will or shall.[179] Many varieties also
use a near future constructed with the phrasal verb be go-
Prepositional phrases (PP) are phrases composed of a ing to.[180]
preposition and one or more nouns, e.g. with the dog, Further aspectual distinctions are encoded by the use of
for my friend, to school, in England. Prepositions have a auxiliary verbs, primarily have and be, which encode the
wide range of uses in English. They are used to describe contrast between a perfect and non-perfect past tense (I
movement, place, and other relations between dierent have run vs. I was running), and compound tenses such as
entities, but they also have many syntactic uses such as preterite perfect (I had been running) and present perfect
introducing complement clauses and oblique arguments (I have been running).[181]
of verbs. For example, in the phrase I gave it to him, the
preposition to marks the recipient, or Indirect Object of For the expression of mood, English uses a number of
the verb to give. Traditionally words were only consid- modal auxiliaries, such as can, may, will, shall and the
ered prepositions if they governed the case of the noun past tense forms could, might, would, should. There is
they preceded, for example causing the pronouns to use also a subjunctive and an imperative mood, both based
the objective rather than subjective form, with her, to on the plain form of the verb (i.e. without the third per-
me, for us. But some contemporary grammars such as son singular -s), and which is used in subordinate clauses
that of Huddleston & Pullum (2002:598600) no longer (e.g. subjunctive: It is important that he run every day;
[179]
consider government of case to be the dening feature imperative Run!).
of the class of prepositions, rather dening prepositions An innitive form, that uses the plain form of the verb
as words that can function as the heads of prepositional and the preposition to, is used for verbal clauses that are
phrases. syntactically subordinate to a nite verbal clause. Finite
verbal clauses are those that are formed around a verb
in the present or preterit form. In clauses with auxiliary
5.2 Verbs and verb phrases verbs they are the nite verbs and the main verb is treated
as a subordinate clause. For example, he has to go where
English verbs are inected for tense and aspect, and only the auxiliary verb have is inected for time and the
marked for agreement with third person singular subject. main verb to go is in the innitive, or in a complement
Only the copula verb to be is still inected for agreement clause such as I saw him leave, where the main verb is to
with the plural and rst and second person subjects.[166] see which is in a preterite form, and leave is in the inni-
Auxiliary verbs such as have and be are paired with verbs tive.
in the innitive, past, or progressive forms. They form
complex tenses, aspects, and moods. Auxiliary verbs dif-
fer from other verbs in that they can be followed by the
negation, and in that they can occur as the rst constituent
in a question sentence.[175][176]
Most verbs have six inectional forms. The primary 5.2.2 Phrasal verbs
forms are a plain present, a third person singular present,
and a preterite (past) form. The secondary forms are a English also makes frequent use of constructions tradi-
plain form used for the innitive, a gerundparticiple and tionally called phrasal verbs, verb phrases that are made
a past participle.[177] The copula verb to be is the only verb up of a verb root and a preposition or particle which fol-
to retain some of its original conjugation, and takes dif- lows the verb. The phrase then functions as a single pred-
ferent inectional forms depending on the subject. The icate. In terms of intonation the preposition is fused to
rst person present tense form is am, the third person sin- the verb, but in writing it is written as a separate word.
gular form is and the form are is used second person sin- Examples of phrasal verbs are to get up, to ask out, to
gular and all three plurals. The only verb past participle back up, to give up, to get together, to hang out, to put
is been and its gerund-participle is being. up with, etc. The phrasal verb frequently has a highly
idiomatic meaning that is more specialised and restricted
than what can be simply extrapolated from the combi-
5.2.1 Tense, aspect and mood
nation of verb and preposition complement (e.g. lay o
meaning terminate someones employment).[182] In spite
English has two primary tenses, past (preterit) and non- of the idiomatic meaning, some grammarians, including
past. The preterit is inected by using the preterit form of Huddleston & Pullum (2002):274, do not consider this
the verb, which for the regular verbs includes the sux - type of construction to form a syntactic constituent and
ed, and for the strong verbs either the sux -t or a change hence refrain from using the term phrasal verb. Instead
in the stem vowel. The non-past form is unmarked except they consider the construction simply to be a verb with a
in the third person singular, which takes the sux -s.[175] prepositional phrase as its syntactic complement, i.e. he
English does not have a morphologised future tense.[178] woke up in the morning and he ran up in the mountains
Futurity of action is expressed periphrastically with one are syntactically equivalent.
5.3 Syntax 13
5.3 Syntax
5.3.2 Clause syntax
English word order has moved from the Germanic 5.3.3 Auxiliary verb constructions
verb-second (V2) word order to being almost exclu-
sively subjectverbobject (SVO).[184] The combination Main articles: Do-support and Subjectauxiliary inver-
of SVO order and use of auxiliary verbs often creates sion
clusters of two or more verbs at the centre of the sen-
tence, such as he had hoped to try to open it. English syntax relies on auxiliary verbs for many func-
In most sentences English only marks grammatical re- tions including the expression of tense, aspect and mood.
