SBVFinal 2011a

DESIGN GUIDE
FOR
STRUCTURAL BRICK VENEER
THIRD EDITION
WESTERN STATES CLAY

PRODUCTS ASSOCIATION
DESIGN GUIDE
FOR

Third Edition
Western States Clay Products Association

www.wscpa.us
www.iccsafe.org
Submitted by:
KPFF Consulting Engineers

1601 5th Ave. Suite 1600
Seattle, WA 98101
Third Edition, May 2011

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The Design Guide for Structural Brick Veneer was sponsored by Western States Clay Products
Association and written by KPFF Consulting Engineers. Principal-in-Charge for KPFF was John G.
Tawresey. The preparation of the report was directed by the Technical Committee of the Western
States Clay Products Association. The authors are appreciative of the help provided by Jim
Anderegg and Rick Crooks, Mutual Materials Company; James Amrhein; Gregg Borchelt, Brick
Industry Association; Jeff Elder, Interstate Brick Company; John Chrysler, Masonry Institute of
America; and Don Wakefield.
John G. Tawresey and John M. Hochwalt, KPFF Consulting Engineers prepared the 2011 Third
Edition.
The material presented in this publication, including technical and engineering data, figures,
drawings and tables, is for general information only. It should not under any circumstances be relied
upon for specific applications of the Structural Brick Veneer without independent evaluation by a
licensed design professional familiar with its specific use and application. Anyone making use of this
material does so at their own risk and assumes any and all liability resulting from such use.
This publication is based on the information contained in the 2009 International Building Code
(IBC), published by the International Code Council, the 2008 Building Code Requirements for
Masonry Structures, (TMS 402-08/ACI 530-08/ASCE 5-08) and the 2008 Specification for Masonry
Structures (TMS 602-08/ACI 530.1-08/ASCE 6-08) published by the Masonry Standards Joint
Committee of The Masonry Society. Throughout this publication, the International Building Code will
be referred to as the IBC and the Building Code Requirements for Masonry Structures and
Specification for Masonry Structures will be referred to as the TMS 402/ACI 530/ASCE 5 and TMS
602/ACI 530.1/ASCE 6, respectively.
ALL RIGHTS RESERVED: This publication is a copyright work owned by the Western States Clay
Products Association and the International Code Council. Without advance written permission from
the copyright owners, no part of this book may be reproduced, distributed or transmitted in any form
or by any means, including, without limitation, electronic, optical or mechanical means (by way of
example and no limitation, photocopying, or recording by or in an information storage and retrieval
system). For information on permission to copy material exceeding fair use, please contact: Western
States Clay Products Association, 22815 Frampton Ave., Torrance, CA 90501-5034, Phone: 800-
221-4000 or ICC Publications, 500 New Jersey Avenue, NW, 6th Floor, Washington, DC 20001-
2070, Phone: 888-ICC-SAFE (422-7233).
Trademarks: Western States Clay Products Association, and the WSCPA logo, International Code
Council and the ICC logo are trademarks of the Western States Clay Products Association and the
International Code Council, Inc. respectively.
Western States Clay Products Association 2 May 2011

PREFACE
The design of structural brick systems using clay brick, mortar, grout and reinforcing steel
has been in use for over 50 years. Historically, the system was most commonly used for
loadbearing walls, beams, columns, and fences. In some cases the products were used as
a cladding to wrap a structure without carrying vertical loads. The design concept discussed
in this design guide focuses on the Structural Brick Veneer (SBV) system.
Structural Brick Veneer is a unique approach to the design and construction of brick exterior
walls. Strengthening the brick with steel reinforcement provides opportunities to reduce the
cost of the wall, increase design flexibility and improve wall performance. In common use
since the late 1970s, the approach has been used throughout the United States.
The Structural Brick Veneer system is similar to conventional brick veneer except that the
brick is reinforced to allow it to span further between ties and supports. Reinforcing the
veneer further reduces costs by allowing the brick system to carry wind and seismic forces
and transfers the forces directly to the structure thus reducing the demand on backup
systems or other masonry framing. Reinforcing the veneer also reduces the deflection
requirements on perimeter beams and floors. The SBV system can be laid in place or built
at another location, transported to the site and then lifted into place.
The SBV system allows the architect a variety of opportunities to create traditional walls or
dramatic brick forms. Sloping windowsills, brick soffits, lintels without exposed ledger angles
and precast concrete bands and inserts are only a few examples of the design opportunities
available.
In areas of high seismic exposure, the SBV system can be easily isolated from the primary
structure making immediate occupancy performance more cost effective.
This design guide will provide the architect and the structural engineer with an introduction
to the design and specification of the Structural Brick Veneer system. It includes some
design examples and discussion of experiences with the system.

TABLE OF CONTENTS
LIST OF FIGURES .................................................................................................................... 6
CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION .................................................................................................... 9

1.0 General..................................................................................................................... 9
1.1 Purpose and Scope .................................................................................................. 9
1.2 History of the System ............................................................................................. 10
CHAPTER 2 SYSTEM DESCRIPTION ...................................................................................... 11

2.0 General................................................................................................................... 11
2.1 Structural Concept .................................................................................................. 11
2.2 Concept Configurations .......................................................................................... 13
2.2.1 Sloping Sills ................................................................................................. 14
2.2.2 Brick with Concrete Masonry ....................................................................... 15
2.2.3 Brick with Precast Concrete ......................................................................... 15
2.3 Weather and Thermal Protection ............................................................................ 15
CHAPTER 3 DESIGN ............................................................................................................. 17

3.0 General................................................................................................................... 17
3.1 Who Designs the Wall? .......................................................................................... 17
3.2 Design Criteria ........................................................................................................ 17
3.2.1 The Applicable Code Sections ..................................................................... 18
3.2.2 Design Life ................................................................................................... 18
3.2.3 Design Loads ............................................................................................... 18
3.2.4 Seismic Loads and Performance ................................................................. 19
3.2.5 Wind Loads and Performance ..................................................................... 20
3.2.6 Methods of Analysis and Design Assumptions ............................................ 20
3.2.6.1 Allowable Stress Design or Strength Design .................................. 21
3.2.6.2 Allowable Stresses ......................................................................... 21
3.2.6.3 Cracking of Brick ............................................................................ 22
3.2.6.4 Code Minimum Requirements ........................................................ 22
3.2.6.5 Connector Requirements ............................................................... 22
3.2.7 Isolation from the Building ........................................................................... 23
3.2.7.1 Vertical Isolation ............................................................................. 23
3.2.7.2 Horizontal Isolation in the Plane of the Wall ................................... 24
3.2.7.3 Horizontal Isolation Perpendicular to the Plane of the Wall ............ 24
3.2.7.4 Horizontal Isolation at Corners ....................................................... 25
3.2.7.5 Typical Deflection Magnitudes........................................................ 25
3.3 Designing the Wall ................................................................................................. 28
3.3.1 Layout or Configuration ............................................................................... 28
3.3.2 Design for Code Loading ............................................................................. 37
3.3.3 Design for Wall Cracking ............................................................................. 37
3.3.4 Design Connections..................................................................................... 38

3.3.4.1 Materials for Connectors ................................................................ 38

3.3.4.2 Design Methods and Assumptions ................................................. 38
3.3.4.3 Construction Tolerances ................................................................ 39
3.4 Design Examples ................................................................................................... 39
3.4.1 Example 1 .................................................................................................... 39
3.4.2 Example 2 .................................................................................................... 47
3.4.3 Example 3 .................................................................................................... 52
CHAPTER 4 SPECIFICATION.................................................................................................. 55
4.0 General................................................................................................................... 55
4.1 Quality Control and Assurance ............................................................................... 55
4.2 Masonry.................................................................................................................. 55
4.3 Steel for Connectors ............................................................................................... 57
4.4 Flashing/Weeps ...................................................................................................... 57
4.5 Sealants ................................................................................................................. 58
4.6 Water Repellents .................................................................................................... 58
4.7 Backup Wall ........................................................................................................... 59
4.8 Cavity ..................................................................................................................... 60
4.9 Expansion Joints .................................................................................................... 60
CHAPTER 5 CONSTRUCTION ................................................................................................ 61

5.0 General................................................................................................................... 61
5.1 Construction Sequence .......................................................................................... 61
5.2 Pre-Construction .................................................................................................... 62
5.3 Submittal Review .................................................................................................... 64
5.4 Site Visits................................................................................................................ 65
5.5 Non-Conforming Quality Control Tests ................................................................... 65
5.5.1 Unit Compression Strength .......................................................................... 65
5.5.2 Mortar Compression .................................................................................... 66
5.5.3 Grout Compression...................................................................................... 67
5.5.4 Prism Tests .................................................................................................. 68
5.6 Troubleshooting During Construction ..................................................................... 69
CHAPTER 6 TESTING............................................................................................................ 75
6.0 General................................................................................................................... 75
6.1 Air ........................................................................................................................... 75
6.2 Water ..................................................................................................................... 75
6.3 Structural ................................................................................................................ 75
CHAPTER 7 INDEX................................................................................................................ 77

LIST OF FIGURES
FIGURE 1 TYPICAL HOLLOW BRICK .......................................................................................... 11

FIGURE 2 TYPICAL STRUCTURAL BRICK VENEER CONNECTORS ................................................. 11
FIGURE 3 BRICK SUPPORTED ON A LEDGER ............................................................................. 12
FIGURE 4 TYPICAL STRUCTURAL BRICK VENEER DEAD LOAD CONNECTOR ................................. 12
FIGURE 5 DEAD LOAD ON FOUNDATION .................................................................................... 12
FIGURE 6 FLEXIBLE CONNECTORS ........................................................................................... 12
FIGURE 7 CANTILEVERED BRICK WITHOUT A LEGDER ................................................................ 13
FIGURE 8 SOLDIER AND SILL COURSING ................................................................................... 14
FIGURE 9 DRAMATIC BRICK FORMS ......................................................................................... 14
FIGURE 10 SLOPING WINDOW SILL .......................................................................................... 14
FIGURE 11 BRICK SOFFIT ....................................................................................................... 14
FIGURE 12 PRECAST IN STRUCTURAL BRICK VENEER ............................................................... 15
FIGURE 13 BRICK EXPANDING RESISTED BY THE REINFORCEMENT ............................................ 16
FIGURE 14 CRACKED BRICK .................................................................................................... 22
FIGURE 15 DIFFERENTIAL VERTICAL DEFLECTION ..................................................................... 23
FIGURE 16 HORIZONTAL DRIFT JOINT ...................................................................................... 24
FIGURE 17 CORNER CONNECTED TO THE STRUCTURE ABOVE ................................................... 25
FIGURE 18 CORNER NOT CONNECTED TO THE STRUCTURE ....................................................... 25
FIGURE 19 PROJECT 1............................................................................................................ 28
FIGURE 20 PROJECT 1 PIER CONCEPT BETWEEN WINDOWS ................................................... 29
FIGURE 21 LATERAL CONNECTION ........................................................................................... 29
FIGURE 22 DRIFT JOINT BEFORE LEDGER INSTALLATION ........................................................... 30
FIGURE 23 LEDGER INSTALLATION ........................................................................................... 30
FIGURE 24 BRICK COURSING AND LAYOUT ............................................................................... 31
FIGURE 25 DEAD LOAD CONNECTOR (HIGHEST CAPACITY) ....................................................... 31
FIGURE 26 FOUR INCH CORNER USING SIX INCH BRICK ............................................................ 32
FIGURE 27 SPECIAL UNIT WITH THICKER FACE SHELLS ............................................................ 32
FIGURE 28 AIR AND WATER BARRIER, INSULATION AND AIR GAP ............................................... 32
FIGURE 29 A PERFORATED STEEL CHANNEL WELDED TO THE WT FLANGE ................................ 33
FIGURE 30 BUILDING WITH ANTICIPATED DIFFERENTIAL SETTLEMENT ......................................... 33
FIGURE 31 CONCEPT FOR SETTLEMENT ................................................................................... 34
FIGURE 32 FLOOR LAYOUT ..................................................................................................... 35
FIGURE 33 TYPICAL BRICK VENEER ......................................................................................... 35
FIGURE 34 CURTAIN WALL ...................................................................................................... 35

FIGURE 35 FLOOR TIES .......................................................................................................... 36

FIGURE 36 STRUCTURAL BRICK CURTAIN WALL HOTEL ............................................................. 36
FIGURE 37 METAL BUILDING CLADDING ................................................................................... 37
FIGURE 38 STIFFNESS OF BRICK MASONRY.............................................................................. 37
FIGURE 39 STRIP SYSTEM EXAMPLE........................................................................................ 40
FIGURE 40 SUPPORT FOR THE WALL ....................................................................................... 40
FIGURE 41 BRICK USED IN THE EXAMPLE ................................................................................. 40
FIGURE 42 PLAN VIEW OF CONNECTOR ................................................................................... 43
FIGURE 43 SIMPLE LATERAL CONNECTOR ................................................................................ 45
FIGURE 44 FINAL DESIGN ....................................................................................................... 47
FIGURE 45 LOCATION OF CONNECTORS ................................................................................... 47
FIGURE 46 PLAN VIEW OF CONNECTOR ................................................................................... 49
FIGURE 47 DEAD LOAD CONNECTOR ....................................................................................... 49
FIGURE 48 DEAD LOAD MOMENT ............................................................................................. 50
FIGURE 49 RESISTING MOMENT .............................................................................................. 50
FIGURE 50 WARPING CORNER ................................................................................................ 53
FIGURE 51 FLUID GROUT ........................................................................................................ 56
FIGURE 52 PROTRUDING FLASHING DETAIL .............................................................................. 58
FIGURE 53 FLUSH FLASHING DETAIL ........................................................................................ 58
FIGURE 54 VARIATION OF FIELD MORTAR TESTS ...................................................................... 67
FIGURE 55 MORTAR 7 DAY AND 28 DAY TESTS ........................................................................ 67
FIGURE 56 VARIATION OF FIELD GROUT TESTS ........................................................................ 68
FIGURE 57 SEVEN DAY AND 28 DAY GROUT STRENGTH ............................................................ 68


CHAPTER 1 - INTRODUCTION
1.0 GENERAL 7. Reduced cost of the backup system.

8. Often lower construction cost.
Structural Brick Veneer (SBV) is the name 9. Greater resistance to cracking.
chosen to describe hollow reinforced clay
brick curtain wall systems. These systems 10. Greater water resistance.
commonly replace brick veneer walls. 11. Fire resistant structure.
The SBV system is similar to conventional

The system has been successfully used on
brick veneer because it supports no
hundreds of projects since the 1970s.
gravity loads other than its own weight,
the weight of windows, and possibly other
miscellaneous loads. The difference is 1.1 PURPOSE AND SCOPE
that in the SBV system, masonry is
The purpose of this guide is to provide the
reinforced to allow the brick to span
architect, structural engineer and owner
further between ties and provide structural
with information about the design and
capacity to create more intricately shaped
construction of SBV systems. A designer
walls.
or contractor moderately familiar with
SBV can be laid in-place similar to reinforced masonry design and
conventional brick veneer, or panels can construction will easily understand the
be prefabricated at another location and presented materials. For those not familiar
lifted and installed to their final position. with the design of reinforced brick
masonry, the Western States Clay
The system has many advantages over Products Publication, Notes on the
conventional brick veneer. Some of these Selection, Design and Construction of
advantages include: Reinforced Hollow Clay Masonry is a
recommended reference.
1. Greater design flexibility.
2. Reduced backup requirements. As the design and construction of
reinforced concrete and brick masonry
3. Enhanced design life through heavier
varies from location to location, so does
connections.
the design and construction of SBV. The
4. Reduced number of tie connections, information and recommendations in this
which provides a more continuous guide are based primarily on the design
moisture barrier. and construction of projects in the Western
5. Greater seismic resistance and more United States and Canada and are not
ductility. intended to replace local experience and
6. Less restrictive deflection requirements engineering judgment.
of the backup structure.

