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glass [20]. Using this calculation, it 4. Glass Fiber Size Treatments The S-2 Glass fibers lower dielectric
is found that the approximate thermal The surface treatment chemistry constant and therefore the potential
conductivity of C Glass is 1.1 W/mK, of glass fiber follows the necessary for better radar transparency.
E Glass is 1.3 W/mK, and S-2 product function. Textile size
Glass fibers is 1.45 W/mK near chemistries based on starch or 5.2 Environmental Durability
room temperature. polyvinyl alcohol film formers are The durability of glass fiber compos-
capable in weaving, braiding, or ite materials is one of the features
3.5 Optical Properties knitting processes. Typically the that attract users to them.
Refractive index is measured on weaver then scours or heat cleans Composites do not corrode like
either unannealed or annealed glass the glass fabric and applies a finish metals and are low maintenance
fibers. The standard oil immersion compatible with the end product. materials. However, the durability
techniques are used with monochro- Nonwoven size chemistries often and reliability in specific applications
matic sodium D light at 25C. In include dispersants compatible with is often requested for design input.
general, the corresponding annealed white water chemistry for wet In load bearing structures, the long-
glass will exhibit an index that will formed mats or additives compatible term behavior of the material is
range from approximately 0.003 to with dry or wet binder chemistry for needed to complete the design of
0.006 higher than the as-formed dry formed mats. Reinforcement the structure. How much load will
glass fibers given in Table 2. size chemistries must be compatible the structure hold and survive for a
with a multitude of processes and given period of time? Or, how thick
3.6 Radiation Properties E Glass with the composite material end use must the part be to handle a load
and S-2 Glass fibers have excellent performance criteria. Processes for a given period of time?
resistance to all types of nuclear such as injection molding require These questions are usually
radiation. Alpha and beta radiation chopped fibers with compatibility addressed empirically, with accelerat-
have almost no effect, while gamma for thermoplastic compounds. ed testing. ASTM D 2992 and
radiation and neutron bombardment Filament winding and pultrusion ASTM D 3681 for example are
produce a 5 to 10% decrease in require continuous fibers with utility methods often incorporated in the
tensile strength, a less than 1% in thermoset and thermoplastic practice of evaluating and designing
decrease in density, and a slight compounds. Typically three basic composite pipe. In these methods,
discoloration of fibers. This data components are used with high actual prototype products are manu-
was true to 1020 NVT neutrons or strength glass size chemistries: a factured and loaded in simulated
gamma radiation up to 105 J/g. film former, lubricant, and coupling environments for which the product
Glass fibers resist radiation because agent. Table 4 outlines evolutionary is intended. To accelerate testing,
the glass is amorphous, and the research for glass fiber size chem- the loads are significantly higher than
radiation does not distort the atomic istry by each components role. operating conditions to induce failure
ordering. Glass can also absorb a in a relatively short period of time.
few percent of foreign material and 5. Fiber Composite Utility The extrapolation of short-term data
maintain the same properties to a 5.1 Composite Properties to the expected life of the product
reasonable degree. Also, because Application of glass fiber composite allows engineers to predict safe
the individual fibers have a small materials depends on proper utiliza- operating loads (stresses) for the
diameter, the heat of atomic distor- tion of glass composition, size purpose of design. This practice has
tion is easily transferred to a surface chemistry, fiber orientation, and fiber served the composites industry well
for dispersion. volume in the appropriate matrix for for over 30 years.
E Glass and C Glass are not rec- desired mechanical, electrical, ther- To demonstrate this process,
ommended for use inside atomic mal, and other properties. Table 5 the results of several test series
reactors because of their high boron gives typical mechanical properties are reported. Tests were conducted
content. S-2 Glass fibers are suitable for high strength S-2 Glass fibers using pultruded rods made of glass
for use inside atomic reactors. epoxy with unidirectional fiber orien- fibers and thermoset resins. These
Because quite a wide variety of tation. The elastic constants and tests are similar to those referenced
organic products are used in diverse strain allowables are used for in ASTM except the loading condition
radiation environments, it is usually design input. The effect of glass is pure tension and under a constant
necessary to try out most products composition and fiber volume in load. Figure 8 summarizes stress
in simulated conditions to determine epoxy are shown in Figure 6 for the rupture testing using S-2 Glass
whether the organics will be coefficient of thermal expansion and fibers in epoxy with and without an
satisfactory. in Figure 7 for dielectric constant. adverse environment, a calcium
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hydroxide solution with a pH of 13. [5] W. W. Wolf. The Glass Fiber [14] Standard Test Methods for
For reference, the initial tensile Industry The Reason for the Use Softening Point of Glass, C. 338,
strength of the composite rod was of Certain Chemical Compositions, Annual Book of ASTM Standards,
2070 MPa. The stress rupture Seminar at University of Illinois, American Society for Testing and
behavior of an S-2 Glass fibers/ Urbania, IL, (Oct. 1982). Materials.