lations through word order.[185] The subject constituent Auxiliary verbs form main clauses, and the main verbs
precedes the verb and the object constituent follows it. function as heads of a subordinate clause of the auxiliary
The example below demonstrates how the grammatical verb. For example, in the sentence the dog did not nd
roles of each constituent is marked only by the position its bone, the clause nd its bone is the complement of the
relative to the verb: negated verb did not. Subjectauxiliary inversion is used
14 5 GRAMMAR
in many constructions, including focus, negation, and in- ing as the objective case form, although this form may be
terrogative constructions. going out of use in many contexts.[193]
The verb do can be used as an auxiliary even in sim-
ple declarative sentences, where it usually serves to add 5.3.5 Discourse level syntax
emphasis, as in I did shut the fridge. However, in the
negated and inverted clauses referred to above, it is used At the discourse level English tends to use a topic-
because the rules of English syntax permit these construc- comment structure, where the known information (topic)
tions only when an auxiliary is present. Modern English precedes the new information (comment). Because of the
does not allow the addition of the negating adverb not to strict SVO syntax, the topic of a sentence generally has
an ordinary nite lexical verb, as in *I know notit can to be the grammatical subject of the sentence. In cases
only be added to an auxiliary (or copular) verb, hence if where the topic is not the grammatical subject of the sen-
there is no other auxiliary present when negation is re- tence, frequently the topic is promoted to subject posi-
quired, the auxiliary do is used, to produce a form like I tion through syntactic means. One way of doing this is
do not (don't) know. The same applies in clauses requir- through a passive construction, the girl was stung by the
ing inversion, including most questionsinversion must bee. Another way is through a cleft sentence where the
involve the subject and an auxiliary verb, so it is not pos- main clause is demoted to be a complement clause of a
sible to say *Know you him?; grammatical rules require copula sentence with a dummy subject such as it or there,
Do you know him?[190] e.g. it was the girl that the bee stung, there was a girl who
Negation is done with the adverb not, which precedes the was stung by a bee.[194] Dummy subjects are also used in
main verb and follows an auxiliary verb. A contracted constructions where there is no grammatical subject such
form of not -n't can be used as an enclitic attaching to as with impersonal verbs (e.g., it is raining) or in existen-
auxiliary verbs and to the copula verb to be. Just as with tial clauses (there are many cars on the street). Through
questions, many negative constructions require the nega- the use of these complex sentence constructions with in-
tion to occur with do-support, thus in Modern English I formationally vacuous subjects, English is able to main-
don't know him is the correct answer to the question Do tain both a topic comment sentence structure and a SVO
you know him?, but not *I know him not, although this syntax.
construction may be found in older English.[191] Focus constructions emphasise a particular piece of
Passive constructions also use auxiliary verbs. A passive new or salient information within a sentence, generally
construction rephrases an active construction in such a through allocating the main sentence level stress on the
way that the object of the active phrase becomes the sub- focal constituent. For example, the girl was stung by a
ject of the passive phrase, and the subject of the active bee (emphasising it was a bee and not for example a wasp
phrase is either omitted or demoted to a role as an oblique that stung her), or The girl was stung by a bee (contrast-
argument introduced in a prepositional phrase. They are ing with another possibility, for example that it was the
[195]
formed by using the past participle either with the aux- boy). Topic and focus can also be established through
iliary verb to be or to get, although not all varieties of syntactic dislocation, either preposing or postposing the
English allow the use of passives with get. For example, item to be focused on relative to the main clause. For
putting the sentence she sees him into the passive becomes example, That girl over there, she was stung by a bee, em-
he is seen (by her), or he gets seen (by her).[192] phasises the girl by preposition, but a similar eect could
be achieved by postposition, she was stung by a bee, that
girl over there, where reference to the girl is established
5.3.4 Questions as an afterthought.[196]
Cohesion between sentences is achieved through the use
Both yesno questions and wh-questions in English are of deictic pronouns as anaphora (e.g. that is exactly what
mostly formed using subjectauxiliary inversion (Am I I mean where that refers to some fact known to both
going tomorrow?, Where can we eat?), which may re- interlocutors, or then used to locate the time of a nar-
quire do-support (Do you like her?, Where did he go?). rated event relative to the time of a previously narrated
In most cases, interrogative words (wh-words; e.g. what, event).[197] Discourse markers such as oh, so or well, also
who, where, when, why, how) appear in a fronted posi- signal the progression of ideas between sentences and
tion. For example, in the question What did you see?, the help to create cohesion. Discourse markers are often the
word what appears as the rst constituent despite being rst constituents in sentences. Discourse markers are also
the grammatical object of the sentence. (When the wh- used for stance taking in which speakers position them-
word is the subject or forms part of the subject, no inver- selves in a specic attitude towards what is being said,
sion occurs: Who saw the cat?.) Prepositional phrases can for example, no way is that true! (the idiomatic marker
also be fronted when they are the questions theme, e.g. no way! expressing disbelief), or boy! I'm hungry (the
To whose house did you go last night?. The personal inter- marker boy expressing emphasis). While discourse mark-
rogative pronoun who is the only interrogative pronoun to ers are particularly characteristic of informal and spoken
still show inection for case, with the variant whom serv- registers of English, they are also used in written and for-
6.2 Word origins 15
mal registers.[198]
6 Vocabulary
The vocabulary of English is vast, and counting ex-
actly how many words English (or any language) has is
impossible.[199][200][201] The Oxford Dictionaries suggest
that there are at least a quarter of a million distinct En-
glish words.[199] Early studies of English vocabulary by
lexicographers, the scholars who formally study vocabu-
lary, compile dictionaries, or both, were impeded by a
lack of comprehensive data on actual vocabulary in use
from good-quality linguistic corpora,[202] collections of
actual written texts and spoken passages. Many state-
ments published before the end of the 20th century about
the growth of English vocabulary over time, the dates
of rst use of various words in English, and the sources [6][206]
of English vocabulary will have to be corrected as new Source languages of English vocabulary
computerised analysis of linguistic corpus data becomes
available.[201][203]
and their roots, also borrows words from other lan-
guages. This process of adding words from other lan-
6.1 Word formation processes
guages is commonplace in many world languages, but En-
glish is characterised as being especially open to borrow-
English forms new words from existing words or roots in
ing of foreign words throughout the last 1,000 years.[207]
its vocabulary through a variety of processes. One of the
The most commonly used words in English are West
most productive processes in English is conversion,[204]
Germanic.[208] The words in English learned rst by chil-
using a word with a dierent grammatical role, for ex-
dren as they learn to speak, particularly the grammatical
ample using a noun as a verb or a verb as a noun.