1.2 HISTORY OF THE SYSTEM This thinner, reinforceable, hollow clay unit
was economical, ductile, flexible and more
The origin of SBV dates back to the early predictable; thus expanding its use in
sixties. In 1962, a mechanical equipment commercial curtain wall systems as well as
penthouse was built on top of the nine- load-bearing residences, multi-story load-
story United Fund office building in bearing apartment buildings, and
Denver, Colorado. The 15 ft high, load prefabricated panels.
bearing, 4 in. thick clay brick prefabricated
panels supported long span, prestressed, During the 1970's, a similar system was
twin-tee concrete slabs that were the roof developed and perfected in Seattle, WA.
structure of the penthouse. This This system used a 31/2 in. thick hollow
construction was made possible by the clay brick similar to the one cited earlier
use of a new "tensile strength intensive" and was verified through testing conducted
exotic mortar and some backup by Western States Clay Products
reinforcing steel. Association.
This 4 in. brick and exotic mortar system The use of reinforceable structural brick as
was used for several years thereafter in a veneer has opened up hundreds of new
the Colorado area in prefabricated and in- design possibilities. As a consequence, the
situ, hand-laid brick panel and curtain wall system is found across the United Stated
applications on many commercial on multi-story high-rise office buildings,
buildings. This strong thin-wall system court houses, schools, apartment buildings,
intrigued designers who used it on and residences.
horizontal soffits, cantilevered balcony
railings, post-tensioned panels, load-
bearing and non-load-bearing walls on
schools, office buildings, hospitals, walls
in vehicular tunnels, highway rest area
toilet modules and picnic shelters. Later
investigations showed serious flaws with
the mortar product, and its use was
discontinued.
In the middle 1960's, a new clay unit

method of construction was developed in
Colorado that reduced costs and allowed
for the use of regular reinforcement and
standard mortar and grout. This unit was
a 31/2 in. x 31/2 in. x 111/2 in., hollow clay
brick using ASTM C212 recommendations.
This system accommodated both
horizontal and vertical reinforcing steel
and permitted high-lift grouting.

CHAPTER 2 - SYSTEM DESCRIPTION
2.0 GENERAL between building floors or columns. Thus,

conventional veneer ties are eliminated
The system relies on a simple structural and are replaced by more substantial
concept that will be described, followed by connectors. Figure 2 shows how the
the presentation of some typical connectors can be attached to the primary
configurations and a brief discussion of structural system of the building instead of
weather protection. a separate backup wall.
2.1 STRUCTURAL CONCEPT

SBV is essentially the same as conventional Plate
brick veneer except that the brick is
reinforced. Hollow bricks that can be
reinforced are a necessary part of the
system. Figure 1 shows a typical hollow
brick.
Angle
Tee with 1 hole
Figure 1 Typical Hollow Brick.
The actual dimension of hollow clay brick

is approximately 1/2 in. less then the
nominal, or bond dimension. For example,
a 12 in. long unit has an actual length of
111/2 inches, which allows for a 1/2 in.
mortar joint.
Figure 2 Typical SBV Connectors.
Reinforcement increases the structural
capacity of the brick wall. The spacing of Additionally, ledgers very similar to the
wall ties, typical in conventional veneers, ledgers of more conventional veneers can
can be increased. In most cases, the support the dead load of the SBV, Figure 3.
spacing can be increased to the distance

Figure 3 Brick Supported on a Ledger.
In other designs, separate discontinuous

connectors can be used to support the Figure 5 Dead Load on Foundation.
dead load. These connectors are similar in
design to those used to support precast The connectors of SBV are designed and
concrete panels. constructed to be flexible in one or more
directions and rigid in other directions.
Thus, the SBV can be isolated from the
movements of the building. In Figure 6,
Angle the top connector shows a flexible
connection in the in-plane and vertical
Plate directions. The bottom connector shows a
connection that is flexible in the horizontal
in-plane direction only.
Flexible
Embed
Stiff
Flexible
Figure 4 Typical SBV Dead Load Connector.
Another available option is to support the

dead load of the SBV on the building
Stiff
foundation as shown in Figure 5. Because
the SBV is designed in accordance with Stiff
the structural chapters of the code, height
and deflection limitations are generally Flexible
more liberal.
Figure 6 Flexible Connectors.

DESIGN OF THE SBV IS BASED ON THE permanent brick form. The designer also
FOLLOWING PRINCIPLES: has more choices to configure and attach
the wall. The number of different forms is
1. SBV is designed to be isolated from the controlled only by the designers
primary building structure. For imagination. Figure 7 is a simple example
Occupancy Categories I, II and III (non- of SBV design flexibility.
essential) facilities, the isolation should
be adequate to insure that the brick will
not be damaged by a slight to moderate
earthquake. For Occupancy Category
IV (essential) facilities, the isolation
should be adequate to insure that the
brick will not be damaged by a
maximum earthquake. The SBV must
not support the building or provide any
assistance to the stability of the
building as a whole.
2. SBV is commonly designed to have
mortar joint cracks at service wind and
seismic loading. However, brick
cracking should not occur. Cracking
should be limited to the horizontal bed
joints at the brick to mortar interface.
This is aesthetic design criteria rather Figure 7 Cantilevered Brick Without a Ledger.
than structural performance criteria.
Where conventional brick veneers rely on
3. The SBV is designed to transfer the wall ties and a backup structure to resist
loading to the connectors and the design loads, SBV can be laid as a wall,
connectors are designed to transfer the beam or panel to span to larger structural
loading to the primary structure. members such as floor beams, floors, or
columns.
2.2 CONCEPT CONFIGURATIONS
Conventional brick veneers are controlled
Because a reinforced brick wall has more by restrictive deflection criteria. SBV
capacity to resist loading, SBV buildings designed as walls or beams significantly
have greater flexibility in architecture. reduce this impact on the structure. SBVs
Walls are not limited to details controlled have been used to wrap existing buildings,
by gravity. They can be detailed as clad parking garages, face steel columns,
horizontal soffits, ornate cornices, sloping cantilever for parapets, wrap new
sills, prefabricated arches, beams and buildings as a curtain wall, used as a self
columns. The wall or panel can be supporting cladding over manufactured
configured in many different configurations. steel buildings, built on the ground and
The SBV is designed similar to erected onto buildings with confined
prefabricated concrete panels with a building sites.

more dramatically sloped sills may require

shoring during construction.
Where the depth of the slope does not

allow the weight of the brick veneer to
cantilever from the vertical wall, adding
connections or spanning horizontally to
column supports can provide alternative
support.
Reinforcement
Figure 8 Soldier and Sill Coursing.
The SBV system offers the architect a

variety of opportunities to create soldier
and sill coursing (Figure 8), dramatic brick
forms (Figure 9), sloping window sills
(Figure 10), brick soffits (Figure 11), lintels
without exposed ledger angles and
precast concrete bands as only a few
examples.
Figure 10 Sloping Window Sill.
Brick soffits can be designed and

constructed similar to the conditions
present at a sloping sill.
Figure 9 Dramatic Brick Forms.
2.2.1 SLOPING SILLS Reinforcement
Sloped sills are a common accent in brick

construction. Small slopes created from
special brick shapes can be readily
incorporated into the SBV wall. Larger, Figure 11 Brick Soffit.

2.2.2 BRICK WITH CONCRETE MASONRY connectors to the building frame or to the
SBV.
Another architectural variation is to
combine concrete masonry with SBV. Caulk joint at
the end of
This commonly takes the form of banding, the precast
either horizontal or vertical, or as an
accent pattern. In some circumstances,
concrete masonry may be used instead of
brick where it does not show and where
design loads do not require bricks higher
strength. Concrete masonry can be
incorporated into the SBV with ease. The
designer should coordinate the size of the
brick and concrete block cells to assure
that reinforcement in brick matches the
cells in the concrete masonry. Some Figure 12 Precast in SBV.
effort should be made to space the
reinforcement to match both modules. Also, precast concrete elements shrink
with time and drying, and expand with
Also, when using horizontal brick and moisture. When the brick and precast wall
concrete masonry bands, the designer is the primary water barrier, a soft joint
must recognize the opposing behavior and should be placed at the end of precast
strengths of the two materials and detail units embedded in SBV and caulked as
accordingly with movement joints and shown in Figure 12. This will allow the
reinforcement. Brick will expand with movement without creating a crack for
exposure to moisture while concrete water penetration. Design consideration
masonry is more dynamic and will shrink should be given to the opposing forces
with drying and expand with moisture. The created by the integration of the
addition of grout to concrete masonry expanding brick and the expanding and
adds moisture and with it, expansion and shrinking concrete.
contraction. Extra reinforcement and
additional movement or control joints may 2.3 WEATHER AND THERMAL
be added to reduce the impact of this PROTECTION
effect.
The primary function of the exterior wall is
2.2.3 BRICK WITH PRECAST CONCRETE to protect the interior of the building from
the weather.
Precast concrete window sills and heads
as well as accents (Figure 12) can be The SBV system provides a barrier for
successfully included in a SBV system. If weather protection. The walls performance
the precast elements are small, they can depends to a large extent on the
be added by providing holes through the prevention of water leakage through the
precast for the reinforcement. Large reinforced brick. Reinforced brick is more
precast components may require separate water-resistant than unreinforced brick.

The most obvious reason is that cracks Brick expands

are smaller and more evenly distributed
due to the resistance provided by Reinforcement
resists expansion
reinforcement. Since water repellent
performance is tied directly to crack width,
smaller more uniformly distributed cracks
enhance the performance of the water Reinforcement
repellent. resists expansion
Another reason that reinforced brick walls Brick expands

are more watertight is that brick expands
with age. When brick is made and fired in
a kiln, it contains no water. With time,
brick absorbs water and reaches
equilibrium with its moist environment. Figure 13 Brick Expanding Resisted by the
The absorption of water causes the brick Reinforcement.
to expand. This expansion, when in the
wall, will create a compressive force in the All masonry has the potential to leak and
brick leading to tighter head joints which allow water penetration. Masonry leaks
further reduces moisture penetration. more through the mortar and brick
interface than through the masonry unit
When designing for moisture expansion of itself. If the mortar and brick interface is
clay masonry, TMS 402/ACI 530/ASCE 5, cracked, leakage may increase. Where
Chapter 1 provides a coefficient of moisture intrusion cannot be tolerated, a
moisture expansion value of 0.0003 moisture barrier should be installed.
in./inch.
Structural Brick Veneer can be used in
When SBV expands, the reinforcement many different wall systems including the
resists the expansion as shown in Figure rainscreen wall. Because less water and
13. Reinforcement is stretched in tension air penetrate the brick for reasons stated
and brick masonry compressed. The above, the performance of this system is
benefit is smaller and fewer cracks. extremely advantageous.
Even with smaller cracks, leakage can still When designing an SBV system for
occur. Wind-driven water flows in sheets moisture, detailing is often similar to that
in all directions over the wall and of a traditional brick veneer with air
concentrates at discontinuities such as barriers, moisture barriers, flashing and
joints. Lateral movement of water is weep holes.
greatest near the windward corners.
Movement upward is greatest near the top For more information on the rainscreen
of the building. Tall buildings have greater walls, see Western States Clay Products
accumulation of water flow. Greater Association publication Design Guide for
distances between irregularities will result Anchored Brick Veneer Over Steel Studs.
in larger flows.

CHAPTER 3 - DESIGN
3.0 GENERAL team should address early in the design

process:
Once the decision to use SBV is made, the
next step is to provide for a design. By x How much of the wall design should
definition of the term veneer, SBV is not be shown on the design drawings?
commonly part of the primary structural
system and, consequently, may, or may x What are the design and
not be designed by the building design performance criteria for the wall?
team. Thus, the first issue to address is (This should include building
who designs the wall? Whether designed movements to be accommodated,
by the building design team or by a as well as design loads and the
consultant working for the contractor or expected performance associated
sub-contractor, the design criteria and with the design loads).
methods of analysis are the same. The x Where does the engineer of records
following paragraphs describe the design. responsibilities end and the
Later in Section 3.3 three design examples contractors responsibilities begin?
are reviewed.
x What is the contractor expected to
3.1 WHO DESIGNS THE WALL? do to support the wall, and is
bracing required of the building
Structural Brick Veneer, like other wall structure to resist the wall loads?
systems, can be developed by the design
team and bid; or it can be specified as a The last item can be critical because the
bidder-designed item. It has been done structural engineer of record often does not
successfully both ways. show bracing since (s)he is unaware of the
wall system to be used and the method of
The advantage of having the design team attachment is left to the contractor. The
provide the wall design is that it enables designer should clearly identify on the
the owner to solicit a bid based on a set of drawings the responsibility for the design,
drawings that includes coordinated construction, and bracing of each
architectural, structural, and SBV drawings, component of the wall system.
and all of the bidders are pricing the exact
same system. The advantage of having the No matter who designs the wall, the
bidders design the wall is that they can following information about the design
design a system that is optimized for their criteria and methods applies.
construction means and methods, allowing
them to offer higher value to the owner. 3.2 DESIGN CRITERIA
If the wall is designed by the contractor, The design criteria for SBV includes the
there are several questions that the design applicable code sections, the appropriate

design life, wind and seismic performance, Level 1 (Institutional) is intended to signify
loads, allowable stresses, code prescriptive a high level of quality and long life.
requirements and special connection Buildings of this type might include public
requirements. or institutional buildings. Specifically,
these are buildings where the additional
3.2.1 THE APPLICABLE CODE SECTIONS costs associated with higher quality are
judged to be necessary in meeting the
The term SBV may cause some overall project requirements. These are
confusion when applying the building often 80 to 100 year buildings.
code. The use of the term Veneer
implies non-structural. However, the Level 2 (Commercial) is intended to signify
design of the SBV uses the structural a good level of quality and an average
portions of the masonry building codes design life. Buildings of this type might
[Chapter 21 of the IBC and Chapters 2 or include general office, industrial, and
3 of TMS 402/ACI 530/ASCE 5]. But, they residential buildings. These are buildings
are used in combination with the where the additional cost of Level 1
performance criteria of the masonry (Institutional) quality is not economically
veneer sections of the code. justified or necessary. These are often 20
to 40 year buildings.
3.2.2 DESIGN LIFE
Increasing the quality of the connectors,
Design life is an important quantitative improving the weather resistance of the
measure that defines the quality of the materials and expanding on the amount of
project. Buildings will not last forever. The inspection and testing are the normal
owner and designer should establish a means to increase the design life.
reasonable design life for each project.
This requires consideration of the 3.2.3 DESIGN LOADS
economic factors such as initial cost and
maintenance costs. The design life will Typical loads applied to an SBV system
have an impact on the selection of include dead load, wind load, and seismic
materials, maintenance procedures, and load. The SBV should support no vertical
the selected factors of safety. load other than its own weight. In normal
practice, it may also support the weight of
The expected performance is also an window systems, small air handling units
important qualitative measure for the and possibly some ornamentation.
design of the project. The minimum
performance level is set by the building Most modern building codes contain two
code, however, there are aspects of the levels of loading, service loads (allowable
SBV system performance that are not stress design) and ultimate loads (strength
explicitly covered by the code and require design). Both levels of loading are used in
judgment. the design of SBV. Local jurisdictions must
be consulted for the correct design load
It has been useful to define two distinct criteria.
levels of expected life and performance:

3.2.4 SEISMIC LOADS AND PERFORMANCE Performance based seismic design

provides a helpful context for making
Seismic loads for the design of SBV are decisions about performance criteria for
determined in accordance with the portions SBV. The idea behind performance based
of the building code that address seismic seismic design is to determine a desired
loads on non-structural elements. The performance level for a given risk of
seismic loads defined by most codes are occurrence, typically targeting better
based on an ultimate loading condition, performance for events that would be
usually corresponding to 2/3 of the expected to occur more frequently. There
acceleration resulting from the 2500 year are currently several organizations
seismic event. In most regions, this preparing performance based standards for
corresponds approximately to a 500 year seismic design. The following discussion is
seismic event. based on ASCE 41 Seismic Rehabilitation
of Existing Buildings.
Most codes use an Rp factor that reduces
the seismic demand to account for the ASCE 41 considers four levels of risk and
ability of the system to dissipate energy four performance levels for nonstructural
through nonlinear behavior. In SBV, building components, like Structural Brick
nonlinear behavior includes cracking of Veneer. The four levels of risk are:
mortar and brick, and yielding of reinforcing
steel. The code usually requires 1. A frequent, 100 year earthquake
connections to be designed for higher 2. A less frequent, 250 year
forces by specifying a lower Rp for the earthquake
connections. This is because connections
are generally recognized as less ductile 3. The code level earthquake (as
and more susceptible to sudden failure. discussed above, approximately the
However, some systems have alternative 500 year earthquake)
load paths providing system ductility
through redundancy. The designer may 4. The maximum credible earthquake
have some flexibility in selecting the (MCE), the 2500 year event
appropriate Rp for his project.
The four performance levels are:
The building code is not specific about the 1. Operational:
expected performance of curtain walls and x Nonstructural components are
SBV under code-defined seismic loads. able to support the pre-
Judgment is required on the part of the earthquake functions of the
engineer to develop appropriate building.
performance criteria based on the project
x Connections yield, minor cracks
objectives. For example, failure of an SBV
(< 1/16-in. width) or bending in
over the firehouse door during a major
cladding.
earthquake is not acceptable, but complete
separation of an SBV from the frame on a
suburban office building with surrounding
planters may be acceptable.