epoxy rod in this test indicates a
[6] J. C. Watson, and N. [15] Standard Test Methods for
long-term stress capability of 65%
Raghupathi, Glass Fibers, Annealing Point and Strain Point of
of the initial ultimate tensile stress.
Engineered Materials Handbook. Glass Fiber Elongation, C. 336.
As expected, the stress rupture
Vol. 1 Composite, ASM Annual Book of ASTM Standards,
behavior of the composite material
International, (1987). pp. 107-111. American Society for Testing and
is affected by the presence of the
Materials.
environment. The long-term stress [7] Standard Test Method for
capability of this material in the high Density of Glass by Buoyancy, C693, [16] Standard Test Methods for
pH environment is roughly 50% of Annual Book of ASTM Standards, Annealing Point and Strain Point of
the initial ultimate tensile strength. American Society for Testing Glass by Beam Bending, C. 598.
A second test series compared Materials. Annual Book of ASTM Standards,
the stress rupture performance of American Society for Testing and
[8] P. K. Gupta, Examination of the
E glass and S-2 Glass reinforce- Materials.
Textile Strength of E-Glass Fiber in
ments in epoxy resin with the high the Context of Slow Crack Growth, [17] Standard Test Methods for
pH environmental exposure. Figure 9 Fracture Mechanics of Ceramics. Coefficient of Linear Thermal
summarizes this data. The S-2 Glass Vol. 5, (1983), pp. 291. Expansion of Plastics, D. 696.
fibers reinforced composite rod had Annual Book of ASTM Standards,
[9] J. R. Hutchins, III and R. W.
a higher initial tensile stress than the American Society for Testing and
Harrington, Glass in Encyclopedia
E Glass reinforced rod. The influence Materials.
of Chemical Technology, Vol. 10.
of the combined effects of stress
2nd Ed., pp. 533-604. [18] C. Kittel, Phys. Rev., Vol. 75,
and environment were similar for the
(1949), pp. 972.
two materials. [10] R. T. Brannan, Am. Ceram.
Soc., Vol. 36, (1953). pp. 230- [19] C. L. Babcock, Symposium on
Acknowledgements 231. Heat Transfer Phenomena in Glass.
The authors thank Cathy Holton for J. Am. Ceram, Soc., Vol. 44
[11] Standard Test Methods for A-C
assistance with the manuscript. (No. 7), (July 1961).
Loss Characteristics and Permittivity
References (Dielectric Constant) of Solid [20] E. H. Ratcliffe, Thermal
[1] D. M. Miller. Glass Fibers, Electrical Insulating Materials, Conductivities of Glass Between
Engineered Materials Handbook, D. 150, Annual Book of ASTM -150C and 100C, Glass
Vol. 1 Composites, ASM Standards. American Society for Technology, Vol. 4 (No. 4),
International. 1987, pp. 45-48. Testing and Materials. (August 1963).
6
Table 1 Composition Ranges for Glass Fibers
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Table 3 Properties of Glass Fibers
8
Table 4 Glass Fiber Size Chemistry Summary
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Figure 1 Continuous Glass Fiber Manufacturing Process
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Figure 4 Fiber Strength VS pH Exposure Figure 5 Glass Viscosity VS Temperature
Figure 6 Thermal Expansion VS Volume In Epoxy Figure 7 Dielectric VS Fiber Volume In Epoxy
Figure 8 Environmental Stress Rupture In Epoxy Figure 9 Environmental Stress Rupture In Epoxy
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This data is offered solely as a guide in the selection of a reinforcement. The information contained in this publication is based on actual laboratory data and field test experience. We believe this
information to be reliable, but do not guarantee its applicability to the users process or assume any liability arising out of its use or performance. The user, by accepting the products described
herein, agrees to be responsible for thoroughly testing any application to determine its suitability before committing to production. It is important for the user to determine the properties of its
own commercial compounds when using this or any other reinforcement.
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