words that dominate the word count of both spoken and
Another productive word-formation process is nominal
written texts, are the Germanic words inherited from the
compounding,[201][203] producing compound words such
earliest periods of the development of Old English.[201]
as babysitter or ice cream or homesick.[204] A process
But one of the consequences of long language contact be-
more common in Old English than in Modern English,
tween French and English in all stages of their develop-
but still productive in Modern English, is the use of
ment is that the vocabulary of English has a very high
derivational suxes (-hood, -ness, -ing, -ility) to de-
percentage of Latinate words (derived from French,
rive new words from existing words (especially those
especially, and also from Latin or from other Romance
of Germanic origin) or stems (especially for words of
languages).[209] French words from various periods of the
Latin or Greek origin). Formation of new words, called
development of French now make up one-third of the vo-
neologisms, based on Greek or Latin roots (for exam-
cabulary of English.[210]
ple television or optometry) is a highly productive pro-
cess in English and in most modern European languages, English has also borrowed many words directly from
so much so that it is often dicult to determine in Latin, the ancestor of the Romance languages, during all
which language a neologism originated. For this reason, stages of its development.[203][201] Many of these words
lexicographer Philip Gove attributed many such words were earlier borrowed into Latin from Greek. Latin or
to the "international scientic vocabulary" (ISV) when Greek are still highly productive sources of stems used to
compiling Websters Third New International Dictionary form vocabulary of subjects learned in higher education
(1961). Another active word-formation process in En- such as the sciences, philosophy, and mathematics.[211]
glish is acronyms,[205] words formed by pronouncing as aEnglish continues to gain new loanwords and calques
single word abbreviations of longer phrases (e.g. NATO, (loan translations) from languages all over the world,
laser). and words from languages other than the ancestral Anglo-
Saxon language make up about 60 percent of the vo-
cabulary of English.[212] English has formal and informal
6.2 Word origins speech registers, and informal registers, including child
directed speech, tend to be made up predominantly of
Main article: Lists of English loanwords by country or words of Anglo-Saxon origin, while the percentage of vo-
language of origin cabulary that is of Latinate origin is higher in legal, sci-
English, besides forming new words from existing words entic, and academic texts.[213][214]
16 7 WRITING SYSTEM
6.3 English loanwords and calques in other words that would be obscured by a closer correspondence
languages between pronunciation and spelling, for example the
words photograph, photography, and photographic,[222] or
English has a strong inuence on the vocabulary of other the words electricity and electrical. While few scholars
languages.[210][215] The inuence of English comes from agree with Chomsky and Halle (1968) that conventional
such factors as opinion leaders in other countries know- English orthography is near-optimal,[219] there is a ra-
ing the English language, the role of English as a world tionale for current English spelling patterns.[223] The stan-
lingua franca, and the large number of books and lms dard orthography of English is the most widely used writ-
that are translated from English into other languages.[216] ing system in the world.[224] Standard English spelling
That pervasive use of English leads to a conclusion in is based on a graphomorphemic segmentation of words
many places that English is an especially suitable lan- into written clues of what meaningful units make up each
guage for expressing new ideas or describing new tech- word.[225]
nologies. Among varieties of English, it is especially Readers of English can generally rely on the correspon-
American English that inuences other languages.[217] dence between spelling and pronunciation to be fairly reg-
Some languages, such as Chinese, write words borrowed ular for letters or digraphs used to spell consonant sounds.
from English mostly as calques, while others, such as The letters b, d, f, h, j, k, l, m, n, p, r, s, t, v, w, y, z repre-
Japanese, readily take in English loanwords written in sent, respectively, the phonemes /b, d, f, h, d, k, l, m, n,
sound-indicating script.[218] Dubbed lms and television p, r, s, t, v, w, j, z/. The letters c and g normally represent
programmes are an especially fruitful source of English /k/ and //, but there is also a soft c pronounced /s/, and
inuence on languages in Europe.[218] a soft g pronounced /d/. The dierences in the pronun-
ciations of the letters c and g are often signalled by the
following letters in standard English spelling. Digraphs
used to represent phonemes and phoneme sequences in-
7 Writing system clude ch for /t/, sh for //, th for // or //, ng for //, qu
for /kw/, and ph for /f/ in Greek-derived words. The sin-
See also: English alphabet, English braille, and English gle letter x is generally pronounced as /z/ in word-initial
orthography position and as /ks/ otherwise. There are exceptions to
these generalisations, often the result of loanwords be-
Since the ninth century, English has been written in a ing spelled according to the spelling patterns of their lan-
Latin alphabet (also called Roman alphabet). Earlier Old guages of origin[222] or proposals by pedantic scholars in
English texts in Anglo-Saxon runes are only short in- the early period of Modern English to mistakenly follow
scriptions. The great majority of literary works in Old the spelling patterns of Latin for English words of Ger-
English that survive to today are written in the Roman manic origin.[226]
alphabet.[29] The modern English alphabet contains 26 For the vowel sounds of the English language, however,
letters of the Latin script: a, b, c, d, e, f, g, h, i, j, k, correspondences between spelling and pronunciation are
l, m, n, o, p, q, r, s, t, u, v, w, x, y, z (which also have more irregular. There are many more vowel phonemes in
capital forms: A, B, C, D, E, F, G, H, I, J, K, L, M, N, English than there are vowel letters (a, e, i, o, u, w, y).
O, P, Q, R, S, T, U, V, W, X, Y, Z). As a result of a smaller set of single letter symbols than
The spelling system, or orthography, of English is multi- the set of vowel phonemes, some "long vowels" are often
layered, with elements of French, Latin, and Greek indicated by combinations of letters (like the oa in boat,
spelling on top of the native Germanic system.[219] Fur- the ow in how, and the ay in stay), [223]
or the historically based
ther complications have arisen through sound changes silent e (as in note and cake).
with which the orthography has not kept pace.[41] Com- The consequence of this complex orthographic history
pared to European languages for which ocial organ- is that learning to read can be challenging in English.
isations have promoted spelling reforms, English has It can take longer for school pupils to become inde-
spelling that is a less consistent indicator of pronunciation pendently uent readers of English than of many other
and standard spellings of words that are more dicult to languages, including Italian, Spanish, or German.[227]
guess from knowing how a word is pronounced.[220] There Nonetheless, there is an advantage for learners of En-
are also systematic spelling dierences between British glish reading in learning the specic sound-symbol reg-
and American English. These situations have prompted ularities that occur in the standard English spellings of
proposals for spelling reform in English.[221] commonly used words.[222] Such instruction greatly re-
Although letters and speech sounds do not have a one-to- duces the risk of children experiencing reading dicul-
[228][229]
one correspondence in standard English spelling, spelling ties in English. Making primary school teachers
rules that take into account syllable structure, phonetic more aware of the primacy of morpheme representation
changes in derived words, and word accent are reliable in English may help learners learn more eciently to read
[230]
for most English words. [222]
Moreover, standard English and write English.
spelling shows etymological relationships between related
8.1 UK and Ireland 17
South
alects (BrE) and those of North America (AmE).[232] West Country East
There also exists a grouping of major native varieties of
English in the southern hemisphere, the most prominent
being Australian and New Zealand English.