2. Immediate occupancy: Most buildings designed to the minimum

x Non-structural components are requirements of the building code would
damaged but the building access be expected to achieve a life safety
and life safety systems remain performance when subjected to the code
operable and available. level event. For buildings where better
x Occupants could safely remain performance is desired, SBV offers
in the building, although normal significant advantages. If high seismic
use may be impaired and some performance criteria is combined with a
cleanup and inspection may be complex geometry (sills, soffits and
required. articulated surfaces) it is likely that SBV
x Connections yield, minor cracks will be the least costly system.
(< 1/16-in. width) or bending in
cladding. 3.2.5 WIND LOADS AND PERFORMANCE
x Presumably the latter criteria
would apply over building Wind loads for the design of SBV are
entrances and exits; more determined in accordance with the portions
damage may be acceptable at of the building code that address wind
other locations. loads on components and cladding. The
wind loads defined by most codes are
3. Life safety: based on a service loading condition,
x Nonstructural components are usually corresponding to a 50 year wind
damaged but the damage is not event.
life threatening.
x Significant and costly damage As is true with seismic design, building
has occurred to nonstructural codes do not explicitly consider an
components, but they have not expected performance associated with the
become dislodged or fallen and design load. The conceptual framework
x Severe distortion in connections. discussed under performance based
Distributed cracking, bending, seismic design above may be useful in
crushing, and spalling of cladding establishing performance expectations for
components. Some fracturing of wind events.
cladding, but panels do not fall.
3.2.6 METHODS OF ANALYSIS AND DESIGN
4. Hazards Reduced: ASSUMPTIONS
x Non-structural components are
damaged and could create The 2009 IBC and TMS 402-08/ACI 530-
falling hazards 08/ASCE 5-08 contain two methods for the
x Severe distortion in connections. design of Structural Brick Veneer,
Distributed cracking, bending, Allowable Stress Design [IBC Section 2106
crushing, and spalling of and 2107, and TMS 402/ACI 530/ASCE 5,
cladding components. Some Chapter 2] and Strength Design [IBC
fracturing of cladding, but panels Section 2106 and 2108, and TMS 402/ACI
do not fall in areas of public 530/ASCE 5, Chapter 3]. Both methods
assembly. are used in the design of SBV. Local

jurisdictions must be consulted for the additional information resulted from

correct design load criteria. unpublished testing on projects, but fit into
generally accepted principles of mechanics
3.2.6.1 ALLOWABLE STRESS DESIGN OR commonly used by structural engineers.
STRENGTH DESIGN They are as follows:
The following discussion presents primarily 1. Shear cone capacity of masonry for
allowable strength design methods, since pullout is typically taken as the beam
this has been the most commonly used allowable shear stress (1.0 x (f m)1/2 d
approach. The allowable stress design 50 psi, TMS 402/ACI 530/ASCE 5,
method uses the alternative load Section 2.3.5.2.2).
combinations contained in 2009 IBC Code
Section 1605.3.2 in combination with the 2. Shear cone angle is conservatively
allowed 1/3 stress increase. This method of assumed to be 20 degrees instead of
design passes on the historical experience the more commonly used 45 degrees.
with the system. Using the allowable load
combinations (2009 IBC Section 1605.3.1) 3. Torsion allowable stresses are
that do not allow the 1/3 stress increase will assumed equal to the beam shear
result in more conservative designs than allowable stress (1.0 x (f m)1/2 d 50 psi).
historically used. Applying the strength
design load combinations of 2009 IBC 4. The concrete shear friction equation is
Sections 1605.2.1 in combination with assumed to apply with a friction factor,
Chapter 3 of TMS 402/ACI 530/ASCE 5 P, of 0.4, (Av = Vu / P Fy). The ultimate
will result in some aspects of the design shear is taken as 2.0 times the design
being more aggressive and other aspects shear.
more conservative. Experience with the
application of the Strength Design method 5. Tension allowable stress of the brick
to Structural Brick Veneer is limited and the mortar interface is typically neglected.
designer is cautioned to verify any design
against the allowable stress design with the 6. Allowable flexural tensile stress of brick
1
/3 stress increase. units is assumed to be 10% of the
compression capacity. The allowable
3.2.6.2 ALLOWABLE STRESSES stress is determined by applying an
appropriate factor of safety for the load
The allowable stresses permitted in SBV condition being considered. While
are the same as those allowed for cracking at the interface between the
structural reinforced masonry. The one- brick and mortar is acceptable, the brick
third increase in allowable stress is typically units should not crack at service loads.
used for load combinations, including wind This allowable flexural tensile stress for
and seismic loads. the brick units should not be confused
with the allowable tension values for the
The design of the wall and connectors masonry assembly provided in the code
requires additional information not typically for tension parallel and perpendicular to
included in the building codes. This

the bed joints and for different bonding 3.2.6.5 CONNECTOR REQUIREMENTS
patterns and mortars.
Most seismic codes have special minimum
7. The allowable bond stress to plain steel criteria for the design of curtain wall
is assumed to be 60 psi or the same connections. These provisions are
value as the historical allowable bond principally directed towards precast
stress to plain bars. (Unfortunately this concrete panels used as curtain walls and
value is no longer in the code, but is it is reasonable to assume they apply to
presented here as a necessary value). SBV.
3.2.6.3 CRACKING OF BRICK One example is the 2009 IBC, Section

1613 which references (2005) ASCE 7.
Cracked brick can be an aesthetic problem Section 13.5.3 of ASCE-7 contains the
even though the structural capacity may be following requirements:
adequate. The engineer should decide the
13.5.3 Exterior Nonstructural Wall Elements and
appropriate service design loading and the
Connections. Exterior nonstructural wall panels or
factor of safety to be applied. See Figure elements that are attached to or enclose the structure
14. shall be designed to accommodate the seismic
relative displacements defined in Section 13.3.2 and
movements due to temperature changes. Such
elements shall be supported by means of positive
and direct structural supports or by mechanical
connections and fasteners in accordance with the
following requirements:
a. Connections and panel joints shall allow for the
story drift caused by relative seismic
displacements (Dp) determined in Section 13.3.2,
or 0.5 in. (13 mm) whichever is greatest.
b. Connections to permit movement in the plane of
Cracked the panel for story drift shall be sliding
brick connections using slotted or oversize holes,
connections that permit movement by bending of
Figure 14 Cracked Brick. steel, or other connections that provide
equivalent sliding or ductile capacity.
3.2.6.4 CODE MINIMUM REQUIREMENTS
c. The connecting member itself shall have
sufficient ductility and rotation capacity to
Since SBV is not classified as structural in preclude fracture of the concrete (masonry) or
the code, the minimum prescriptive brittle failures at or near welds.
requirements of most structural codes do
not apply. For example, one could d. All fasteners in the connecting system such as
interpret the code such that the usual bolts, inserts, welds and dowels and the body of
the connectors shall be designed for the force
minimum reinforcement spacing would not
(Fp) determined by Section 13.3.1 with values of
apply to SBV. Rp and ap taken from Table 13.5-1 applied at the
center of mass of the panel.

e. Where anchorage is achieved using flat straps 3.2.7.1 VERTICAL ISOLATION

embedded in concrete or masonry, such straps
shall be attached to or hooked around reinforcing The vertical movement can result from
steel or otherwise terminated so as to effectively deflections due to live loads, settlement,
transfer forces to the reinforcing steel or to assure creep, thermal expansion of the SBV and
that pullout of anchorage is not the initial failure
many other sources. The following figure
mechanism.
shows the impact of heavy file cabinets on
a single floor.
3.2.7 ISOLATION FROM THE BUILDING
The most challenging part of the design of

the SBV system is in determining how to
isolate it from the building frame so that
unintended loads are not transferred to or
from the SBV panel. Proper consideration
by the structural engineer of record and the
designer of the SBV system should be
given to potential loading from settlement,
creep, thermal expansion and contraction,
post-tensioning, concrete shrinkage of Vertical isolation
slabs, deflection of slabs and beams, in
addition to the intended transfer of external
loads back to the structure. There are
many ways that this can be accomplished
and a few will be discussed.
The amount of isolation is an important

factor and the code does not provide Figure 15 Differential Vertical Deflection.
precise criteria. As a result, the engineer-
of-record must provide this criteria for The different amount of vertical loading on
systems that will be designed by the the floors will result in a shortening or
contractor. Projects using performance lengthening of the distance between the
based seismic design may require floors. In many buildings, this can be an
consideration of drifts exceeding the drifts important factor and can result in
permitted by the building code. differential deflections of greater than
three-quarters of an inch. If the system
There are three directions of movement does not provide compliance for this
that need to be considered; vertical, movement, the file cabinet load can
horizontal in the plane of the wall, and transfer into the SBV instead of the floor
horizontal perpendicular to the plane of the beams and could cause failure.
wall. The building behind the wall, while
seemingly static, is, in fact, subject to a If the building is constructed of concrete,
variety of different movements in all three the concrete shrinkage and creep will
directions. contribute to the shortening between floors.
In high-rise construction, the elastic and

differential elastic shortening may become Movement or drift joint

important and may possibly affect the
construction schedule and sequencing.
If an SBV is designed as a curtain wall with

the wall bearing on the foundation and
restrained out-of-plane at each floor,
vertical isolation will be required at each
floor to accommodate building creep,
shortening, slab deflections, and thermal
expansion and contraction of the wall.
3.2.7.2 HORIZONTAL ISOLATION IN THE PLANE

OF THE WALL Figure 16 Horizontal Drift Joint.
Shrinkage of concrete floors, and creep in These joints are usually called drift joints
floors due to post-tensioning will cause the and can be located at any horizontal plane
SBV panel to shorten if they are restrained of the building.
from moving laterally in the plane of the
wall. The drift joint in the SBV does not
necessarily need to match the drift joint in
Lateral forces from wind and seismic the interior finishes. Often the interior stud
loading cause horizontal movement of the system is isolated underneath the slab with
building frame. When one floor moves a compensation channel, while the exterior
horizontally relative to the adjacent (higher wall drift joint is at the head of the window.
or lower) floor, the wall system must If the brick is not attached to the interior
accommodate any such movement. wall, as in SBV, then this is not a problem.
This issue can be a problem for
In the design of earthquake forces, the conventional veneers. When horizontal
designer must consider the deflections (drift joints) joints change elevation at
created from the building oscillating back different surfaces of the wall, horizontal
and forth. This oscillation causes one floor displacement is difficult to accommodate
to move in a direction opposite the floor
above and or below it. If the SBV is 3.2.7.3 HORIZONTAL ISOLATION
attached to both floors, then the veneer PERPENDICULAR TO THE PLANE OF THE WALL
would resist the lateral forces and possibly
fail. The amount of differential horizontal Horizontal movements perpendicular to the
movement can be large; with up to four plane of the wall are accommodated by
inches being common in areas of high out-of-plane bending of the masonry.
seismic activity. Typically, reinforced masonry has the
capacity to accommodate large deflections
A movement joint at the window head is in this direction and isolation in this
commonly used to accommodate the direction is easily accomplished.
horizontal movement.

3.2.7.4 HORIZONTAL ISOLATION AT CORNERS
These concepts are simple until the joint

reaches the corner. Corners provide
additional natural restraint and can result in
an unwanted attachment to the frame. The
following figure shows an example of an
SBV where the connection to the structure
near the corner was designed to be rigid for
forces perpendicular to the wall.
Figure 18 Corner Not Connected to the

Structure.
Another method is to accommodate the

movement with warping of the corner
panel. This will be shown in example 3,
Section 3.4.3.
3.2.7.5 TYPICAL DEFLECTION MAGNITUDES
The amount of isolation required depends

Figure 17 Corner Connected to the Structure on loading and expected performance.
Above. There are no known accepted national
standards, but as a guide, Table 1 presents
There are several methods available to typical values and code requirements for
provide isolation at a corner. One method isolation.
is to eliminate the connections from the
corner to the floor above and have the SBV
resist the loading.

TABLE 1 TYPICAL MOVEMENT DESIGN CRITERIA (1)
Maximum Other Typical

Movement Structural Source of Movement Recommended Values of Isolation Method Acceptable Damage
Type System Movement Permitted by Limits on Movement
Code Movement
Vertical Compensation channel at

None
Floors the window head
Steel or Differential
L/600 (2) L/600 < 3/8 1/4s
concrete application of
(4) Soft joint under the ledger
live load None
angle
Allow the concrete to dry

Shrinkage
Concrete (2) (3) 1/16s and cure before installing None
with drying
the veneer
Locate connections and/or

panel joints so that the SBV
Creep (2) (3) (3) does not need to
accommodate the structural
movement.
Vertical Only applies to high-rise

Differential
Columns buildings where the veneer
Steel elastic (2) (3) (3) None
is installed prior to finishing
shortening
the building frame
Allow the concrete to dry

Concrete Shrinkage (2) (3) 1/16s and cure before installing None
the veneer
Compensation channel at
Creep (2) (3) 1/16s
the window head
None
Soft joint under the ledger
angle
Lateral Frame of Usually absorbed elastically

steel or Wind (2) 0.002H 3/8s None
in the system
concrete
Seismic Slip channel at the window

Depends on head
(Code Severe damage to portions of the wall and
occupancy:
Minimum 1/2 min. 2 1/2 to 3s minor separation from the building. Face
0.01H to
Design) 0.025H Drift joint under the ledger shells and some units separated from wall.
angle
Collapse Prevention Performance Level:

Major damage not repairable. Large
Seismic As determined portions of the wall have substantial
Slip Channel at the window
(Performance by Engineer of damage and create falling hazards.
head
Based (2) record for event Varies Life Safety Performance Level: Major
Seismic and performance Drift joint under ledger
damage repairable. Severe damage to
Design) level angle
portions of the wall and minor separation
from the building with no panel falling
hazard.

Movement Structural Source of Maximum Other Typical Isolation Method Acceptable Damage
Type System Movement Movement Recommended Values of
Permitted by Limits on Movement
Code Movement
(Continued)
Immediate Occupancy Performance Level:
Minor damage repairable. Cracking of
masonry bed joints is expected. Some
cracking of bricks at corners. Some vertical
cracking through brick units is likely but
limited. Some separation of face shells
from the wall and units from parapets and
other appendages.
Operational Performance Level: No
damage. Hairline cracking of masonry bed
joints may exist with or without seismic
event.
Usually absorbed elastically

Shear Wall Wind (2) 0.002H 1/8s None
in the system
Seismic Depends on
(Code occupancy: Slip channel at the window
Minimum 1/2 min. 1/4 to 1/2 s Severe damage to portions of the wall and
0.01H to head
Design) minor separation of from the building. Face
0.025H
shells and some units separated from the
Drift joint under the ledger wall.
angle
Seismic Collapse Prevention Performance Level:
(Performance As determined Major damage not repairable. Large
Based by Engineer of Slip channel at the window portions of the wall have substantial
(2) record for event Varies
Seismic head damage and create falling hazards.
Design) and performance
level Life Safety Performance Level: Major
Drift joint under the ledger damage repairable. Severe damage to
angle portions of the wall and minor separation
from the building with no panel falling
hazard.
Immediate Occupancy Performance Level:
Minor damage repairable. Cracking of
masonry bed joints is expected. Some
cracking of bricks at corners. Some vertical
cracking through brick units is likely but
limited. Some separation of face shells
from the wall and units from parapets and
other appendages.
Operational Performance Level: No
damage. Hairline cracking of masonry bed
joints may exist with or without seismic
event.
(1) This table should not be used for design. Each project has unique requirements. L denotes column to column span of structure at perimeter of building. H denotes floor to floor height.
(2) No limit in code.
(3) Depends on the structure.
(4) These are the limits historically associated with members supporting unreinforced masonry. It is recommended to conform to this for SBV to avoid cracking.

