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[PERIODIC TABLE] SAHA(8961223948)

Mandeleev's Periodic Law (1869)

"The physical and chemical properties of elements are a periodic function of their atomic weights, i.e.,
when the elements are arranged in order of their increasing atomic weights, elements with similar
properties are repeated after certain regular intervals."
Modern Periodic Law
"The physical and chemical properties of the elements are a periodic function of their atomic numbers,
i.e., when the elements are arranged in order in of their increasing atomic weights, elements with similar
properties are repeated after certain regular intervals."
Cause of Periodicity
The cause of periodicity in properties is the repetition of similar outer electronic configurations at certain
regular intervals.
Main features of Modern Periodic Table
(a) It has 7 horizontal rows called periods and 16 vertical columns called groups or families.
(b) The first period is the shortest period consisting of 2 elements.
(c) The second and third periods contain 8 elements, fourth and fifth periods contains 18 elements, sixth
period contains 32 elements and seventh period is incomplete with 27 known elements.
(d) The elements of second period are known as bridge elements.
(e) The elements of I, II, XIII, XIV, XV, XVI, XVI, XVII and XVIII groups are collectively known as normal
or representative elements.
(f) The elements of XVIII group are known as inert gases or noble gases.
(g) The elements of III group to XIII group are known as transition elements. This is because their
properties lie between the properties of the reactive metals (alkali and alkaline earth metals) placed on
extreme left and the non-metals (halogens and chalcogens = oxygen family) placed on extreme right of the
periodic table.
(h) The series of elements with Z = 58 to Z = 71 which occur in periodic table after lanthanum are called
lanthanides or lanthanoids. The series of elements with Z = 90 to Z = 103 which occur in the periodic
table after actinum are called actinides or actinoids.
These elements (lanthanides and actinides) are also known as inner transition elements.
s-Block Elements
1-2
Elements in which the last electron enters the s-orbital. General configuration is : ns .
The elements of I and II gorups are s-block elements.
Properties :
(i) They are soft metals with low melting and boiling points.
(ii) They have low ionization energies and high electropositivity.
(iii) Their metallic character and reactivity increase in a group.
(iv) They lose the valence electrons readily to form + 1and + 2 ions.
(v) They are strong reducing agents.
(vi) They are good conductors of heat and electricity.
p-Block Elements
Elements in which the last electron enters any one of the three p-orbitals. General configuration is :
2 16
ns np . The XIII to XVIII groups. (excluding He) have p-block elements. The elements of XVII group
are knwon as halogens (salt producers) and that of XVI group are known as chalcogens (ore-forming).

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Properties :
(i) The metallic character increases within a group and decreases along a period.
(ii) Their ionization energies are relatively higher than that of s-block elements.
(iii) They show more than one oxidation states.
(iv) Their oxidising character increase in a period and reducing character increases along a group.
d-Block Elements
Elements in which the last electron enters any one of the five d-orbitals. The elements of groups III to XII
belong to this category. They are called transition elements.
Properties :
(i) They are hard, malleable and ductile metals with high m.p. and b.p.
(ii) They are good conductors of heat and electricity.
(iii) Their ionization energies are between s and p-block elements.
(iv) Their compounds are generally coloured and paramagnetic.
(v) They show variable oxidation states.
(vi) They form both ionic and covalent compounds.
(vii) Most of the transition elements form alloys.
f-Block Elements
Elements in which the last electron enters any one of the seven f-orbitals. There are 28 f-block elements in
all (Lanthanides and Actinides). They are called inner-transition elements.
Properties :
(i) They are heavy metals with high m.p. and b.p.
(ii) They show variable oxidation states.
(iii) Their compounds are generally coloured
(iv) They have a high tendency to form complexes.
(v) Most of the elements of the actinide series are radioactive.
IMPORTANT TERMS
(a) Metals : Metals comprise 75% of all known elements and appear on the left hand side of the periodic
table. Metals are solids at room temperature (except mercury, gallium and francium). They are
malleable, ductile and good conductors of heat and electricity.
(b) Non-metals : These can be gases, liquids or even solids with low m.p. and b.p. Most of them are
brittle and are neither malleable nor ductile.
(c) Metalloids : The elements which show the properties of both metals and non-metals are known as
metalloids or semi-metals.
(d) Valency :
(i) "The valency of a metal is equal to number of valence electrons. The electrons present in outer-
most orbit are called valence electrons."
(OR)
Valency is equal to the number of hydrogen atoms or twice the number of oxygen atoms which
combines with one atom of an elements.
(ii) The atoms combine with each other since, they have a tendency to acquire eight electrons (except
hydrogen atom) in its outermost orbit. The atoms which give outermost electrons acquires
positive charge and other which take electrons acquire negative charge.
(e) Atomic radius : The distance between the centre of nucleus and the outer most shell of electrons.