Map showing the main dialect regions in the UK and Ireland
North America as a form of broken or uneducated Several varieties of English are also spoken in the
English, also common of modern Southern American En- Caribbean Islands that were colonial possessions of
glish, but linguists today recognise both as fully devel- Britain, including Jamaica, and the Leeward and
oped varieties of English with their own norms shared by Windward Islands and Trinidad and Tobago, Barbados,
a large speech community.[258][259] the Cayman Islands, and Belize. Each of these areas are
home both to a local variety of English and a local English
based creole, combining English and African languages.
8.3 Australia and New Zealand The most prominent varieties are Jamaican English and
Jamaican Creole. In Central America, English based cre-
Main articles: Australian English and New Zealand oles are spoken in on the Caribbean coasts of Nicaragua
English and Panama. [269] Locals are often uent both in the
local English variety and the local creole languages and
Since 1788 English has been spoken in Oceania, and the code-switching between them is frequent, indeed another
major native dialect of Australian English is spoken as a way to conceptualise the relationship between Creole and
rst language by the vast majority of the inhabitants of Standard varieties is to see a spectrum of social registers
the Australian continent, with General Australian serv- with the Creole forms serving as basilect and the more
ing as the standard accent. The English of neighbour- RP-like forms serving as the acrolect, the most formal
ing New Zealand has to a lesser degree become an in- register.[270]
uential standard variety of the language.[260] Australian Most Caribbean varieties are based on British English
and New Zealand English are most closely related to each and consequently most are non-rhotic, except for formal
other, followed by South African English and the English styles of Jamaican English which are often rhotic. Ja-
of south-eastern England, and both have similarly non- maican English diers from RP in its vowel inventory,
rhotic accents, aside from some accents in the South Is- which has a distinction between long and short vowels
land of New Zealand. They stand out for their innovative rather than tense and lax vowels as in Standard English.
vowels: many short vowels are fronted or raised, whereas The diphthongs /ei/ and /ou/ are monophthongs [e] and
many long vowels have diphthongised. Australian En- [o] or even the reverse diphthongs [ie] and [uo] (e.g. bay
glish also has a contrast between long and short vow- and boat pronounced [be] and [bot]). Often word nal
els, not found in most other varieties. Australian English consonant clusters are simplied so that child is pro-
grammar diers from British and American English only
nounced [tail] and wind [win].[271][272][273]
in few instances, one dierence is the lack of verbal con-
As a historical legacy, Indian English tends to take RP
cord with collective plural subjects.[261][262] New Zealand
as its ideal, and how well this ideal is realised in an in-
English diers little from Australian English, but a few
dividuals speech reects class distinctions among Indian
characteristics sets its accent apart, such as the use of []
English speakers. Indian English accents are marked by
for wh- and its front vowels being even closer than in Aus-
the pronunciation of phonemes such as /t/ and /d/ (often
tralian English.[263][264][265]
pronounced with retroex articulation as [] and []) and
the replacement of // and // with dentals [t] and [d ].
8.4 Africa, the Caribbean, and South Asia Sometimes Indian English speakers may also use spelling
based pronunciations where the silent h found in words
See also: South African English, Caribbean English, and such as ghost
[274]
is pronounced as an Indian voiced aspirated
Indian English stop [].
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11 External links
Accents of English from Around the World (Univer-
sity of Edinburgh) Sound les comparing how 110
words are pronounced in 50 English accents from
around the world
35
Hide&Reason, Lord Manley, Wizofaus, Snalwibma, Sardanaphalus, Veinor, Amalthea, A bit iy, SmackBot, PiCo, Nickhk, Tigerghost,
Vasa0001, Rizuan76, Estoy Aqu, Gunebakan, Royalguard11, Martin.Budden, Melchoir, Falustra77, GinAndTonic, Pgk, Rrius, Dbkasar,
Bomac, WilyD, Jacek Kendysz, Jagged 85, TenaciousT, SKC, Big Adamsky, AndreasJS, Setanta747 (locked), Clpo13, Jrockley, Dell-
dot, Topclaw, Frymaster, Victorius~enwiki, Wakuran, TheDoctor10, Janneman, Sam Pointon, Cheezisyum21, TharkunColl, HeartofaDog,
Sebesta, Uxejn, Kudzu1, Siradia, Magicalsaumy, Inkstersco, Peter Isotalo, Gilliam, Ohnoitsjamie, Indium, Hmains, Cybiko123, Ppntori,