3.3 DESIGNING THE WALL PROJECT 1
The discussion describing the design of an The structural design of the exterior wall is
SBV wall will be divided into four parts: typically one of the last items to be
designed. Often the design is left to the
1. Layout or configuration. exterior wall contractor without the
involvement of the engineer of record. This
2. Design of the wall for code prescribed was the case in this first example. The
loading. design of the hospital project was nearly
complete. The architects concept for the
3. Design of the wall to prevent cracking of exterior wall was a brick veneer over metal
the brick. studs. The design had assumed a 9 in.
4. Design of the connections. thickness for the wall: Three and one half
inches of brick, a 11/2 in. cavity and 35/8 in.
In the normal process of design, all four deep steel studs. The floor height was 14
parts are accomplished at the same time. ft 8 in. with a 9 ft 6 in. ceiling height.
Following the four parts, several design
examples demonstrating the methods will
be presented.
3.3.1 LAYOUT OR CONFIGURATION
Usually the designer begins with an

architectural rendering of the wall
elevations. The designer must decide on
the method of isolation and the locations to
react the dead load, wind and seismic
loads applied to the wall. This should be
done by the engineer and architect of
Figure 19 Project 1.
record whether or not the wall will be
designed by them or the contractor.
When the project structural engineer was
asked to size the steel studs (beyond his
Describing the process for deciding the
scope of work), a discussion of design
configuration of the veneer is difficult. It is
criteria ensued. The generally accepted
part of the art of structural engineering and
deflection limit of /600 was adopted as the
experience will help. Three example
appropriate standard. The design wind
projects are presented to provide some
loading was 30 pounds per square foot. A
insight into the issues. These represent
quick review of the Steel Stud
complex applications of the SBV
Manufacturing Association design tables
configurations and were chosen to
indicated 400S200-54 studs at 12 in. on
demonstrate the flexibility of the system.
center. Budget concerns quickly emerged.
Simpler applications are more common.
Adding thickness to the exterior wall was
rejected because it would reduce building

space and would require redesign of the The brick masonry is supported on
building interior. The design of the project continuous angles located at the window
stopped because of the problem. head. These angles, or ledgers, are
supported on a girt system suspended
SBV provides another option for from hangers with kickers framing back to
consideration as shown in Figure 20. The the underside of the slab.
4 in. reinforced brick wall could span the 9
ft 6 in. as a simple span between the floor Lateral bracing at the floor consists of
and a girt system and the stud wall could galvanized 1/8 in. thick plates with holes for
be significantly reduced in cost. Both the vertical reinforcement. This brace is
SBV and the BV/SS systems were priced flexible in the vertical direction and stiff in
and the SBV solution was less expensive. both horizontal directions.
The solution was to provide a nominal 4 The seismic or drift joint is located at the
in. thick (actual thickness is 31/2 in.) SBV window head, below the ledger. The joint
wall system supported as shown in Figure directly below the ledger is a caulked joint.
20. The masonry units were nominal 4 x 4 Another lateral brace is located below the
x 12 in. with two 13/4 x 31/2 in. cells. The ledger. This brace is stiff perpendicular to
design f 'm was 4,000 psi. the plane of the wall and flexible in both
the horizontal (in-the-plane of the wall)
and the vertical directions. This is
accomplished by using a 1/8 in. thick
Drift joint at the window head
galvanized plate with holes for the vertical
reinforcement supported by two 1/8 in.
thick galvanized plates welded to the
Window
bottom of the girt and welded to the plate

into the brick.
Drift
joint
Angle
Girt
Side
plates
Drift joint at the window head

Lateral brace
Figure 21 Lateral Connection.

Figure 20 Project 1 Pier Concept
Between Windows.

The stud wall used 26-gauge steel studs

at 16 in. on center, solving the budget
problem. The stud system was used only
for the support of the water barrier, the air
barrier, and interior wallboard.
Figure 23 Ledger Installation.
Project 2
The second project is also a hospital

addition located in an area of high seismic
risk. On this project, the architects
envisioned a classic brick building. They
initially intended to use a brick-faced
precast panel as the cladding system. This
system was selected over a brick veneer
on steel studs because of higher seismic
performance of the system at the building
corners. Initial pricing of the brick-faced
Figure 22 Drift Joint Before Ledger
precast was well in excess of budgeted
Installation. amounts. Consequently, a Structural Brick
Veneer system was considered. Because
ASTM A706 reinforcement, eighteen of the coursing and articulation of the
inches long, is welded to the ledgers and brick, the pricing of the Structural Brick
the brick was laid by threading brick units Veneer was significantly better. The SBV
over the reinforcement. Since the Code system also weighed less than brick-faced
does not permit seismic forces to be precast panels.
transferred by friction, dowels are required
to transfer seismic and wind forces from Because of the high seismic performance
the wall to the ledger angle and then to the requirements, the SBV wall is attached to
building. There were no brick ties to a the building with connectors, like a panel,
backup and since friction is not permitted instead of set on a continuous ledger as in
to transfer seismic load, dowels the previous example. Connections in this
transferred the forces. When masonry example are similar to a precast panel
construction reached the drift joint location, system, except the bricks are laid in place
bars were dropped into the vertical cells and engage the connectors as the
and the wall was solidly grouted. construction progresses. This provided

designers and contractors the flexibility to adjusted vertically to lie on the top of the
create difficult shapes and coursing. brick and the tension-control bolts were
Vertical control joints are used to separate tightened to the standard pretensioning
the panels. requirements. Vertical reinforcing bars
were then dropped through the holes in
the shelf angle, and the masonry lay-up
continued up to the level where the panel
was grouted. Only three different gravity
connector types were used for the entire
project, with the number of fin plates
varying according to load capacity.
Figure 24 Brick Coursing and Layout.
A panel of brick is supported on only two

discreet dead load connections. As in
precast, only two points of gravity support Figure 25 Dead Load Connector (Highest
Capacity).
per panel are used in order to avoid
having the vertically stiff panel act as a Custom brick units were created for this
multiple-span continuous beam. For this project. The design required a 6-in. brick
project, which has a reinforced concrete width to accommodate the loading, story
basic structure, embedded steel angles height and layout of connections. The
were set in the slab/beam edges at the architect wanted the corner to express a 4
support points. As shown in Figure 25, the in. unit. The shapes shown in the Figure
connection then consists of vertical 26 were created to accomplish this.
cantilever fin plates that are field aligned
and welded to the embeds. A vertical face- Additionally, mortar droppings were
plate was shop welded to the fins and potentially a serious problem, as the
mated with a short shelf angle with ASTM droppings may prevent grout from
A325 bolts in vertically slotted holes. surrounding the reinforcement. Corrosion
These holes provide for vertical field of the reinforcement will result in cracking
tolerance. When the masons laid up the of brick and require repair of areas where
brick to the course where these bearing it occurs. The droppings result when
connections occurred, the shelf angle was excess mortar is laid on the face shall, and

A horizontal joint was placed at window

head level to accommodate horizontal
building drifts and vertical structural
deflections. Since the bricks were laid in
place, there needed to be a temporary
support at the horizontal joint on which to
start the next panel. This was
accomplished by installing a layer of rigid
polystyrene foam in place of a mortared
bed joint. After the panel was complete
and the grout was set, the foam layer
could be removed, but it was left in place
Figure 26 Four Inch Corner Using Six Inch and becomes the backing for the joint
Brick. caulking. The flashing was placed on top
of the foam layer, attached to the
mortar falls into the cell. To help prevent sheathing and overlapped by the water
this, special units were designed with membrane. Similar to the case with
thicker face shells (Figure 27) and the anchored veneer, an air gap was used
masons were instructed to place the between the sheathing and insulation, as
normal amount of bedding mortar during shown in the project pictured in Figure 28.
construction. Since the wall was grouted
solid, any mortar joints not filled with
mortar would be filled with grout.
Figure 27 Special Unit with Thicker Face

Shells.
Self-consolidating grout was used which

removed the need for consolidation and
reconsolidation. High lift grouting
procedures were used. Clean-outs were
not required because the mortar Figure 28 Air and Water Barrier, Insulation
droppings were controlled. and Air Gap.

Several different configurations of lateral project was built on fill with friction piling
connections were used, but most used to support the load. The foundation
consisted of a WT section with its stem design was such that 1/2 in. of differential
embedded in a mortar joint from the back- settlement was expected in 50 ft. The
side of the brick. A preformed steel building was also located in an area of high
channel was welded to the WT flange with seismic risk. The typical wall elevation is
a threaded push/pull rod extending back shown in Figure 30.
through the sheathing to an angle that
cantilevered down from the concrete
beam soffit. These are shown in Figure
29 awaiting the brick to be laid up to
encase them.
1
/2 inch differential displacement
Figure 30 Building with Anticipated Differential

Settlement.
Figure 29 A Perforated Steel Channel Welded to
the WT Flange. Load bearing reinforced brick columns
would have been a logical approach for the
Project 3
support of the building, but not many
A third example is a combination of laid-in- engineers or architects are familiar with
place SBV and prefabricated SBV or brick structural brick systems. Instead, the
panels. Brick panels are similar to SBV, building vertical load resisting system was
except they are laid off-site, usually in a steel, with wood floors overlaid with
warehouse or other location with a lightweight concrete fill. When the design
controlled environment, and transported to of the exterior wall was initiated, the design
the project and lifted into place. This of the rest of the building was complete.

The masonry subcontractor was confronted Panel

with the problem of designing a system
that accommodated the differential
settlement criteria; met the budget
constraints; and provided the owner with
the anticipated brick building image. The
Structural brick veneer
Structural brick veneer

solution was to use SBV column elements Panel
with the dead load supported at the
foundation. These elements carried only
Panel connectors
the exterior wall dead load, but only utilized allow rotation here
about 10% of their compression capacity. Panel
Lateral bracing was provided at each floor.
The SBV columns could easily support the All connections to the
building are made at
dead load of the spandrel brick. To the column
accommodate the differential movement,
the spandrel elements were designed to 1
/2 inch differential displacement
rotate. This rotation was to be designed
into the connections because the brick was
too rigid to work without cracking. The Figure 31 Concept for Settlement.
brick panels were attached to the SBV
columns with connectors that allowed them Project 4
to pivot while being stiff for loads
perpendicular to the surface. This is a The final example is another type of
challenge, even for the most experienced system described as a curtain wall. By
engineers. definition, a curtain wall is an outer
covering of a building in which the outer
The columns were constructed of 8 in.
walls are non-structural. Frequently we
brick and reinforced. They supported the
think of a curtain wall as a glass wall
entire dead load of the wall, but the lateral
system that intuitively we know cannot
connectors to the building were flexible in
support vertical load other than its own
the vertical directions so that none of the
weight but is designed primarily to keep
building dead load was supported on the
out the weather.
brick. The panels were constructed of 4 in.
brick. They were shipped 600 miles from
In a similar manner, the brick curtain wall
the fabrication yard to the building location.
faade does not carry any dead load
weight other than its own. The wall
transfers horizontal wind and earthquake
loads that are imposed upon it to the main
building structure through connections at
floors or columns of the building. These
connections accommodate building creep,
expansion and contraction, sway and floor
deflections to name a few.

The brick curtain wall is also designed to

resist air and water infiltration. Glass
curtain walls are typically designed with
extruded aluminum members infilled by
glass. In contrast, reinforced brick curtain
walls are made of structural hollow clay
brick, mortar, steel reinforcement and
grout.
In this example, a 14 story hotel is

designed using hollow core planking
bearing on masonry shear wall partitions
which separate the units. The structural
brick curtain wall wraps the building on all
4 sides and connects at the floors.
Structural brick curtain wall Figure 33 Typical Brick Veneer.
The brick curtain wall system is designed

similar to a typical veneer system with
flashing and weep holes at each floor line.
Continuous insulation forms a thermal
barrier for the wall and light gage studs
are placed behind the insulation to
CMU bearing walls support gypsum sheathing and provide for
electrical boxes.
Flashing and weeps
Continuous brick - no
shelf angles
Beam not required

for brick gravity loads
Ties at floor and roof
Figure 32 Floor Layout.
Unlike typical brick veneer walls that are

supported on shelf angles and supported
at each floor (See Figure 33), the
structural brick curtain wall is supported at
the foundation and runs continuously to
the roof with ties at the floor lines. Figure 34 Curtain Wall.

There are several benefits to the curtain Another advantage was that the exterior
wall system compared to conventional wall assembly could be constructed from
brick veneer over steel stud backup or the exterior toward the interior where a
CMU backup. First of all, the CMU backup brick veneer has to be constructed from
system is heavier, occupies more building the interior (backup) toward the exterior.
space, requires more complicated support This requires scaffolding and with limited
connections at each floor and is more site access adjacent to a busy city
expensive. intersection and not having to manage
traffic was a significant cost savings.
Figure 35 Floor Ties.

Figure 36 Structural Brick Curtain Wall Hotel.
For the building shown in Figure 36, the
decision to use a brick curtain wall system The structural brick could be laid from
became the optimum solution because the inside the building on the floor which
designer wanted to reuse the existing eliminated the cost of scaffolding the
footings and needed a lighter solution that project. Direct savings totaled more than
could replace the existing all-glass exterior half a million dollars on an order of 90,000
without exceeding the footing capacity. pieces of 6 x 4 x 16 brick. The savings
The first floor was retail and required a was more than 1.5 times the cost of the
glass storefront. The hollow core planking brick to the job getting the brick for free
did not have the stiffness to support an plus some.
edge load of brick veneer for deflection
and torsion without adding a perimeter
beam.

This curtain wall system concept can be In areas of high shear, additional
used to clad pre-engineered metal reinforcement may be required.
buildings in brick. Structural brick Reinforcement should also surround
eliminates the need for stud backup. Wall connectors and openings.
ties are limited to anchors that connect the
wall to the girts and columns. The added 3.3.3 DESIGN FOR WALL CRACKING
stiffness of the reinforced masonry acts as
a shear wall integrating the lateral An important performance criterion is to
resistance of the building to the masonry as prevent the cracking of brick. This condition
seen in Figure 37. usually is not a structural problem for
reinforced brick masonry, however, it is an
aesthetic problem. The design for this
performance criterion is typically done as
follows:
To prevent cracking of the brick, the

moments in the horizontal direction (stiff
direction) are compared to the resistance of
the wall in that direction. See Figure 38.
Failure would involve cracking of the brick
unit and the head joint. Cracking due to
vertical moments would result in cracking
Figure 37 Metal Building Cladding of the horizontal bed joint which is not an
aesthetic problem.
3.3.2 DESIGN FOR CODE LOADING Deflected shape
Stiff
The reinforcement size and spacing are
typically determined by conventional
Allowable Stress Design. Maximum
moments usually occur at mid-span for
simple configurations or at connectors for
Flexible
cantilevered configurations. Both horizontal
and vertical reinforcement should be
provided because most walls behave as
plates with moments in both directions.
The design often proceeds, however, by
assuming simple spans with full loading in
each direction.
Maximum spacing of reinforcement should Figure 38 Stiffness of Brick Masonry.

be less than 4 ft with 3 ft a common value.
Typically, bar sizes are No. 3 and 4 bars in Tests performed by Western States Clay
4 in. walls and No. 3, 4 and 5 bars in 5 in. Products Association and other
and 6 in. walls. unpublished tests in the early 1970s have

shown that brick masonry in running bond occur only once in the building life, it is
direction is nearly 10 times as stiff as brick recommended to use a small factor of
masonry in the vertical direction. For safety on the tension capacity of the brick.
normal brick orientations, loads tend to run A value of 1.25 has been successfully
horizontally to the supports. applied.
Most code wind loading is based on a 3.3.4 DESIGN CONNECTIONS

mean return period of 50 years and this
often represents a reasonable level of wind Each configuration has a unique set of
loading expected once in the life of the reactions for each code-required load
average building. However, in some cases, combination. The reactions must be
it may be appropriate to increase or supported by the connectors and the
decrease this level to better match the structure. The connectors must be of
criteria for the project. sufficient strength and ductility to meet the
capacity and ductility requirements.
Seismic loading would usually correspond
3.3.4.1 MATERIALS FOR CONNECTORS
to the moderate level earthquake. It is
probably unreasonable to design to the Most connectors are constructed of
major level earthquake to prevent an miscellaneous steel angles, tees and
aesthetic problem. plates. For Level 1 (institutional)
performance they are typically galvanized.
The resistance of the wall is provided by For Level 2 (commercial) performance they
the masonry without consideration of the are shop painted. Stainless steel
reinforcement. The masonry is assumed connectors are probably not warranted and
not cracked. Without the reinforcement, there are only a few known installations.
the resistance is provided by the bricks and
mortar joints. It is conservative to assume 3.3.4.2 DESIGN METHODS AND ASSUMPTIONS
that there is no capacity for the head joint
to resist tension stresses, consequently all Conventional design methods apply to the
of the resistance is provided by the tensile design of the connectors, except for the
capacity of the brick. Thus, the appropriate design of the capacity of the connector to
structural section available to resist the the SBV. There are several additional
loading is only the brick which is normally design considerations.
one half the gross cross-section.
First, the connector should engage more
There are no national standards available than one brick cell. Sometimes bricks have
to provide allowable stresses for brick in cracks as a result of manufacturing.
tension. The brick material supplier may Concentrating loads at a single cell of the
have information or it may be necessary to brick could, if cracked, significantly reduce
do testing. In the absence of both, using the capacity. Consequently, for the design
10% of the bricks compressive strength of connectors in SBV, the scale of the
has generally proven conservative. engagement into the brick should be at
Because the minimal consequences of the least two times that usually associated with
failure and the loading are expected to connectors engaging reinforced concrete.