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(f) Van der Waal's radius : Half of the distance between the nuclei of two adjacent atoms belonging to
two neighbouring molecules of an element.
(g) Ionic radius : The distance from the nucleus of an ion upto which it has influence on its electron
cloud.
(h) Ionisation energy (Ionization potential or Ionization enthalpy) : The minimum amount of energy
requird to remove an electron from an atom. The ionization energies required to remove first second
and third etc. electrons from an atom are called successive ionization energies. Remember that
Third IE > Second IE > First IE
Ionisation energy is governed by the factors :
(i) Nuclear charge : energy increases with increase in nuclear charge.
(ii) Atomic size : energy decreases with increase in size.
(iii) Penetration effect of the electrons : energy increases with increase in penetration effect.
(iv) Screening effect of the inner shell electrons : energy decreases with increase of screening or shielding
effect.
(v) Effect of half-filled or completely filled orbitals : If an atom contains half-filled or completely
filled orbitals then it is more stable, so the energy required is more than expected.

Hund's Rule of Maximum Multiplicity is an observational rule which states that a greater total spin state usually
makes the resulting atom more stable. Accordingly, it can be taken that if two or more orbitals of equal energy
are available, electrons will occupy them singly before filling them in pairs. The rule, discovered by Friedrich
Hund in 1925, is of important use in atomic chemistry,spectroscopy, and quantum chemistry. As a
result this rule is often abbreviated to Hund's Rule, ignoring Hund's other two rules.

The Aufbau principle (from the German Aufbau meaning "building up, construction": also Aufbau
rule or building-up principle) is used to determine the electron configuration of an atom,molecule or ion. The
principle postulates a hypothetical process in which an atom is "built up" by progressively adding electrons. As
they are added, they assume their most stable conditions (electron orbitals) with respect to the nucleus and
those electrons already there.

According to the principle, electrons fill orbitals starting at the lowest available (possible) energy levels before
filling higher levels (e.g. 1s before 2s). The number of electrons that can occupy each orbital is limited by
the Pauli exclusion principle. If multiple orbitals of the same energy are available, Hund's rule states that
unoccupied orbitals will be filled before occupied orbitals are reused (by electrons having different spins).

The Pauli exclusion principle is the quantum mechanical principle that no two identical fermions (particles with
half-integer spin) may occupy the samequantum state simultaneously. A more rigorous statement is that the
total wave function for two identical fermions is anti-symmetric with respect to exchange of the particles. The
principle was formulated by Austrian physicist Wolfgang Pauli in 1925.

For example, no two electrons in a single atom can have the same four quantum numbers; if n, , and m are the
same, ms must be different such that the electrons have opposite spins, and so on.

Integer spin particles, bosons, are not subject to the Pauli exclusion principle: any number of identical bosons
can occupy the same quantum state, as with, for instance, photons produced by a laser and BoseEinstein
condensate.

In chemistry, valence, also known as valency or valence number, is the number of valence bonds a given atom
has formed, or can form, with one or more other atoms. For most elements the number of bonds can vary.
The IUPAC definition limits valence to the maximum number of univalent atoms that may combine with the atom,
that is the maximum number of valence bonds that is possible for the given element.

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The valence of an element depends on the number of valence electrons that may be involved in the forming of
valence bonds. A univalent (monovalent) atom, ion or group has a valence of oneand thus can form one covalent bond.
A divalent molecular entity has a valence of two and can form two sigma bonds to two different atoms or one sigma
bond plus one pi bond to a single atom.[3]Alkyl groups and hydroxyl ions are univalent examples; oxo ligands are
divalent.

Over the last century, the concept of valence evolved into a range of approaches for describing the chemical
bond, including Lewis structures (1916), valence bond theory (1927), molecular orbitals(1928), valence shell electron pair
repulsion theory (1958) and all the advanced methods of quantum chemistry.

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