Msignor, Darknshadow, Llanowan, BirdValiant, Andy M. Wang, Hraefen, Welwitschia, Drn8, Saros136, Izehar, Slimline, Agateller, Maria-
Marvellous, Movementarian, Rex Germanus, MK8, Ksenon, Rmt2m, Kilbosh, Snori, TSchenk~enwiki, MalafayaBot, Greatgavini, Tim-
neu22, Hollow Wilerding, Moshe Constantine Hassan Al-Silverburg, RexImperium, Goldnger820, Foogol, Macdonja, Bazonka, Ranting
Martian, Eer, Ctbolt, DHN-bot~enwiki, Tonzo, Konstable, Verrai, Answar, Nichetas, Hgrosser, Nunchaks, Can't sleep, clown will eat me,
Egsan Bacon, Trystan Morris-Davies, Greglongisland, Gu yugu yu, Readams, Bm superpig, Alphathon, Proofreader, MaxCosta, OOODDD,
Tai39, Michkalas, God of War, Rrburke, NGMason, Nikostar, Rsm99833, Jordz, Metageek, Elendils Heir, Cribananda, Grover cleveland,
OtherGuy1, Stevenmitchell, Arab Hafez, Khoikhoi, BIL, MrRadioGuy, Boothman, Cybercobra, Kozushi, Melonite, Eno1, Nakon, Jack-
ohare, Onthost, Jiddisch~enwiki, Shamir1, Jellysho, Kneale, Cordless Larry, Dreadstar, Wanjuscha, RandomP, Mwtoews, Woodysee,
Jlujan69, Just plain Bill, Zzorse, Aaker, Mammalia, Pjetr Bogdani, Cdlw93, Shushruth, Sigma 7, Nmpenguin, Elmo12456, Curly Turkey,
Kukini, Drunken Pirate, Drmaik, Will Beback, JoeTrumpet, Synthe, CIS, Runa27, L337p4wn, Cast, The undertow, SoeElisBexter,
SashatoBot, Skiasaurus, Arrrghhh, WikiWitch, Guyjohnston, NotMuchToSay, Kuru, Ergative rlt, J. Finkelstein, AmiDaniel, JackLumber,
Euchiasmus, Vgy7ujm, J 1982, Marco polo, Ocee, Pbice, Gizzakk, Lucius1976, Nvw, CenozoicEra, Joelmills, Sir Nicholas de Mimsy-
Porpington, Shadowlynk, Edwy, JorisvS, Tim Q. Wells, Minna Sora no Shita, Jazriel, Mgiganteus1, Steverwanda, Aleenf1, IronGargoyle,
Archangel127, Shilonite, Deviathan~enwiki, Ckatz, The Man in Question, 16@r, CJ Withers, Citikiwi, Helzagood, Terzett, Agathoclea,
TeoWS, Hvn0413, GPrestidge, Apcbg, Beetstra, Nicetomeetyou, Calibas, Epeeist smudge, Scranchuse, KHAAAAAAAAAAN, Vaniba12,
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K, Quantum Burrito, BrainMagMo, CzarB, Joseph Solis in Australia, Antiedman, Shoeofdeath, Newone, Saltlakejohn, J Di, Boreas74,
Paul Foxworthy, Engupta, Igoldste, Octane, Shoshonna, Owenturnbull, Sam Li, Architec, CapitalR, Badbe0, Gil Gamesh, Civil Engineer
III, Formani, Tjtenor2, Protron, Courcelles, Phasmatisnox, Meow, Bruinfan12, Rayoight278, Vermiculus, Eluchil404, Frank Lofaro Jr.,
IronJohnSr, Tawkerbot2, Daniel5127, Filelakeshoe, Pithecanthropus, Enginear, Flubeca, Lincmad, Lahiru k, Blinking Spirit, Alexthe5th,
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Van helsing, Aherunar, The Font, BeenAroundAWhile, Runningonbrains, CWY2190, R9tgokunks, NisseSthlm, FinnHK, Tingrin87, Rob-
Scholar, MarsRover, NE Ent, Fordmadoxfraud, Alton, Ahwelle, Sbknudson, Dmmelheim, Qrc2006, Musicalantonio, FilipeS, Rudjek,
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Mike Christie, Westee, Ramitmahajan, Alrin, Travelbird, Red Director, Zginder, Temple13, Llort, A Softer Answer, Scroggie, Fallen
Angel3787, Frncsmdln, Sempai, Dusty relic, Wikipediarules2221, Eu.stefan, Julian Mendez, Acs4b, Andrewm1986, Q43, Tawkerbot4,
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son, JamesAM, Thijs!bot, Biruitorul, Kojohurrican, Kahastok, Wikid77, Ph.D.Nikki, Qwyrxian, Osborne, Kablammo, HappyInGeneral,
23prootie, Thused, Andyjsmith, Callmarcus, Gamer007, Glamdiva3000, Anupam, Mikedep333, Sobreira, Marek69, West Brom 4ever,
Tapir Terric, Bobblehead, A3RO, Caead, Anggerik, Rahzel, Cverlo, FDR315, Z da Silva, Joymmart, Mnemeson, PaulHeggarty, Pamino,
Grayshi, Dgies, CharlotteWebb, Michael A. White, Dezidor, Stevvvv4444, Dawnseeker2000, SomeHuman, Escarbot, The Person Who
Is Strange, Pie Man 360, Oreo Priest, LachlanA, Hmrox, Hires an editor, Gossamers, AntiVandalBot, The Obento Musubi, Majorly,
4evacharmed, Yonatan, Cultural Freedom, Luna Santin, Widefox, Seaphoto, Crabula, Jean Francois, StringRay, Shirt58, Michael042, Your
Only Real Friend, Ejoty, Malcolm, Credema, Villy van der Veelen, Dan nailed, NJW494, Platypusx, CRUPS loves a hammer and sickle,
Cbrodersen, Ghmyrtle, Futurepower(R), Leuqarte, Zagsa, R4ge, Kothari.sagar, Yalens, Canadian-Bacon, Melonjuice, ClassicSC, Groshna,
JAnDbot, Mac Lover, Husond, Jimothytrotter, GSTQ, Free-mind, MER-C, Kedi the tramp, Samuel Webster, Arch dude, Fetchcomms,
100110100, Jimmy, ResurgamII, Vgmaster, Rothorpe, Joshua, Gooden, Epicv27, Mladen.adamovic, GoodDamon, Rajabasu, .anacondabot,
The Tarnz, Bencherlite, Fahmishah, Coee2theorems, Alex054, Magioladitis, StuieP91, Pharillon, Wizymon, JeHab, ZPM, Bongwarrior,
VoABot II, JNW, Yandman, Silent0, Lucyin, Conteordeo, Morrisjbm, Jatkins, Justice for All, Kasar, Avicennasis, Snowded, JHB, Soleado,