Next, because of the seismic requirement These tolerances have an important design
for connectors, Where anchorage is and construction impact.
achieved using flat straps embedded in
concrete or masonry, such straps shall be The connector must be designed to
attached to or hooked around reinforcing accommodate these deviations in
steel or otherwise terminated so as to dimension. The edge of floor connector
effectively transfer forces to the reinforcing should be configured to be installable with
steel or to assure that pullout of the slab edge at either extreme of the
anchorage is not the initial failure allowed tolerance. Additionally, the strength
mechanism', it is often necessary to thread of the connector should be adequate to
reinforcement through holes placed in the support the loads with the most
steel. This may restrict the flow of grout at unfavorable combination of element
the connection and a recommended locations.
mitigation is to use bond beams above
and/or below the connector. The configuration of the connector is often
dictated by the tolerance requirements, and
3.3.4.3 CONSTRUCTION TOLERANCES the resulting load eccentricities often (to the
untrained eye) appear to oversize the
An important factor in the design of a connections.
connector is construction tolerance. SBV
walls are located in-plane and elevation 3.4 DESIGN EXAMPLES
with tolerances more restrictive than the
supporting structure. For example, the Design examples are presented to assist
deviation from plumb (down the height of the user in understanding the system.
the building) often is limited to 1/2 in. for The first is a strip spandrel configuration
SBV. In a steel frame at the upper floors, supported on a continuous ledger. The
the tolerance on the frame is 11/4 in. inward second is the same except the veneer is
and 21/4 in. outward. The location of the supported on separate floor dead load
slab edge is often plus or minus 1 inch. connectors. The third example addresses
Where tolerances are critical to the design seismic displacement design at an SBV
of the SBV system, it may be desirable to corner.
discuss with the contractor whether tighter
tolerances than these can be achieved. 3.4.1 EXAMPLE 1
The elevation of the floor also varies from This example is a very simple illustration
the planned location. There are several of a strip window system. In practice,
reasons for this. First, there are these systems are usually more complex
construction tolerances. Second, the floor than illustrated in the example. The
is supported on beams that deflect due to designer is cautioned not to apply the
loading. Third, there is elastic shortening methods and equations contained in this
of the building and for concrete buildings example to other applications. The
which contributes to creep and shrinkage. purpose of the example is to demonstrate a
Again, this uncertainty of floor elevation is sequence of assumptions and analysis
important to the design of the connector. appropriate for this simple design.

Different assumptions and analysis

methods should be used when the design
changes. Lateral connector 10 o.c.
A four-story office building with a strip

window system serves as our example.
The story height is 12 ft 6 in., the window
height is 6 ft 0 in. and the sill height is 2 ft
6 inches. The wind load is 30 psf and the
building is classified as Seismic Design
Category D. For most projects, the wind Ledger support 10 o.c.
load is typically larger than the seismic
Continuous ledger
inertia load perpendicular to the surface of
the veneer and this is assumed for this Figure 40 Support for the Wall.
example. Floor to floor drift isolation is
provided by a slip joint in the window The hanger and brace are located at 10 ft
head. Warping of the glass accommodates on center. This is chosen to align with the
drift at the building corners. In other words, purlin spacing when the floor spans in the
the brick corner remains rigid and moves direction parallel to the edge of the slab.
with the floor to which it is attached. Assume nominal 4 in. hollow brick is used.
The actual thickness is 31/2 in. and the
20 depth of the reinforcement from the
surface is 13/4 inches.
11.5
12.5
Floor 2.5
3.5
Figure 39 Strip System Example. Figure 41 Brick Used in the Example.
A continuous ledger system is hung from The design might proceed as follows:
the bottom of the spandrel beam and
braced to the underside of the floor. The dead load on the ledger includes the
weight of the brick veneer and the
windows.
Wall = 40 psf x 6.5 ft = 260 plf

Window = 6 psf x 6 ft = 36 plf
Total = 296 plf

Since the hangers are spaced at 10 ft, the between the reinforcement and the
hanger vertical load is: masonry is:
296 plf x 10 ft = 2960 lbs

The ledger is designed to span between

supports. In SBV, the brick can also be And
used to span if shoring is used during
construction. Assume the brick is used to
span between supports, then try (2) #3 in
a bond beam at the first course above the TMS 402/ACI 530/ASCE 5 Section 3.2.1
ledger. allows a design flexural stress for Grade
60 reinforcement as:
Being conservative and neglecting any
continuity, the bending due to dead load
is:
Similarly, the allowable masonry stress is
1/3rd the specified strength. If fm = 4000

psi is specified, then the allowable flexural
masonry compression stress is:

The steel ratio "U" is used to calculate the
capacity to resist the loading. By summing forces in the direction along
the flexural element, the following
expression for the location of the neutral

axis can be obtained:
Where As is the area of flexural
reinforcement, b is the width or thickness
of the masonry and d is the depth of the
flexural element from the extreme

compression fiber to the centroid of the
reinforcement. Conservatively assume
A convenient term j is defined as:
that the bond beam reinforcement is
located 4 in. above the bottom of the brick.

The moment capacity limited by the
allowable reinforcement stress is defined

as:
Assume the masonry modulus of elasticity
is 2,800,000 psi (based on f m = 4,000 psi),
and the steel modulus of elasticity is
29,000,000 psi then the modular ratio Thus:

Assume floor connections are spaced at

10 ft at the same location as the lateral
support of the ledger.

The floor reaction is determined by
The moment capacity limited by the summing moments about the ledger.
allowable compression stress in the
masonry is defined as: The reaction of the window at the sill (top
of the brick) is:

The resulting moment about the ledger is:

The moment about the ledger due to the

Since both Mt and Mc are greater than the
wind loading on the brick is:
applied moment, Ma, the two #3 bars
provide more than adequate vertical
support between ledger hangers. To

prevent cracking through the brick units,
the tensile stress also needs to be held to
be less than 10% of the compressive
strength of the units. The reaction resists the moments and is
calculated as:
If shoring is provided, a similar calculation
would show that the vertical support could

be extended to 20 feet or more and the
weight of the wall reacted at the building

columns.
The lateral support (for wind and seismic

loading) will need to be 10 ft. Thus, the
hanger could be spaced at 20 ft, but the Since the spacing of the connectors is at
braces back to the underside of the slab 10 ft on center, the connector reaction is:
will need to be at 10 ft. Moreover, if the
span was 20 ft between supports, the
brick would crack at service load wind for
out-ofplane bending. This will be By summing forces perpendicular to the
demonstrated later in this example. surface of the brick, the ledger lateral
reaction is:
The wind load on the wall is 30 psf. This
load acts perpendicular to the surface of
the brick and the window.

Drawing the shear and moment diagrams bending of six times the thickness of the
reveals that the maximum moment occurs wall. The width for design can be obtained
at the floor and is equal to the moment on by laying out the bars in the brick cells.
the brick due to the window sill load plus
the moment on the brick due to the wind
on the brick:

10.5 18 10.5

b = 39

Figure 42 Plan View of Connector.

And:
Thus:

and over the 10 ft spacing becomes:

An estimate of the required reinforcement
can be determined:

The moment limited by the allowable
stress in the reinforcement is:

Where the design depth is one-half the

wall thickness (13/4 in.) and the stress has

been increased by 1/3rd for wind short
duration loading.
Try (4) #4 bars. The brick module is 6 The moment limited by the allowable
inches. TMS 402/ACI 530/ASCE 5 Section stress in the masonry is:
1.9.6.1 allows an effective width for


Assume (5) bond beams with (2) #3 in

each, then:

Compression at the floor in the brick is
often the limiting factor.
Add (2) #4 bars for a total of 6 bars.
Then:

The condition of dead load plus wind is

satisfied by inspection, but can be
checked as follows:
The wind loading must span horizontally

10 ft to the vertical connector strips.
Assume the window head reaction is
reacted by the lateral bracing and the

ledger, and the window sill reaction is
reacted by the brick, then the moment in The condition of inertia seismic and dead
the brick is the moment caused by the load is also satisfied by inspection since
window sill and the moment caused by the the inertia seismic load was assumed less
wind load on the brick. than the 30 psf wind load. This conclusion

by inspection can easily be made when
designing the veneer, but should not be so

easily made when designing connectors.

This is because most seismic codes have
special load factors and additional criteria

for seismic connector design that are not
typical for the wind design of a connector.

The final check is for cracking of the brick. The brick unit should have a tensile
strength in excess of 268 psi times the
Assume a service load of 15 psf. The factor of safety. If 1.25 is used, then the
value selected should relate to the design tensile strength needs to exceed 335 psi.
life and the performance criteria selected
for the project. According to an unpublished test and
experience, to achieve an f m of 4000 psi
The uniform horizontal loading of the strip the brick strength will exceed 11,500 psi,
between the connectors is a result of the when using 2009 IBC Table 2105.2.2.1.1 to
wind load acting on the windows and brick. verify the compressive strength of the
The moment is estimated as: masonry system. Using the 10% rule of
thumb, the expected tensile strength of the

brick is 1000 psi. As previously discussed,

anchors at 20 ft horizontal span would
result in cracking of the brick units.
A simple lateral connector at the floor is

shown in the following figure. It consists of

an embedded WT 4 x 5 with a coupler
welded to the flange for the attachment of a
rod.

The section available to resist the moment

is estimated as half the wall height since Coupler
half of that height is head joints.

Rod

The stress is:

Figure 43 Simple Lateral Connector.

The length of the tee is determined based
on the loads applied. To start, assume the

tee is 22 in. long. The tee contains four 1
in. diameter holes for reinforcement
placement. The capacity of the connector
can be estimated by using a shear cone.

Assuming the shear cone originates at the

outside face of the bar then the height of
the cone is:
The bond strength is assumed to be 60 psi

as discussed in Section 3.2.6. In addition
(0.25 in. is from center of bar to back the one-third stress increase can be
of bar) applied because the load combination
includes wind load. Thus, the capacity of
The approximate surface area of the cone the connector is estimated as:
is:

As discussed in Section 3.2.6, we assume
a 20 degree slope at the edge of the cone. If the connector was in the compression
As a result, the cone area is: zone of the brick, shear friction could be

another load transfer mechanism. Since
this connector is in the tension zone, that

mechanism is not evaluated.
The ends of the cone are neglected, but
can be added if the capacity is insufficient. The limiting allowable load is 4800 lbs
compared to the applied wind load of 3047
lbs. A 14 in. long anchor would provide
adequate capacity, but only two of the six
As discussed in Section 3.2.6, we assume bars would be engaged making the design
that the shear allowable is the same as the for compliance with ASCE 7 2005 Section
maximum shear allowable for beams of 50 13.5.3 (c) questionable.
psi (the masonry design strength exceeds
2500 psi and the one-third stress increase Assume that the code level seismic inertial
is used) then the allowable for the force is 0.315 times the force of gravity.
connector for pull-out is: The allowable stress design inertia loading
is 0.315/1.4 or 0.225 times gravity. The

brick weight is approximately 40 psf
resulting in a surface inertial load of 9 psf
and a reaction of 3047 x 9/30 or 914 lbs.
Another failure mode is the connector The connector factor of safety exceeds 7
breaking the bond between the steel and for code level seismic loads. This satisfies
masonry. Since this connector is in the the additional seismic criteria for
flexural tension zone, the area of contact is connectors by inspection.
only on one side of the WT. Assuming a
contact width of 2.75 inches results in:

construct the wall. The design example is

for the in-place condition only. In actual
practice, the designer of the SBV would
design the system for the shoring
conditions as well as the in-place
condition.
The following figure presents the new

layout of the connections.
#4 typ.
(7) lines of (2) #3 20
Figure 44 Final Design.
The final design of the brick reinforcement 6

is shown in Figure 44. While the
calculations indicate that five lines of bond 25 12.5
beams would be adequate, seven lines
3.0
have been provided a pair at the
connectors and the top and bottom of the
section, and a single line to meet the
Lateral connection
maximum spacing requirements for the
horizontal reinforcement. In addition, more Dead load connection
widely spaced #4 vertical bars are shown

between the connectors to meet the Figure 45 Location of Connectors.
minimum reinforcement requirements of
the code. The veneer is assumed to have a vertical
expansion joint at 20 ft on center. From
Limited testing of this connection type has the previous example, the horizontal span
been conducted. A previous test conducted of the brick is limited to less than 10 ft.
by Western States Clay Products Thus, a lateral anchor at the floor and a
Association validated the design methods brace will be required at the mid point of
for the connection shown above. Other the panel.
tests specific to special connections on
projects have been conducted. These tests The design dead load, after the wall is
are also unpublished, but verify the above constructed, is the same as the previous
methods as well. example.
3.4.2 EXAMPLE 2 Placing the dead load anchors away from

the columns will avoid interference with
The same strip window system is used for the building structure and make the
Example 2 except that the dead load installation easier. Assume the dead load
support is now on separated connectors anchors are placed at 2 ft from the column
located at the floor. Shoring will be used to line. A vertical expansion joint is assumed

at the column. The 2 ft dimension was

chosen as the center of a head joint so
that the connector is centered on the head
joint and an even number of bars will pass
through the connector. If an odd number

of bars pass through the connector, then
the anchor would be centered at the
center of a cell. An example would be 2 ft-
3 in. or 2 ft-9 in. distance from the

expansion joint.

The reaction load on the dead load

connector is:

Summing forces perpendicular to the
veneer results in the horizontal brace

force:

The maximum moment occurs at the mid The maximum moment again occurs at
span and is: the floor line and is:

where s is the distance from the end of the
panel to the center of the gravity support. The contributing length of veneer for the
dead load connector is about 6 ft
For this case this becomes: consisting of the 2 ft of cantilever and half
the distance to the center connector. The
design moment is:

The layout of the connector at the column
From the previous example, the wall can is shown in the following figure and results
support this load. in 5 contributing #4 bars.
The bending out-of-plane on the wall due
to wind is assumed reacted by braces one
foot above the bottom of the brick and at
the floor. The reaction at the floor can be
found by summing moments about the
location of the brace as follows:

The connector will be designed next.

Assume a configuration as shown in the
following figure:
15 18 10.5
b = 43.5
Figure 46 Plan View of Connector.
Thus:

Figure 47 Dead Load Connector.
U
The vertical reaction is 2960 lbs and the
U
wind reaction is 6 ft x 281 lb/ft = 1686 lbs.
U The eccentricity of the dead load is
important to the design. It is calculated
assuming an edge of slab tolerance of 1
in. as shown in the following figure.

The resulting eccentric moment can be
reacted either in the brick veneer or in the
floor slab or by both. When the
construction sequence is 1) the wall is
But, this may not be the only out-of-plane shored, 2) the connector is installed and,
moment in the masonry. Depending on the 3) the shoring removed; the eccentric
connector design, there could also be a moment is reacted by both the wall and
significant moment added into the the floor slab. The amount of moment in
masonry as a result of dead load each is very difficult to determine and will
eccentricity depend on the stiffness of the shoring as
well as the manner in which the wall is
built.

The previous design using (5) #4 bars

provides adequate resistance.
If the dead load connector is near the top

of the panel, additional hanger steel
should be considered at the connector.
Next, check the local capacity of the

connector to transfer the load into the
veneer. Assume the moment is inserted
into the veneer wall by forces consisting of
shear on the horizontal leg of the angle
and bearing on the vertical leg of the
2.5 angle. If a triangular distribution of bearing
3.5 1.5 4.0
on the vertical leg is assumed, the force is:

Tolerance
1 1

Figure 48 Dead Load Moment.
Note that the moment due to wind is not
included. The wind load moment is
A conservative approach to the design is
already in the veneer. The reaction of the
to assume all of the moment is in the brick
wind at the floor must, however, be added
veneer and then assume all of the
to the horizontal leg of the angle.
moment is in the floor. First, assume the
moment is in the brick veneer.
Assume the connector design is controlled 3

L 6 x 4 x /8
by the combined dead load and wind
condition. From the previous example, the
dead load on the anchor is 2960 lbs.
The moment is in the brick wall, thus:

This moment should be combined with the

wind moment resulting in:

Figure 49 Resisting Moment.



There would be a small additional push-

pull force on this connector due to the
eccentricity of the connection. This has
ASCE 7-05 requires that the seismic force
been neglected for the purpose of this
on the anchor be determined using a
example.
maximum value of Rp equal to 1.5 unless
certain special conditions are met. Use
Assume the failure is in the bond between
Section 13.3 of ASCE 7 to determine the
the horizontal leg of the angle and the
seismic forces on the connection and
masonry. Since this connector is in the
assume the highest panel is attached at
compression zone, bond can be relied
the roof level to calculate the following:
upon on both the top and bottom surfaces
of the angle. Using 60 psi shear allowable

and 21/2 in. contact length, both top and

bottom, the required length of contact is:

Using SDS = 0.75 (a high value)
Or, using the cone pull-out check the

length becomes:

the design level is:

Therefore use a 24 in. long angle.
The shear friction method can also be This is lower than the design wind load of
used: 30 psf, so no further design is required.
I Any fasteners in the connection would

need to be designed using ap = 1.25 and
Or Rp = 1.0 per ASCE 7 Table 13.5-1.
I

Following the same process as above, the 3.4.3 EXAMPLE 3

Fp for any fastener is 1.125 Wp, which is
equal to a design level load of 32.1 psf. The final example will show the design of a
Since this is higher than the wind load, the corner for seismic isolation. Assume a 12 ft
seismic load will control the design of any 6 in. story height. The corner is constructed
fasteners. of SBV with a width of 10 ft from the corner.
Given that the elastic seismic drift is 0.31
The bearing of the brick wall on the in., and that the building is a specially
horizontal leg of the angle is seldom reinforced concrete moment frame with a
limiting in design and is satisfied here by Cd of 5.5. Assume the building is a hospital
inspection. with the corner located above the
emergency entrance. This situation implies
Next check adequacy assuming the a higher level of seismic performance since
moment is in the floor. By inspection, the a blocked entrance could be a life safety
brick veneer is adequate. The design of issue. The maximum expected floor drift is:
the plate, welds and embedded plate is all
that is required. Assume the worst
condition of the tolerance for the edge of
The design will require an operational
slab results in 3 in. of connection between
performance level only hairline cracking
the slab embed and the plate.
of the head and bed joints will be permitted.
The analysis is the same as would be The corner can support part of the wind
performed for a precast concrete panel or loading, but a lateral connector will be
other wall system. Examples can be found needed 10 ft away from the corner.
in many references.
Since the brick is 10 times stiffer in the
The design results in a 1/2 in. thick vertical running bond direction, most of the
plate. The weld on the vertical leg of the resistance to the movement is reacted at
angle should also be a 3/8 in. fillet, 4 in. the corner.
long on both sides. The weld on the plate
to the embed should be a 3/8 in. fillet 3 in. The analysis of this corner displacement is
long on both sides. complex. It can be visualized by
considering a flat rectangular panel of
The 24 in. angle is a conservative size veneer 12 ft 6 in. by 10 ft laid flat
since both the brick and slab connection horizontally on the floor with anchors at the
are designed for the moment. If a more corners. The analogous displacement is to
detailed analysis were made, the length of lift up one of the four corners of the flat
the angle could probably be reduced. The panel while the other three are held to the
cost savings, however, would likely not floor.
justify the reduction in capacity.
The load deflection calculation for this
condition is complex and includes bending
in two axis and torsion. Also, the veneer is
not isotropic.

1.7 inches

10 foot
'

The resulting stress in the brick assuming a
fixed corner is:
V

V

V
If the entire wall height were assumed to
resist the displacement, the stress would
Figure 50 Warping Corner. not change because the stiffness increases
in proportion. Since the stress exceeds the
Making a simplifying assumption that half likely tensile capacity of the brick, the wall
the height participates with bending about will crack.
the stiff direction only, then the load
required to deflect the wall 1.7 in. is This is acceptable according to the criteria
calculated as shown below. provided that the panel remains intact.
Notice that the wall will likely remain
If the wall is considered to be fully uncracked for half the ultimate
restrained at the corner: displacement resulting in no damage.
Reinforcement will be required to hold the

panel together.

If the flexibility of the wall at the corner is Sufficient reinforcement must be provided
considered: to assure ductile behavior. The cracking
moment is:

The head joints are assumed cracked so
the stiffness of the wall is half that of an
uncracked wall. Where the tensile capacity of the brick is
assumed to be 1000 psi.

The estimate of the reinforcement is: Four bond beams with two #3 bars will be
sufficient. Notice that 60,000 psi was used
for the steel stress. The assumed yield
strength should be compared to the
ultimate cracking strength since this part of
the design is for ultimate seismic.

CHAPTER 4 - SPECIFICATION
4.0 GENERAL 4.2 MASONRY

The SBV system consists of several Generally, brick is selected for its color,
components that must be specified and texture, and size. The most common brick
detailed. The following discussion should specified for SBV is ASTM C652 Hollow
help in this process. Brick. More detailed information about
hollow brick is available from the Brick
4.1 QUALITY CONTROL AND Industry Association Technical Note 41,
ASSURANCE Hollow Brick Masonry and can be
downloaded from their website at:
According to IBC and TMS 602/ACI
530.1/ASCE 6 the designer needs to http://www.gobrick.com/TechnicalNotes/tabid/7658/Default.aspx
specify the required inspections and
quality control tests. SBV projects are Most SBVs are constructed of bricks with
designed either in accordance with IBC 4, 5 or 6 in. nominal thickness.
Sections 2106 and 2107; 2106 and 2108;
or TMS 402/ACI 530/ASCE 5 Chapter 2 or Mortar should be Type S, Portland
Chapter 3. cement, hydrated lime, and sand. Type S
mortar exhibits higher flexural bond
IBC requires inspections at Level 1 (IBC strength while providing sufficient
Table 1704.5.1) for engineered (non- compressive strength. Type M mortar is
essential) facilities in Occupancy I, II or III generally too stiff at the time of laying to
and Level 2 (Table 1704.5.3) for result in good bond, and thus walls may
engineered (essential) facilities in leak and the masonry is harder to clean.
Occupancy Category IV. These tables
identify activities requiring continuous and The durability of a wall is highly influenced
periodic inspection during construction. by the quality of the mortar joints. Care
should be taken to ensure that dense
When verifying the compressive strength joints are achieved. Joints should be
of masonry by the Prism Test Method in tooled to a concave or V finish to densify
Inspection Level 2, the frequency of the mortar surface and improve bond
testing should be for each 5,000 square between the mortar and the brick. If raked
foot of wall and performed in accordance joints are desired, a deep V may achieve
with ASTM Standard C1314, Standard the effect. Simple raked joints must be
Test Method for Compressive Strength of tooled after raking.
Masonry Prisms. Verification of fm can be
performed by either the Prism Test Grout is the material placed in the cells of
Method or the Unit Strength Method. the brick. The proportions are similar to
mortar, except that sufficient water has
been added to provide a fluid consistency.

Grout should be poured in brick masonry Grout Aid is a balanced blend of

with a slump of 8 to 11 inches. expanding, retarding and water-reducing
agents for Portland cement grouts. It
In structural brick masonry, the important provides a slow, controlled expansion prior
property of the grout is to fill all of the to the grout hardening.
space and voids, and to make the
connection between the reinforcement and If an additive other than the Grout Aid is
the brick unit. The strength is of secondary used, a test should be performed to
importance, since the brick unit assure filling of the space and bonding to
compression strengths typically exceed the units and reinforcement. This likely
8000 psi. means the preparing of a grout sample
panel and cutting it after curing to visually
confirm the performance.
Self-Consolidating Grout (SCG) is similar

to conventional grout with two types of
self-consolidating grout, coarse and fine,
the latter containing only fine aggregate
(sand). Coarse self-consolidating grout
has been the most common, although fine
SCG is predominant in several specific
regions of the United States. Fine SCG is
more appropriate for use in SBV.
Self-consolidating grout attains its high

Figure 51 Fluid Grout. flow not from adding more water, but from
a careful mix design to create a flowable
The excess water in the grout is absorbed yet highly cohesive grout that will not
into the brick before hydration. For segregate and can pass freely through
traditional installations, reconsolidation of congested reinforcement and narrow
the grout is required to remove the voids openings without "blocking or bridging."
left by the water absorbed into the brick. SCG must maintain its fluidity without
When this grouting method is specified, the segregation and maintain consistent
specification should also require properties throughout placement of the
reconsolidation or the additive Grout Aid. grout lift. SCG is composed of aggregates,
More recently, however, self-consolidating cementitious materials, water and special
grout has been successfully used in the admixtures which provide the fluidity and
SBV system. stability to meet performance requirements.
SCG is readily available in most major
When self-consolidating grout is not metropolitan markets as ready mix and it
specified, Grout Aid is recommended. At is also available for dry, prepackaged
one time, Grout Aid was a proprietary commercial on-site batching systems.
product, however, there are now several Proportioning of SCG is not permitted in
manufacturers producing Grout Aid. the field, however, final adjustment of the

mix, in accordance with SCG manufacturers (institutional) installations should be hot-

recommendations, utilizing water or the dip galvanized to meet ASTM A123 Grade
same admixture used in the mix is 65 requirements. Connectors that are not
permitted. protected can possibly corrode, stain the
brick, and ultimately fail to resist the
Self-consolidating grout is pumped or loading. Damage to galvanized coatings
placed into spaces to be grouted using the by welding or other field installation
same procedures as for conventional practices should be repaired using cold
grout. Since SCG is so fluid, it will flow galvanizing compounds.
through relatively narrow gaps, therefore,
the masonry unit cross webs of cells The use of 300 series stainless steel is
containing grout in partially grouted generally not necessary and may be
construction must be mortared. subject to galvanic corrosion if placed in
contact with galvanized steel.
Reinforcement is usually specified as
ASTM A615 Grade 60. Deformed bars are
4.4 FLASHING/WEEPS
required and sizes are limited by the
thickness of the wall. Generally, bars
Continuous flashing is necessary for the
larger than No. 5 are not used. When
removal of water that enters the cavity
reinforcement is to be welded, ASTM
space. In masonry, water enters the
A706 bars should be specified. It is slightly
surface of the wall and then gravity pulls it
more expensive but it can be welded
downward. When the masonry is
without becoming brittle. ASTM A706 bars
interrupted by openings that provide a
can be identified by a W mark on the bar.
horizontal discontinuity, flashing is
required to intercept the water and direct it
Joint Reinforcement is not recommended
out of the system.
for Level 1 projects. Experience with
galvanized metal in masonry on the
Flashing material for the SBV system is
exterior walls indicates a life of 30 years or
the same as the materials used in other
less.
types of brick wall construction.
Reinforcement bars grouted into bond
Pea gravel, proprietary meshes or screens
beams will have an expected life far
above the flashing will help to prevent
greater than 30 years.
mortar droppings from clogging weep
holes. Weep holes should be spaced no
4.3 STEEL FOR CONNECTORS more than 32 in. apart. Open head joints
are recommended. Weep tubes and cotton
Connectors can be designed and wicks often fail to function when they
constructed in many forms. Most are become clogged or damaged. Screens in
made from ASTM A36 structural steel open head joint weeps can be used to
angles, plate, rods, channels, tees and deter insect infestations.
other available shapes. Connectors may
be shop-painted for Level 2 (commercial) Flashing must extend through the
installations. Connectors for Level 1 thickness of the wall in order to intercept

the flow of moisture. Whether or not 4.5 SEALANTS

flashing should protrude from the wall is
controversial. Since the flow of water on Sealants provide the first line of protection
the surface of the wall is in all directions, a against rain intrusion into the system.
flashing that protrudes from the surface Placement of sealants should be
intercepts the flow at caulk joint. This is accomplished in conformance with the
the weakest point for water to penetrate manufacturers recommendations. Joints
the wall. should be properly prepared, cleaned with
solvent, primed for adhesion and backed
with a backer rod.
Sealant compatibility tests (peel test)

conforming to ASTM C794 should be
conducted for each type of brick unit used
and all other materials in direct contact
with the sealant, including flashing. The
Water flow
compatibility tests should also be

conducted on treated (sealed) brick,
unless the treatment is to be done after
sealing. The compatibility tests are
important to assure bond between the
Figure 52 Protruding Flashing Detail. sealant and the brick.
Flashing not protruding will allow the water 4.6 WATER REPELLENTS
to pass over the weak point. However,
water intercepted by the flashing from the Water repellents are desirable for a variety
interior and exiting at the weep holes of reasons. The principal reason is to limit
above the flashing may have a better water ingress due to wind-driven rain. By
chance of re-entering the building. reducing the water that enters the wall, the
repellent provides several benefits, both
aesthetic and related to engineering
performance, that would justify their use.
Some of these attributes are:
1. Efflorescence control.
Water flow
2. Reduction of algae growth as a result

of the absence of moisture in the pores
and capillaries of the masonry.
3. Atmospheric pollutants that are

dissolved in precipitation are not
absorbed into the masonry.
Figure 53 Flush Flashing Detail.

4. Freeze-thaw damage is reduced when One of the most controversial topics

there is no water in the substrate to nationally is when and if water repellent
freeze. should be used for brick construction. As
outlined above, there are many positive
5. Thermal efficiencies of the masonry results obtained by properly applied clear
wall are maintained since water is a water repellent. While most experts
thermal conductor. acknowledge the positive attributes, the
primary concern is the severe problems
Although a number of technologies have that can occur if an improper repellent is
been utilized in the formation of masonry applied. Most western states brick
water repellents, silane/siloxane monomer manufacturers are knowledgeable about
and polymer blends have a proven track the issues and can recommend which
record. Preferred water repellents are repellents will work with their products.
VOC compliant and breathable with high However, the repellent manufacturer must
vapor transmission rates. warranty the performance of the repellent
in service. The performance problems
In the Pacific Northwest, where there are arise when other repellent salesmen (and
heavy wind-driven rains, silane and there are many) convince the specifier that
siloxane water repellents have been their product is equal to the specified
proven over time to be excellent types of repellent and will save money and the
clear water repellent. These types of water equal product is then used. A word of
repellents are formulated to penetrate into caution: DO NOT SUBSTITUTE! Demand
the pores and capillaries of the masonry past successful performance of the
assembly where they react with the proposed coating on the specific
moisture and alkalinity and actually manufacturers brick, for a number of
chemically fuse onto the mineral material years, under the same type of exposure.
in the linings of the pores and capillaries. Demand that the repellent manufacturers
During this chemical bonding process, a application instructions be followed.
conversion occurs in the repellent material
that fully develops the hydro phobic (water 4.7 BACKUP WALL
repellent) properties.
SBV installations do not require a
An additional benefit to the manner in separate backup wall. A backup wall is
which these repellents function is that they sometimes constructed as a second air
tend to bond along the pore linings rather and water vapor barrier. Many Level 2
than build films across the pore openings. (commercial) buildings do not require the
This ensures that sufficient vapor extra water and air protection since a well-
transmission can occur to maintain designed drainage wall is often sufficient.
breathability in the assembly. Repellent
manufacturers state a repellent life of up If a back-up wall is used, many options are
to 10 years, but there are numerous available including metal studs with
projects in the Pacific Northwest that have sheathing. The studs are typically not
never had to have a second application. designed for the wind loading since the

brick wythe is structurally designed to crack and second, to provide isolation

resist the wind. from building movement. In SBV systems,
the spacing of vertical joints can be
4.8 CAVITY increased over that of conventional
veneers because the reinforcement
When a backup wall is provided, the cavity provides additional resistance to cracking.
or air space behind the brick can be any
width. The cavity acts to provide a buffer The Brick Industry Association Technical
for wind-driven rain and allows water that Note 18A, Accommodating Expansion of
penetrates the SBV to migrate down the Brickwork, contains a valuable discussion
backside of the brick without migrating on the many considerations involved in
across the cavity space. Connectors expansion joints.
should be designed and constructed to
direct any of this water toward the As a general rule, vertical expansion
backside of the brick instead of into the (movement) joints should be provided at
building. the following locations:
The cavity should be kept clear of any 1. At or near wall corners

obstructions that might allow water to
bridge across. Mortar droppings should be 2. At wall discontinuities
prevented from falling into the cavity.
3. At changes in height
Construction tolerance on the cavity width
should be limited to 1/2 in. At each floor, 4. At changes in thickness
fire safing is required to stop smoke and
heat from moving between floors. The 5. At changes in stiffness
safing can act as a bridge for water to
enter the building. Flashing over the safing 6. Adjacent to dissimilar materials
should be provided.
7. At abutments to other building
4.9 EXPANSION JOINTS elements
Expansion joints need to be provided at The joint size should be a minimum of

various strategic locations in the SBV wall twice the calculated amount to meet the
system. Expansion joint placement is limitations of the compressibility of the
dictated by two considerations. First, sealant. As a minimum, it is recommended
expansion joints may be provided in that the joint not be less than 3/8 inch.
locations where the brick wythe is likely to

CHAPTER 5 - CONSTRUCTION
5.0 GENERAL Experience has shown that the preferred

choice is for the mason contractor to
The construction phase of the project purchase the reinforcement and supply the
begins with the award of the Contract for shop drawings. However, some mason
Construction. If the SBV was specified as contractors may bid high or even not bid at
bidder designed, then the design of the all as a result of this requirement. The
SBV may begin with the beginning of the resulting cost pressure may require the
construction. In this event, there is usually design team to be flexible about the
limited time for the design and it should requirement for shop drawings and their
begin without delay. preparation.
Once designed, a SBV project construction Sometimes the general contractor will
is similar to any other structural brick supply the shop drawings using his normal
project. reinforcement detailer. Unfortunately, the
detailer may have limited experience with
The mason contractor is normally a masonry (the expertise is concrete) and the
subcontractor to the general contractor. If drawings submitted are often full of errors
the SBV is bidder designed, the mason or items that cannot be constructed.
contractor usually becomes responsible for
the design. If the design is part of the 5.1 CONSTRUCTION SEQUENCE
contract documents, the mason contractor
will still need to prepare shop drawings Several trades may contribute to the
detailing the installation. construction of SBV. The dead load
support angle (or connectors) and lateral
Most mason contractors do not normally braces are usually installed by the steel
prepare shop drawings for reinforcement. erector or the general contractor. These
Thus, the responsibility for providing an trades prefer to complete their work with
adequate set of shop drawings can the completion of the building structural
become lost in the process of bidding. The frame. But if this is done, the mason is
general contractor thinks the mason will constrained by constructing the brick to
prepare the shop drawings and the mason match the installed connectors.
thinks the general contractor will prepare
the shop drawings. For example, for an SBV supported on a
continuous ledger, if the ledgers are all
Often, the mason contractor does not installed prior to the laying of the brick, it is
supply the reinforcement for the wall. The nearly impossible to place the vertical
general contractor supplies it. The design reinforcement and grout the wall. It is
team should become aware of who will usually necessary to delay installation of
supply the reinforcement. It will have some the ledgers until after the brick below is
influence on how the project proceeds. completed.