Catgut, IanBreen, ClovisPt, Cardamon, Ericdz33, Cyktsui, Nposs, ArchStanton69, Eldumpo, Abednigo, BilCat, Ciaccona, Hamiltonstone,
Sudyp~enwiki, Allstarecho, NoychoH, James W., PeterMellow, Tdpvitw, Pupitar13, Nielswik, JoergenB, Brunky, DerHexer, Media anthro,
Philg88, JdeJ, Viyu5, 234aaa, Gludwiczak, Cogni, Gwern, NatureA16, Gjd001, Renetus, Everytime, MartinBot, Hebbgd, Mythryn, Ma-
soris, Ketaitz, Paunaro, Azalea pomp, Lamato, Quywompka, Puddingsmack, Anonymous 57, AlexiusHoratius, Glennobrien, Oaken, The-
wallowmaker, Francis Tyers, LedgendGamer, Omnipotence407, Felipe1982, Vanwhistler, Watch37264, J.delanoy, Eowbotm1, Pharaoh
of the Wizards, Trusilver, Sinder2k6, Bogey97, MVillani1985, UBeR, Arrivisto, Aallcz, Uncle Dick, Hormiii, Jesant13, Freemoneyplz,
Xzxgmanxzx, Pumpknhd, Unimaginative Username, Christ King, G. Campbell, Barts1a, Michael Daly, Dadadaddyo, Tout pret, Johnbod,
Dreko, Philmatic, Gman124, Mjsp rn, DeviantOne, Alaskanhoskins, Skier Dude, Mdistrukt, Legendsword, Rayizmi, TheTyrant, Kazu89,
AntiSpamBot, Spiderman 93, RenniePet, Sundar1, Tobias Kuhn, WHeimbigner, Midnight Madness, Belovedfreak, Rev. John, ULC, In
Transit, Rwessel, Ef3, Johnnie ong, Christopher Kraus, Olegwiki, Vickywo, Tinyan1117, Miskwito, Stabback, TottyBot, Bennelliott,
STBotD, Osthuset, Eneyi, Regetch, Alex my name is alex, Treisijs, Wwwlandedru, VicVega123, Bobxii, Fortunefaded, Dehbach, Ad43,
Mandoline-Man, Andy Marchbanks, Dorftrottel, HighKing, Micmic28, Rocket robot on wheels fan, Gibmetal77, Games97, Halmstad,
Fbarton, Arael2, ThePointblank, CardinalDan, RJASE1, Idioma-bot, MelkorDCLXVI, Sthenel, Tribalninja, Wikieditor06, Craitman17,
Al-minar, Northsurrey, Deor, Eggwo, VolkovBot, Neodymium-142, Jrtman, Letson, Shalom93, Je G., Auxwork, Emailaddress, Smurf-
man286, Firstorm, LokiClock, Jeromesyroyal, Alexandria, AlnoktaBOT, Low German, Bovineboy2008, English Subtitle, Englischman,
Thakurji, Thekiller461, Aaron44126, BlakeCS, Epson291, Dereksaun, Rokus01, Philip Trueman, Marknagel, RPlunk2853, Bolton08,
Fgrwe33, Varttik, TXiKiBoT, Medicjm, Mercurywoodrose, Willhmay, Iman0613, Mark v1.0, Shuim, Vipinhari, Tomsega, Rei-bot, Frst-
Frs, Ocylith, Petecollier, Uisce, Migang2g, Omgimrandom, Linhdinh99, Rick977, Rick1977, Nirvanarvr, Qxz, Anal8432, John Carter,
Lradrama, Dendodge, Melsaran, Corvus cornix, See ya 96, Terrar, Leafyplant, Jackithug, Iamapepe, Mitth'raw'nuruodo, Abdullais4u,
Wassermann~enwiki, SpiderMMB, Domitius, Dbmoodb, Qwerty6, Wingedsubmariner, Jeeny, Rumiton, Joeldl, SpecMode, Ryguyrocks,
Nikkul, CO, Madhero88, OliverR, Mwilso24, AppleJordan, Complex (de), Jamesmarkhetterley, Moosebear, Mcattell, Lolash, Jacob501,
PeterHuntington, Synthebot, Zeiros, Teocm, Agonyips, Ellelovesyamore142, Fleela, Spinningspark, Darkman173, Agronox, Stevende-
witt, Punarnava, Matchen.yankees, Troll666, Desianez, AlleborgoBot, Nagy, Kimking890, Quantpole, Logan, Munci, Wishbone 676, CT
Cooper, Preeteshbarretto, Hashimi1, Jessdro, Ammbaani, Jovanybz, Robertomalancini, Livestock kills, WiniWidiWici, Tw166y, Kutaragi,
Spt107, SieBot, Trackinfo, Peirsonturner, Luke Maui, Bedelato, Cokes360, Dreamafter, BotMultichill, Sakkura, Gerakibot, Dawn Bard,
BloodDoll, Triwbe, This, that and the other, Mangostar, The way, the truth, and the light, Roidhrigh, Sirarch, Orthorhombic, Purbo T,
Jadony, Interchange88, Adam988, Android Mouse, Pxma, Eurion, HkCaGu, Riwnodennyk, Mattrekie, Oda Mari, Arbor to SJ, Nebulousity,
12.1 Text 37
Dounts4all91, Snyltesnuseren, Wilborut, Jimthing, Garethlewis11, Chridd, Jimiwhite, Moonraker12, Boogster, Cameron, Dominik92,
Aelius28, Byrialbot, Targeman, Bennett92, Otichy, Riddlegirl93, Lightmouse, Mustafak, Bssv11, Gordonofcartoon, BenoniBot~enwiki,
Nyelvmark, Apple0142E, Kumioko (renamed), Svick, Retireduser1111, Calatayudboy, Koreeey, Prospect1, LonelyMarble, Coldcreation,
Dodger67, Wuhwuzdat, Saggod, Freeham, WikiLaurent, Yair rand, Hooiwind, Pem56, TubularWorld, Quicksilver8193, Richard David
Ramsey, Mumble45, Anstan07, Francvs, Dig deeper, Velvetron, StrawberryFanatic, Mike5893, RegentsPark, Sfan00 IMG, Matrix9999,
Separa, ClueBot, ICAPTCHA, Robbiemun, Binksternet, Petertzgerald, PipepBot, IeieieieFrenchenenenene, The Thing That Should Not
Be, Serezniy, Fadesga, Lewiscb, Waheedulhassan1, Plastikspork, Jnb845, Page1pourvous, Unbuttered Parsnip, TheRasIsBack, Bashar06,
Ukabia, Attatatta, NovaTabula, Bonchygeez, Buonaparte69, Drmies, Bobisbob, Mild Bill Hiccup, SayUnclePal, Partygirl5432112345,
DanielDeibler, SuperHamster, Kymeilza, Boing! said Zebedee, Steveonz, Imperium Europeum, LuckyPoppa, Niceguyedc, Blanchardb,
Furious Banana, 13zmatthews, Chakmira, Piledhigheranddeeper, Trivialist, House1090, Tamerlan44, Solar-Wind, T-Money92, Auntof6,