If a backup wall is constructed, it is usually 7. The owners representative.

installed by a different contractor and at a 8. The brick supplier.
different time than the SBV. Normal 9. The window supplier.
choices for the inside wall include masonry,
10. The drywall installer.
concrete or steel studs. For an SBV
system, however, the masonry and
concrete choices are unlikely because the Subjects for discussion include:
stiffness and strength of the backup wall
are no longer required. 1. Brick:
When metal studs are used, it is common Determine the availability and delivery
to sheath the outside face of the stud to schedule of the selected brick. If the unit
provide additional water and air infiltration strength method is used to verify required
protection. The sheathing must be installed masonry strength, verify that the brick will
before the SBV. Thus, the connectors meet the required strength.
typically penetrate the sheathing. This
requires additional coordination between 2. Initial testing:
the trades.
If the unit strength method was used to
establish the design strength f 'm, then
5.2 PRE-CONSTRUCTION mortar, grout and prism testing prior to
construction are not required. However, it is
Once the general contractor and the recommended that when higher stresses
mason subcontractor have been selected, (above 2,500 psi) are used in the design,
the engineer should verify the masons prism testing should be conducted prior to
qualifications with the local masonry construction. As a minimum, unit testing or
institute and the local material suppliers. manufacturers certification is required.
This information will be helpful for
determining the amount of time and effort For SBV installations, a grouting test panel
that will be needed during construction. is often necessary to demonstrate the
grouting procedures. The schedule should
At an appropriate time, usually at least two be defined. The design team, building
months before the start of masonry official and special inspector should be
construction, arrange for a preconstruction present for the grouting demonstration.
conference to discuss the masonry
construction. Attendees should include: Often the grouting demonstration panel can
also be used as a color and quality control
1. The mason contractor and foreman. panel for the architect.
2. The general contractor and
superintendent. 3. Testing During Construction:
3. The building official.
4. The architect. Prism testing is recommended for each
5. The special inspector, when required. 5,000 square feet of wall. During
construction, three prisms constitute a test,
6. The engineer.

however, five are recommended. Test the 7. Submittals:

first one at seven days, the next three at 28
days and hold the final sample for testing in Verify that the required project submittals
case of a problem. have been approved or are in the process
of being approved.
If prism tests are conducted, grout and
mortar tests are not required. 8. Cleaning and Water Repellents:
4. Inspection: The procedures to be used to clean and

apply water repellents should be
Inspection should be in accordance with discussed. It is important that the mason
the requirements of TMS 602-08/ACI contractor verify the cleaning method with
530.1-08/ASCE 6-08 Specifications for the unit manufacturer. If water repellent is
Masonry Structures. to be applied, the method and materials to
be used should also be verified with the
The inspector should regularly check the brick manufacturer.
preparation of mortar and grout to ensure
proper proportions and the laying of units to Proper water repellents do not seal the
ensure proper workmanship. The inspector wall. Masonry must breathe. Painting
should verify and ensure full compliance contractors often are not experienced with
with the contract documents for the applying water repellents to masonry, and
placement of reinforcement, grouting and assuring understanding of proper methods
the protection of the masonry from rain, is important.
dirt, cold and/or hot weather.
9. Construction Sequence and Schedule:
5. Observation:
The successful installation of an SBV
Inform all participants that from time to time project requires coordination of many
representatives of the design team will visit trades (see previous discussion). Ask the
the site to ensure general compliance with general contractor questions to ensure that
the contract documents. the construction sequence and
responsibilities have been defined. Discuss
6. Inspection Reports: the schedule for inspection and testing.
Discuss coordination issues. One usually
Normally, test reports and inspection missed item is the coordination with the
reports are provided to the general window and door supplier. The design of
contractor; then to the architect; and then the connections should be discussed.
to the engineer. Deviations from this
normal procedure should be discussed, 10. Window Attachment:
defined and documented.
As previously discussed, the attachment of
the window and coordination of the flashing
system will be important to the successful
performance of the wall. Too often this

important coordination is left to the last The mortar submittal is usually only
minute or not done at all. The pre- submitted by type. This is satisfactory
construction conference is an excellent provided the mortar is specified by
opportunity to discuss the issue and assign proportions, not strength, and provided
responsibility. there is a method to control the proportions
of the mortar.
Windows are usually anchored to the SBV
and not to the backup wall. Consideration The contractor may submit proportions
must be given so that anchors do not other than by type. In this case, laboratory
damage brick and that they also have tests should be performed to verify the
sufficient anchor capacity. properties of the mortar (ASTM C270).
11. Sealant Installation: 2. Grout proportions:
Often the sealant installer is a separate Specify grout in accordance with

subcontractor from the SBV and window requirements of ASTM C476. Do not
contractors. The specified sealant may or specify grout by the minimum strength of
may not be compatible with the brick, 2,000 psi. The proportions will result in
mortar, water repellent and window- strengths well in excess of 2,000 psi.
supporting member finish. These building
elements, and often others, all interface at Lime may be added to grout. This usually
the sealant joints. The selected sealant and improves the grout properties by increasing
installation procedures should be checked flow and retention of water, resulting in
for compatibility with adjacent materials. improved placement and bonding to the
unit.
12. Compliance Testing
The additive Grout Aid should be added to
Most SBV projects require compliance the grout as recommended by the
testing. When the brick supplier is not manufacturer.
experienced with the system, testing of
prisms in accordance with national For batch-provided grout, the proportions
standards should be completed before are normally described by weight. The
construction begins. Testing during weight proportions should be converted to
construction is also generally required. volume proportions for comparison with
During the pre-construction conference, the ASTM C476.
compliance testing required should be
communicated to all involved. 3. Unit certifications:
5.3 SUBMITTAL REVIEW The unit manufacturer should provide

certificates that the masonry units comply
Items submitted for review include the with the requirements specified.
following:
4. Reinforcement shop drawings:
1. Mortar proportions and laboratory test:

These should be scheduled to provide The consultant shall visit the site at
sufficient time for review and resubmittal intervals appropriate to the stage of
prior to construction. Experience has construction for This Portion of the Project,
shown that rejection of the first set of or as otherwise agreed with the Architect in
drawings is likely. writing, to become generally familiar with
the progress and quality of the Work
5. Connector shop drawings: completed for This Portion of the Project
and to determine in general if the Work is
Shop drawings showing the detailing of being performed in a manner indicating that
reinforcement, connectors and embedded the Work, when completed, will be in
items need to be submitted with sufficient accordance with the Contract Documents.
time for review. However, the consultant shall not be
required to make exhaustive or continuous
6. Quality control program: on-site inspections to check the quality or
quantity of the Work for This Portion of the
As briefly described in Section 4.1, current Project. On the basis of such on-site
code requirements include a minimum level observations as a consultant, the
of testing and inspection. This includes consultant shall keep the Architect
submittals for materials and other possible informed of the progress of the Work for
issues affecting quality control, such as a This Portion of the Project and shall
cold weather construction plan. endeavor to guard the Owner against
defects and deficiencies in such work."
In addition to the requirements set forth in
IBC Tables 1704.5.1 and 1704.5.3, the 5.5 NON-CONFORMING QUALITY
designer must specify any additional quality CONTROL TESTS
control requirement required for the specific
project. Prior to the start of construction, a Experience has shown that the field-
meeting may be required of all involved testing of masonry is highly variable. The
parties, including the masonry contractor, source of the variability can be the
inspector and design professional to make materials, the methods used to prepare
sure that everyone understands the quality the samples, the testing of the samples
control implementation. and the interpretation of the results.
Before rejecting a wall because of non-
5.4 SITE VISITS conforming field-testing, the engineer
should carefully assess the possible
The structural engineer should make site causes of the field test non-conformance
visits to check on the progress and quality and possibly remove and test samples
of the work. This part of the engineers from the actual wall.
scope of services is called construction
observation. It should be defined in AIA 5.5.1 UNIT COMPRESSION STRENGTH
form C401 Article 2 with the following
language: Testing of the masonry system to verify the
strength of the system is a normal
procedure. The tested result is compared

to the design strength, f'm, and should at does not verify conformance to the
least equal to the design strength. requirements during construction, the
problem is may be in the construction of
Masonry compressive strength is verified in the prisms or there was a change in the
one of two ways, the Unit Strength Method, testing procedures or materials. The units
or the Prism Test Method. Depending on should be tested (or re-tested). If the units
the Quality Assurance Level implemented still do not comply, the code allows prism
for the project, verification may be required testing from constructed masonry to verify
prior to construction only (Level 1) or prior strength.
to construction and at 5,000 square foot
intervals (Level 2). If the prism strengths from constructed
masonry do not comply, a redesign or
When the Unit Strength Method is used for change in the brick unit may be required.
establishing and verifying the specified Non-conforming walls may require
compression strength, f'm, then prism tests removal.
are not required. Similarly, when the
compressive strength of masonry is verified 5.5.2 MORTAR COMPRESSION
by the Prism Test Method, testing of
individual units is not required. Field-testing of mortar is required. For one
thing, there is no pure ASTM standard to
The tests prior to construction should verify compressive strength of field mortar.
provide assurance that the units and ASTM C270 and C780 both caution
masonry will be satisfactory. If the test prior against field testing of mortar and further
to construction does not comply with the state that mortar testing should be for
required strength, then additional testing consistency comparison to pre-construction
may be required, or the project may have mortar.
to be redesigned for a lower strength.
When prisms are used to verify the
Sometimes the brick tests prior to compressive strength of masonry, mortar is
construction are not performed and the automatically tested as part of the system.
units tested during construction do not However, the requirement for mortar
conform. In this case, a new analysis may testing often is not within the control of the
be required to verify strength. One option is structural engineer, and on many projects
to use Strength Design provisions based mortar testing becomes a requirement.
on IBC Section 2108. These methods are
less sensitive to low compression strength. The field sampling and testing for mortar
But, the engineer should be careful about compression strength is highly variable and
excess deflections and other serviceability not representative of mortar strength in the
issues when designing with Strength wall. Mortar in the joint is typically 3/8 in. or
1
Design. /2 in. in height, whereas samples are
normally 2 in. cubes or 4 inch tall cylinders.
When tests are performed prior to The geometry alone has a significant
construction and the compressive strength impact on the in-situ mortar compressive
conforms to the requirements, but testing strength. The following figure is a

frequency distribution of field mortar highly stressed (above 1200 psi) it may
compression tests taken from actual be necessary to remove a prism from
projects in California, Oregon and the wall for testing.
Washington. There are a total of 205
mortar tests. The coefficient of variation is The relationship between 7-day mortar
36%. strength and 28-day mortar strength should
be reasonably consistent from sample to
22 Field Mortar Tests
sample. The results of the 7-day test can
20 Type Specified be useful since they provide the engineer
18
16
with an early indication of the 28 day
14 results. The following figure presents the
Frequency
12
10
relationship.
8
6
4 10000
2 Mortar 28 Day and 7 Day Test Comparison
0
8000
7 Day Test (psi)

0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000 7000 8000 9000 28 day strength = 441 + 1.31 *7 day strength (psi)
Compression Stress
6000
Figure 54 Variation of Field Mortar Tests. 4000
With this amount of variability, it should not 2000
be surprising to get periodic non-

0
conforming compression mortar tests. If the 0 2000 4000 6000 8000 10000
non-conformance occurs regularly, then 28 Day Test (psi)
the following steps are recommended:
Figure 55 Mortar 7 Day and 28 Day Tests.
1. Consider the actual in-place strength of
mortar. 5.5.3 GROUT COMPRESSION
2. Request that the mason provide the Field-testing of grout may or may not be
proportions being used. required. Prism testing every 5000 square
feet of wall should be adequate quality
3. Assess the method being used to control since grout is tested as part of the
control proportions. system. Grout testing when compressive
strength is verified by the Unit Strength
4. Verify that the testing lab is using the Method is reasonable since the grout
procedures of ASTM C780. strength is required to be at least equal to
the design strength. However, the
5. Visit the site and observe the mortar in requirement for grout testing often is not
the joint. Scratch the mortar with a key. within the control of the structural engineer,
If a white scratch results and the sand and on some projects grout testing
does not separate from the mortar, the becomes a requirement.
strength of the mortar is likely
acceptable. However, if the masonry is

The field sampling and testing for grout 5. The structural engineer should also
compression strength is highly variable. consider the reason for requiring the
The following figure is a frequency specific grout strength. Often, the
distribution of field grout compression tests purpose of the grout is only to connect
taken from actual projects in California, the reinforcement to the units. Even low
Oregon and Washington. There are a total strength grouts (1500 psi) are probably
of 323 grout tests. The coefficient of capable of making the connection.
variation is 32%. Because of the high strength of the
brick, the compression contribution of
50 Field Grout Tests
the grout can often be ignored in the
45
2000 psi specified analysis.
40
35 The relationship between 7-day grout
Frequency
30 strength and 28-day grout strength is also

25 consistent from sample to sample. Results
20
of the 7-day test are useful since they
15
10
provide the engineer with an early
5
indication of the 28-day results. The
0 following figure presents the relationship for
0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000 7000 8000 9000 the same projects.
Compression Stress
1000 Comparison 28 Day and 7 Day Test

Figure 56 Variation of Field Grout Tests.
800
With this amount of variability, it should not
7 Day Test (psi)
be surprising to get periodic non- 600

conforming compression grout tests. If the
non-conformance occurs regularly, then 400
the following steps are recommended:

200
1. Request from the mason the 0

0 2000 4000 6000 8000 10000
proportions being used.
28 Day Test (psi)
2. Assess the method being used to

control the proportions. Figure 57 Seven Day and 28 Day Grout
Strength.
3. Verify that the testing lab is using the
5.5.4 PRISM TESTS
procedures of ASTM C1019.
Prism tests are less variable than either
4. If the cause of the low break is not
mortar or grout testing and provide the
identified, then extracting and testing
engineer with a higher level of confidence
core samples may be required.
that the masonry system has the desired
strength.

When prism tests do not conform, verify bottom planes are level and parallel, not
that the materials used (units, mortar and using a testing machine with a spherical
grout) conform to the specifications. If they head, and not providing a thick enough
do conform, then either the prism was loading platen to distribute the test machine
improperly constructed or the testing load evenly to the prism. It has also been
procedures were not in compliance with reported that some testing labs stop
ASTM C1314. loading at the first sound emitted. The first
sound may correlate to the failure of a
Improper construction of prisms includes concrete cylinder, but does not typically
not constructing the prism true and plumb correlate to the failure of a masonry prism.
or a grout depression at the top of the
prism caused by grout settlement. The top 5.6 TROUBLESHOOTING DURING
and bottom planes of the prism must CONSTRUCTION
parallel for proper testing. Another common
problem for large cell units (8 in. wide units The following table is presented to assist
and larger) is that the grout is not properly the engineer with problems often occurring
re-consolidated. Without proper re- during construction. This table was
consolidation, a dome-shaped void will developed over the years based on the
often form at the mortar joint part way up experience of the authors. It has been
the height of the prism and render the area evolving and it often seems that
of grout ineffective for resisting contractors have a special ability to create
compression. new situations not previously considered
or addressed. Proceed with caution.
Common testing errors include not properly
capping the prism so that the top and

TROUBLESHOOTING TABLE FOR

THE DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION OF SBV
PROBLEM CAUSE SOLUTION
Prisms fail to reach the 1. The testing lab has incorrectly 1. Instruct the lab to retest being careful to
design strength. tested the prism, usually by not follow ASTM C1314.
placing the prism correctly in the
machine or using a loading platen
that is too thin. Or the specimens
may have been damaged during
transportation.
2. The bricks are below the specified 2. Request that the contractor have a lab
strength. retest the brick. If still too low, change
the brick or redesign.
3. The mortar is under specified 3. Check mortar proportions. Retest the

strength. prisms.
4. Lab reported gross area stress 4. Have the lab correct the report.
instead of net area stress.
5. Lab stopped testing with first noise. 5. Re-test.
6. The testing machine is under 6. Test half units or find a larger testing
strength and does not have the machine.
capacity to break the specimen or
is in an inelastic range of loading.
7. The brick are not centered under 7. Center the units based on center of
the loading head. mass not center of prism or unit.
8. The testing machine does not have 8. Cap the top and bottom of the prism or
a spherically seated head and unit perfectly parallel. Test using a
prematurely loads a portion of the machine with a spherically seated head.
brick.
9. Recap the prism or unit.
9. Capping compound is too thick, not
parallel, or has voids.
10. Reform the prism.
10.Grout is uneven or projects above
or below the prism.
Mortar doesn't reach 1. Incorrect proportions. 1. Check mortar quality control
strength. procedures.
2. Incorrect testing. 2 Mortar tests are unreliable. Forget about
testing mortar. The code doesn't require
it, if prisms are tested.
3. Rate of loading is too fast. 3. Slow down rate of loading.

Colors do not meet 1. Bricks were not blended. 1. Have the mason lay brick from multiple
expectations. cubes and blend brick to minimize
patches of similar colors.
Color treating the wall with stains has

proven to treat light colors to a darker
range. Darker colors are harder to make
light. Review and approve a test
sample prior to corrective treatment
2. Use the sample panel sealer.

2. Sample panel has different sealer.
3. Approve the production run before
3. The brick production run is different beginning construction. Create a job
from the sample run. panel from the production run. It is a
good idea to make the first 100 sq ft of
actual wall the approved panel for
workmanship and materials.
Someone calls and Someone was checking on your Review the construction drawings to verify
says more expansion advice. They should do this, so don't locations. If less than industry practice for
joints are required. get mad. veneer construction, explain how the
reinforcement reduces the need for most of
the expansion joints.
The mason tells the 1. The mason contractor does not 1. Prepare and grout a test panel. Be sure
general who tells have experience with grouting of to invite everyone concerned.
everyone that the cells reinforced hollow brick. He doesn't
are too small to be understand that he can make the
grouted with all the grout with an 8 to 11 in. slump.
congested steel.
2. The cell is too small. 2. Use a different cell size.
Welded bars are ASTM A706 bars were not used. Inspect bars. A "W" symbol indicates Type
breaking off. A706. Use the correct bars.
Contractor is not Sometimes the responsibility for Write a letter to your client. Explain the
protecting his materials protecting the work is left with the consequences. Send a copy to the brick
or work. general contractor. He is saving manufacturer.
money. Sometimes the responsibility is
not well defined.

Cracks in the mortar 1. Shrinkage of the mortar joint. 1. Suggest the contractor decrease the
joints. cement content of the mortar and
increase the lime.
2. Movement of the supporting 2. Check supports.

structure.
3. Overloading. 3. Check the loading, the timing of the

loading and shoring removal.
4. Too rapid drying. 4. Pre-wet the units. Wet the wall during
curing. Add lime to the mortar.
Shop drawings are not The requirement was missed or Write a letter to your client explaining the
prepared. "value engineered away". requirement. If the project is underway,
require an engineer familiar with the design
be on site full time.
The grout strength is This is normal. Explain that the prism does not fail in
specified at a minimum accordance with the weak link theory.
of 2000 psi, how can I
get a prism of 4000 psi.
The contractor wants to The code restricts the grout lift to 5 The problem is blow-outs of mortar joints and
high-lift grout with lifts ft even though the grout pour might the ability to reconsolidate. In hollow clay,
larger than 5 ft be higher. these problems are unlikely. Have the
contractor demonstrate the procedure to you
and the inspector.
The contractor doesn't Code requires clean-outs for high-lift In most SBVs the shear stresses are low. It is
want clean-outs. You grouting, in order to remove the usually possible to waive the clean-out
want high-lift grouting. mortar droppings. requirement.
The dowels out of the Improper placement of the dowels. Cut the unit cross webs to allow the dowel to
concrete foundation or However, it is often very difficult to pass or drill in new dowels. Verify that all the
ledger interfere with the get them in the right place. This dowels are required to meet strength
unit cross webs. They situation should not occur in a SBV. requirements. Do not allow the dowels to be
miss the cells. bent.

The brick masonry is 1. A great deal of force is required 1. Find the reason for the cracking. It is likely
cracked, with cracks for this condition to exist. The that something needs to be corrected.
extending through the cause is likely a problem. Likely candidates include frozen grout,
units. foundation movement, or thermal
movement from adjacent structure.
2. Verify the integrity of the units before use.

2. The bricks may have been A quick check is to bang the bricks
manufactured with the cracks. together, If a ringing sound results, instead
of a thud, then the bricks are sound.
3. Foundation control joints need to be

coordinated with the masonry expansion
3. Foundation cracks extend into joints.
brick wall.
Contractor doesn't 1. The contractor is attempting to 1. Insist on covering the walls.
cover the walls at the save money.
end of the day.
2. The responsibility for the 2. Write a letter stating that the contractor is
masonry protection may have not in conformance with the likely result
been left with the general being efflorescence and other wall
contractor or worse, left out of all damage.
the contracts.
Corrosion of the joint 1. Too strong an acid cleaning 1. Pre-wet the wall and use industry cleaners
reinforcement. without pre-wetting the wall. as recommended by the manufacturer of
the units.
2. Ungalvanized joint reinforcement. 2. Use galvanized joint reinforcement.


CHAPTER 6 - TESTING
6.0 GENERAL 6.2 WATER
Many different pre-construction mockup Water penetration tests for the brickwork
tests are available for evaluating the should be performed in accordance with
performance of the SBV system design ASTM E514, to measure the permeability
and construction. Pre-construction of the constructed wall. Additional large-
mockup testing is not necessary for all scale mockup tests are available using the
projects, and because of the costs procedures contained in AAMA 501.3,
involved, is likely feasible only for large developed for testing aluminum curtain wall
projects. Tests are generally conducted to systems.
evaluate air, water and structural
performance. 6.3 STRUCTURAL
6.1 AIR Structural tests measure a systems
performance under lateral loading or
When air infiltration tests are conducted deflection. This type of testing provides a
on the building mockup, they should be means for accurately assessing the
performed in accordance with ASTM complex behavior of the SBV system. A
E783, while those conducted in the standard test procedure, ASTM E330, is
laboratory should be performed in available for testing exterior windows and
accordance with ASTM E283. Air curtain walls. Brick panel strength tests
infiltration tests should normally be done can be conducted in accordance with
before water penetration tests because ASTM E72. There are no standard tests
water trapped in the brick veneer tends to for specifically measuring seismic
reduce air leakage. performance.


CHAPTER 7 - INDEX
Air ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ 75
Allowable Stress Design or Strength Design ------------------------------------------------------------ 21
Allowable Stresses--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 21
B
Backup Wall ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 59
Brick with Concrete Masonry -------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 15
Brick with Precast Concrete --------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 15
C
Cavity ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 60
Code Minimum Requirements ------------------------------------------------------------------------------ 22
Concept Configurations--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 13
Brick with Concrete Masonry --------------------------------------------------------------------------- 15
Brick with Precast Concrete ----------------------------------------------------------------------------- 15
Sloping Sills ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 14
Connector Requirements------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 22
Construction ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 61
Construction Sequence --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 61
Construction Tolerances ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 39
Cracking of Brick ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 22
D
Design ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ 17
Design Criteria -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 17
Design Life -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 18
Design Loads ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 18
Isolation from the Building ------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 23
Horizontal Isolation at Corners --------------------------------------------------------------------- 25
Horizontal Isolation in the Plane of the Wall ---------------------------------------------------- 24
Horizontal Isolation Perpendicular to the Plane of the Wall -------------------------------- 24
Typical Deflection Magnitudes --------------------------------------------------------------------- 25
Vertical Isolation --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 23
Methods of Analysis and Design Assumptions ----------------------------------------------------- 20
Allowable Stress Design or Strength Design --------------------------------------------------- 21

Allowable Stresses------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ 21
Code Minimum Requirements --------------------------------------------------------------------- 22
Connector Requirements ---------------------------------------------------------------------------- 22
Cracking of Brick -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 22
Seismic Loads and Performance ---------------------------------------------------------------------- 19
The Applicable Code Sections ------------------------------------------------------------------------- 18
Wind Loads and Performance -------------------------------------------------------------------------- 20
Design Examples----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 39
Example 1 --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 39
Example 2 --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 47
Example 3 --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 52
Designing the Wall --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 28
Design Connections--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 38
Construction Tolerances ---------------------------------------------------------------------------- 39
Design Methods and Assumptions---------------------------------------------------------------- 38
Materials for Connectors ---------------------------------------------------------------------------- 38
Design for Code Loading -------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 37
Design for Wall Cracking -------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 37
Layout or Configuration ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 28
E
Example 1 -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 39
Example 2 -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 47
Example 3 -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 52
Expansion Joints ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 60
Exterior Nonstructural Wall Elements and Connections ---------------------------------------------- 22
F
Flashing/Weeps ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ 57
G
Grout Compression -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 67
History of the System ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 10

Horizontal Isolation at Corners ------------------------------------------------------------------------------ 25
Horizontal Isolation in the Plane of the Wall ------------------------------------------------------------- 24
Horizontal Isolation Perpendicular to the Plane of the Wall ----------------------------------------- 24

I
Introduction -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 9
Isolation from the Building ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 23
Horizontal Isolation at Corners ------------------------------------------------------------------------- 25
Horizontal Isolation in the Plane of the Wall -------------------------------------------------------- 24
Horizontal Isolation Perpendicular to the Plane of the Wall ------------------------------------- 24
Typical Deflection Magnitudes ------------------------------------------------------------------------- 25
Vertical Isolation ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 23
L
Layout or Configuration --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 28
M
Masonry ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 55
Materials for Connectors ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 38
Methods of Analysis and Design Assumptions --------------------------------------------------------- 20
Allowable Stress Design or Strength Design ------------------------------------------------------- 21
Allowable Stresses ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 21
Code Minimum Requirements -------------------------------------------------------------------------- 22
Connector Requirements -------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 22
Cracking of Brick ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 22
Mortar Compression ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 66
N
Non-Conforming Quality Control Tests ------------------------------------------------------------------- 65
Grout Compression --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 67
Mortar Compression -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 66
Prism Tests-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 68
Unit Compression Strength ----------------------------------------------------------------------------- 65
Pre-Construction ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 62
Prism Tests ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ 68
Purpose and Scope---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 9
Q
Quality Control and Assurance ----------------------------------------------------------------------------- 55

S
Sealants ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 58
Seismic Loads and Performance --------------------------------------------------------------------------- 19
Site Visits --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 65
Sloping Sills ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 14
Specification ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 55
Steel for Connectors------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 57
Structural --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 75
Structural Concept --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 11
Submittal Review ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 64
System Description -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 11
Testing ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ 75
The Applicable Code Sections ------------------------------------------------------------------------------ 18
Troubleshooting During Construction --------------------------------------------------------------------- 69
Troubleshooting Table for the Design and Construction of SBV ----------------------------------- 70
Typical Deflection Magnitudes ------------------------------------------------------------------------------ 25
Typical Movement Design Criteria ------------------------------------------------------------------------- 26
U
Unit Compression Strength ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 65
V
Vertical Isolation ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ 23
W
Water -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 75
Water Repellents ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 58
Weather and Thermal Protection --------------------------------------------------------------------------- 15
Who Designs the Wall? --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 17
Wind Loads and Performance ------------------------------------------------------------------------------ 20

ALLIED ASSOCIATES AND WEB ADDRESSES
1 Arizona Masonry Guild (www.masonryforlife.com)
2 Masonry Industry Promotion Group (www.masonrypromotion.com)
3 Masonry Institute of America (www.masonryinstitute.org)
4 Masonry Institute of Oregon (www.mioctio.org)
5 Masonry Institute of Washington (www.masonryinstitute.com)
6 Rocky Mountain Masonry Institute (www.rmmi.org)
7 Utah Masonry Council (www.utahmasonrycouncil.org)
WSCPA 2011

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DESIGN GUIDE

WESTERN STATES CLAY

STRUCTURAL BRICK VENEER

Western States Clay Products Association

KPFF Consulting Engineers

Third Edition, May 2011

Western States Clay Products Association 2 May 2011

Western States Clay Products Association 3 May 2011

CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION .................................................................................................... 9

CHAPTER 2 SYSTEM DESCRIPTION ...................................................................................... 11

CHAPTER 3 DESIGN ............................................................................................................. 17

Western States Clay Products Association 4 May 2011

3.3.4.1 Materials for Connectors ................................................................ 38

CHAPTER 5 CONSTRUCTION ................................................................................................ 61

Western States Clay Products Association 5 May 2011

FIGURE 1 TYPICAL HOLLOW BRICK .......................................................................................... 11

Western States Clay Products Association 6 May 2011

FIGURE 35 FLOOR TIES .......................................................................................................... 36

Western States Clay Products Association 7 May 2011

Western States Clay Products Association 8 May 2011

1.0 GENERAL 7. Reduced cost of the backup system.

The SBV system is similar to conventional

Western States Clay Products Association 9 May 2011

In the middle 1960's, a new clay unit

Western States Clay Products Association 10 May 2011

CHAPTER 2 - SYSTEM DESCRIPTION

2.0 GENERAL between building floors or columns. Thus,

2.1 STRUCTURAL CONCEPT

Tee with 1 hole

Figure 1 Typical Hollow Brick.

The actual dimension of hollow clay brick

Western States Clay Products Association 11 May 2011

Figure 3 Brick Supported on a Ledger.

In other designs, separate discontinuous

Another available option is to support the

Western States Clay Products Association 12 May 2011

Western States Clay Products Association 13 May 2011

more dramatically sloped sills may require

Where the depth of the slope does not

The SBV system offers the architect a

Brick soffits can be designed and

Figure 9 Dramatic Brick Forms.

2.2.1 SLOPING SILLS Reinforcement

Sloped sills are a common accent in brick

Western States Clay Products Association 14 May 2011

Western States Clay Products Association 15 May 2011

The most obvious reason is that cracks Brick expands

Another reason that reinforced brick walls Brick expands

Western States Clay Products Association 16 May 2011

3.0 GENERAL team should address early in the design

Western States Clay Products Association 17 May 2011

Western States Clay Products Association 18 May 2011

3.2.4 SEISMIC LOADS AND PERFORMANCE Performance based seismic design

Western States Clay Products Association 19 May 2011

2. Immediate occupancy: Most buildings designed to the minimum

Western States Clay Products Association 20 May 2011

jurisdictions must be consulted for the additional information resulted from

Western States Clay Products Association 21 May 2011

3.2.6.3 CRACKING OF BRICK One example is the 2009 IBC, Section

Western States Clay Products Association 22 May 2011

e. Where anchorage is achieved using flat straps 3.2.7.1 VERTICAL ISOLATION

The most challenging part of the design of

The amount of isolation is an important