Tazzy33182, Alexbot, Jusdafax, Tomeasy, Wikiscribe, Kanguole, PixelBot, WendyLauren, Leonard^Bloom, Bchaosf, Muhandes, Lar-
toven, Sun Creator, Larissad~enwiki, Wordwright, Manathon, Carau, NuclearWarfare, Arjayay, Lobotomyu, Bracton, Jotterbot, Tnx-
man307, MJDTed, Royalmate1, Ottawa4ever, Seblackie1996, Rui Gabriel Correia, Thingg, Shj95, JDPhD, Murraytheb, Versus22, Ur-
saLinguaBWD, UnlinedPage, SDY, Lx 121, Tezero, Heyzeuss, Connorjack, SoxBot III, B222, Abusharjeel, MasterOfHisOwnDomain,
DumZiBoT, BarretB, Spitre, Emmette Hernandez Coleman, Pichpich, Gnowor, Nathan Johnson, FactChecker1199, Dthomsen8, Hap-
pyJake, Avoided, Stitchill, Mitch Ames, Facts707, Ilikepie2221, SilvonenBot, Mm40, Kbdankbot, Wikipire, U-146, ChiuYu, PhilT2,
Willking1979, Balajineyveli, DOI bot, Kessiye, Betterusername, Otisjimmy1, Yolgnu, Ronhjones, Fieldday-sunday, Laurinavicius, Wikus-
dutoit, Kman543210, CanadianLinuxUser, English-coach, MrOllie, LaaknorBot, RTG, Ccacsmss, Glane23, JACKAL-XXX, AndersBot,
Debresser, Jaknelaps, Favonian, LinkFA-Bot, Lemonade100, 5 albert square, Aktsu, Numbo3-bot, Ehrenkater, TriniMuoz, Erutuon,
Tide rolls, BrianKnez, Wikipeditor40, Alan16, Jabez2000, Lightbot, Kyuko, Kiril Simeonovski, Teles, First Light, Odder, Albeiror24,
Frehley, The Mummy, Ben Ben, Legobot, Drpickem, ZX81, Yobot, Granpu, Cloudyed, Ptbotgourou, Fraggle81, Rsquire3, The Earwig,
THEN WHO WAS PHONE?, GateKeeper, Reenem, SCIAG, KamikazeBot, 8ung3st, Mxshee, Dickdock, Tempodivalse, Bility, Pravdav-
erita, AnomieBOT, Kristen Eriksen, Rubinbot, 1exec1, Galoubet, Royote, Zoomzoom316, Piano non troppo, Blackknight12, Kingpin13,
Ulric1313, Welcraft18, SJ3000, Materialscientist, Fairweather01, Elmmapleoakpine, Cybopath, The High Fin Sperm Whale, Citation
bot, E2eamon, Elm-39, Lanelot, SaintDaveUK, ArthurBot, DirlBot, Quebec99, Kosovatavis, Obersachsebot, MauritsBot, Xqbot, Man-
ningBartlett, TinucherianBot II, Notsmog940, Intelati, The sock that should not be, Capricorn42, Mark Sheridan, Drilnoth, Khajidha,
4twenty42o, Miracleworker5263, TechBot, Jerey Mall, Coolmukund, Dry hem, XZeroBot, Won-andrew, Polemyx, Cato censor, J apple-
seed2, Pmlineditor, GrouchoBot, Moalli, Riotrocket8676, Omnipaedista, Malcolmehaey, Fiskehaps, Iran.azadi, RibotBOT, SassoBot,
Cerniagigante, Dale Chock, Charvest, Hastyo, Friday Playlist, The Wiki ghost, Doulos Christos, Kobalt08, Sophus Bie, Eisfbnore, Stazven,
Natural Cut, White whirlwind, Wdenhelm, Dansudan1, Urdina, Specialma604, Bryanttie, Diixon, Therius, ASOTMKX, Novem Lin-
guae, Erik9, Sesu Prime, Testabright, Zachary98, Haldraper, Johnnybfat, Legobot III, Youed, Ricraider, Hyperboreer, Theiyallen, Ed-
winy772, FrescoBot, Legend soul7, Russian Rocky, Fortdj33, Fathiah 85, Paine Ellsworth, Ryryrules100, Coroboy, Isodn332, Alexan-
derKaras, MusicInTheHouse, Jdsilentio, Traceylane, Itstrh, Tayloe69, Matomal, Itachimoru, Recognizance, Mistakender, KuroiShiroi,
J648, Mastercoolio, Rahachow, Izzedine, Funnysnowboarder, Markonpolo, Angeluser, Girlwithgreeneyes, Serge2800, Bambuway, Ilke-
ston1990, Purpleturple, Airborne84, A little insignicant, WalesLord, Tharthan, Citation bot 1, Poo cleaner, Ahjwiki, DSLund, Gmansta-
tion28, AstaBOTh15, SpacemanSpi, Ji Janek, Pinethicket, I dream of horses, Bartel1977, Haaqfun, Elockid, LittleWink, Tra, Jone-
sey95, Rameshngbot, Vladmirsh, Israelboy, Calmer Waters, Nosepass, Slus, Moonraker, Shiva Khanal, DAVilla, Mediatech492, Noel
Streateld, Jaguar, Skeptical Dude, SpaceFlight89, le ottante, Emika22, KobeBlackMamba, Saloni J, Nameless123456, Harry362, Anil
gupta25, Beao, Reedos3, Jeppiz, Reconsider the static, Sgilanguages, John123521, Horst-schlaemma, White Shadows, Kreutznaer, Ce-
lyndel, Grindor, Leasnam, Lightlowemon, FoxBot, Mjs1991, TobeBot, Mercy11, Trappist the monk, Bostonian Mike, Fama Clamosa,
Dalakov, Jonkerz, LukeM212, Qwang13, Callanecc, GregKaye, Petr Kulaty, RoadTrain, Murma174, Alvaro1901, Hadger, Extra999,
Oftenews, Andymcgrath, Duoduoduo, VraumDse, Opperhei, Adnyre, ThunderbirdJP, Martyparty007, Peacekeepper, Eldsayer, EStale-
Bread, DeCorbeau, Felipito1.966, Unrulyevil, Watisctie, Athene cheval, Brian the Editor, AlanD1956, IRISZOOM, Knopabrik, Inno-
tata, PleaseStand, Tbhotch, Stroppolo, Nuvolet, Reach Out to the Truth, RobertMfromLI, DARTH SIDIOUS 2, Stj6, RjwilmsiBot, TjBot,
Vtstarin, IANVS, MMS2013, NameIsRon, Ripchip Bot, Ckemgreen, Robotic3498298502525, Brainulator9, Mandolinface, Rainfrog,
Lee lid, LcawteHuggle, Shabidoo, EmausBot, AmigoCgn, Chrisloader, Wobultra, Nima1024, WikitanvirBot, Gfoley4, Sophie, Abrawak,
Sixholdens, Dominus Vobisdu, Az29, Ajraddatz, SuperMarineSpitFireKid101, Sabblabla, Katherine, GoingBatty, Fabsie, Cannon3000,
Dtrox28, John C Willis, DiiCinta, Pierrejcd, Wowkids38, Michaeltobbylee, RememberingLife, Cremepu666, RIS cody, MrGRA, P.
S. F. Freitas, Stephencole2, Fish gut, Shkibobedobe, Zaps, Mynameisrlyweirdhawhaw, Jocirilo, Blondonien, AvicBot, Triton Rocker,
ZroBot, Wnsoren, Checkingfax, Splibubay, Ida Shaw, Liquidmetalrob, F, Josve05a, Dolovis, Catalaalatac, Anglom, OttomanJackson,
WeijiBaikeBianji, Roy singleton, KiwiJe, A930913, EddieDrood, H3llBot, SporkBot, AManWithNoPlan, Zap Rowsdower, Dijhndis,
Wayne Slam, ScalaDiSeta, Erianna, Neddy1234, Flvio Paiva F1, Rcsprinter123, Scythia, Apple Crap, Veritas4ever, Pones44, KarasuG-
amma, Socbomboman, Augurar, Viccar M Khan, IGeMiNix, Brandmeister, Dagko, L Kensington, Maxwelltay, Jarjarbinks10, Sortsdam,
Alborzagros, Leek1312, Gsarwa, Irrypride, Yogi02kumar, Rise before Zod, Kneel before Zod, MichaelHubbard31, Saruman-the-white,
DeCausa, LisaSandford, GJLR, Artemis Dread, Monteitho, ChuispastonBot, GermanJoe, Bernardbonvin, L33tpolice, Peter Karlsen, Vic-
torianMutant, KelseyKizzy, Iketsi, WakawakaMZ, Brigade Piron, Sven Manguard, DASHBotAV, Ornithologician, ,
Draxacolus, Actarus176, RockKing97, SophieMcVeigh, TheTruthMatters01, ResearchRave, ClueBot NG, Adamnk81, Abdullingua,
Acct2141, Cdrunner1, Ephemeral Antlions, Calnch, Vippylaman, Zuzubak, Obamapinoy1982, MusoForde, Sleddog116, Movses-bot,
Enumer8tor, Jawadhussaini, Proscribe, IfYouDoIfYouDon't, Korrawit, Vulpesinculta51, Frietjes, Costesseyboy, Ximar, Cyrrk, Jojo966,
Kutsuit, North Atlanticist Usonian, IgnorantArmies, Harsimaja, Helpful Pixie Bot, Daviddwd, Titodutta, Calidum, Wbm1058, Imajay-
malik, BG19bot, Roberticus, LGBLA, Vagobot, Zbrnajsem, Sij747, Queen Zeppelin Metallica Floyd, Navhus, HIDECCHI001, Sleep-
ing is fun, JohnChrysostom, Frze, AvocatoBot, Jordanson72, Compfreak7, Ugncreative Usergname, Cadiomals, Viller the Great, The
Almightey Drill, KiwiRyan, Surtalnar, Philpill691, Ernio48, 23haveblue, Larmas, , Nary14, TBrandley, Loriendrew,
Yekshemesh, Robertbusby7, BattyBot, RoachPeter, Preston stone, Toby323, Boeing720, StarryGrandma, DarafshBot, Victor Yus, Dawn
Eastwood, IkbenFrank, Dja1979, Morganson691, Chie one, SD5bot, Tx rnel, Filipino nationalism, JJ 65, Mitchell NZ, Hridith Sudev
Nambiar, E4024, Dexbot, Debolars, Hasser95, Br'er Rabbit, Quibilia, Hmainsbot1, Aditya Mahar, Mogism, Phung Wilson, Curious-
Mind01, Eransgran, Herve Reex, Harry Zelfer, Donnowin1, Wario-Man, Zziccardi, Corinne, Elevatorrailfan, Corn cheese, Pincrete, Loup
Solitaire 81, QatarStarsLeague, ShiftlessOtaku, Ezequiel Matias Acosta, Sharmeka-winnsboro, Fu7geg7456, SomeFreakOnTheInternet,
Rob984, Redd Foxx 1991, LordMintyBadger, Jodosma, Do better, Blythwood, Hendrick 99, Cherubinirules, LeHappiste, Bollystolly,
Jontiben, IacobusAmor, Monochrome Monitor, Kharkiv07, Spyglasses, The Herald, Zinoural, George8211, , Quenhitran,
Atotalstranger, W. P. Uzer, Kind Tennis Fan, Kgartm1185, Lethsp, Juhuyuta, Qoby, Nelson Tran248, Jononmac46, Justinrleung, Car-
los Rojas77, Monkbot, AntiqueReader, Endriksohn, WwiikkiiPEDIA, Eman235, Gati123, Peter238, SalopianTank01, WordSeventeen,
Coin Collecting John, Austin1206, la , Devendra.philo, ChamithN, WikiImprovment78, RyanTQuinn, Ghost Lourde, Prisoner62113,
38 12 TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES
Spiderjerky, Cynulliad, Julietdeltalima, Wynstol, Sundayclose, Tralala0, Jason.nlw, Dhirajbhoir, Benjaminikuta, Nkkenbuer, KasparBot,
Ceannlann gorm, G.W.Kyte, RippleSax, Satnam S Virdi, Urszag, Eat me, I'm an azuki, Twitteristhebest, Rigsofrods, Paudarco, Srimathi
aanu, HarryKernow, Nutshell123345, Akhila3151996, Dwi Chania, Shadowrattus, Rockdwane, Gulumeemee, Theutatis, Mr KEBAB, Elia
Soaten, Bender the Bot, Oaktreemaster1911, TheLusatian, RichardHarris22, What cat? and Anonymous: 2214
12.2 Images
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