CHEMISTRY:

MATTER &
MEASUREMENT
 Scientific Approach: Developing a Model
Observations : Natural phenomena and measured events;
universally consistent ones can be stated as
a natural law.
Hypothesis: Tentative proposal that explains revised if
observations. experiments
do not
support it
Experiment: Procedure to test hypothesis; measures one
variable at a time.

Model (Theory): Set of conceptual assumptions that

explains data from accumulated
altered if
experiments; predicts related phenomenapredictions
.
do not
Further Experiment: Tests predictions based on support it
model.
 Outcomes Over the Long-Term
Theory (Model)
A set of tested hypotheses that give an overall
explanation of some natural phenomenon and
allow us to make predictions.
Natural Phenomena or Law
A consistent observation in our universe.

Example - Law of Conservation of Energy the energy of the

universe is constant
So a Law summarizes what happens while a
Theory is an attempt to explain
observations!
 Noble Gases
Alkali Metals Halogens
Alkaline Earth Metals
3 Atomic Number
Li Chemical symbol
6.941

Av. Atomic mass Nonmetals

Metals
Metalloids

Metals

Chapter 1/4
 Definitions

Matter anything that has mass and volume -the stuff of the universe:
books, planets, trees, professors, students

Composition the types and amounts of simpler substances that make up a

sample of matter element, compound, mixture.

Properties the characteristics that give each pure substance a unique identity

Physical Properties Chemical Properties

Characteristic of pure substance (i.e.
color, melting point, boiling point,
density). Substance retains chemical
identity when
these properties change.
Those properties attributed to the
reactivity of the pure substance as it
interacts with, or transforms into, other
substances (i.e. - flammability,
corrosiveness).
Some Properties of the Elements
Property: Any characteristic that can be used to
describe or identify matter can be physical or
chemical.

Extensive Properties: Do depend on sample size.

length
volume
mass

Intensive Properties: Do not depend on sample size.

temperature
melting point
The physical states of matter.
 The distinction between physical and chemical change.

H2O (s) H2O (l)

2 H2O (l) 2H2 (g) + O2 (g)
A Physical change B Chemical change
The chemical composition does The pure substance(s)
not change but the physical change chemical composition
state may change to form new substances
 Distinguishing Between Physical and Chemical Change

PROBLEM: Decide whether each of the following process is primarily a physical

or a chemical change, and explain briefly:
(a) Frost forms as the temperature drops on a humid winter night.
(b) A cornstalk grows from a seed that is watered and fertilized.
(c) Dynamite explodes to form a mixture of gases.
(d) Perspiration evaporates when you relax after jogging.
(e) A silver fork tarnishes slowly in air.

PLAN: Does the substance change composition or just change form?

SOLUTION:
(a) physical change H2O (g) H2O (l) H2O (s)

(b) chemical change Many reactions! 6H2O (l) + 6CO2 (g) 6O2 (g) + C6H12O6 (s)
(c) chemical change 4C3H5N3O9 (s) 6N2(g) + 12CO(g) + 10H2O(g) + 7O2 (g)
(d) physical change H2O (l) H2O (g)
(e) chemical change 4 Ag (s) + O2(g) 2 Ag2O (s)
 Relationships among elements, compounds, and mixtures.

Two or more pure

Pure substances

Example: H2, He, or S8 HgO, NH4Cl

2 or more
different elements
 Simple laboratory distillation apparatus.

Liquid mixtures
are separated
by boiling point
differences.
 Nature of Measurement
Measurement - quantitative observation
consisting of 2 parts
Part 1 - number
Part 2 - scale (unit)

Examples:
20 grams
6.63 Jouleseconds
 SI Base Units

Physical Quantity Unit Name Unit Abbreviation

(Dimension)

mass kilogram kg

length meter m

time second s

temperature kelvin K

electric current ampere A

amount of substance mole mol

luminous intensity candela cd

 Common Decimal Prefixes Used with SI Units

Prefix Prefix Word Conventional Exponential

Symbol Notation
Notation
tera T trillion 1,000,000,000,000 1x1012
giga G billion 1,000,000,000 1x109
mega M million 1,000,000 1x106
kilo k thousand 1,000 1x103
hecto h hundred 100 1x102
deka da ten 10 1x101
----- ---- one 1 1x100
deci d tenth 0.1 1x10-1
centi c hundredth 0.01 1x10-2
milli m thousandth 0.001 1x10-3
micro millionth 0.000001 1x10-6
nano n billionth 0.000000001 1x10-9
pico p trillionth 0.000000000001 1x10-12
femto f quadrillionth 0.000000000000001 1x10-15

You must know prefixes mega through nano on table for exams and be able to use
them in conversion problems!
 Converting Units of Mass

PROBLEM: International computer communications are often carried by optical

fibers in cables laid along the ocean floor. If one strand of optical fiber
weighs 1.19 x 10-3lbs/m, what is the total mass (in kg) of a cable made of
six strands of optical fiber, each long enough to link New York and Paris
(8.84 x 103km)?
PLAN: The sequence of steps may vary but essentially you have to find the
length of the entire cable and convert it to mass.
SOLUTION:
length (km) of fiber 103m
8.84 x 103km x = 8.84 x 106m
km
1 km = 103 m
length (m) of fiber 1.19 x 10 -3lbs
8.84 x 106m x = 1.05 x 104lb
m
1 m = 1.19x10-3 lb
6 fibers = 6.30x 104lb
mass (lb) of fiber 1.05 x 104lb x
cable cable
6 fibers = 1 cable
6.30x 104lb 1kg 2.86x104 kg
x =
mass (lb) of cable mass (kg) of cable cable 2.205 lb cable
2.205 lb = 1 kg
 Conceptual Plans for
Units Raised to Powers
Convert cubic inches into cubic centimeters.
1) Find relationship equivalence: 1 in = 2.54 cm
2) Write conceptual plan.

in3 cm3

3) Change equivalence into conversion factors with given unit on the

bottom.
 The volume of a certain bacterial cell is 2.14 m3.
= micro or 10-6
a) What is the volume in cubic millimeters (mm3)?
Plan: We need to determine the conversion factor so that we can convert
2.14 m3 to mm3 (conversion factor will have form: mm3/m3). 1-D conversion
factor: 1 m = 1 x 10-6m and 1 mm = 1 x 10-3 m
So: (1 mm/10-3 m) x (10-6 m/m) = 10-3 mm/m
Solution: determine conversion factor from single dimension units:
We need the answer in mm3. And since 10-3 mm = 1m, then (10-3 mm)3 =
(1 m)3. So 10-9 mm3 = 1 m3
Using this conversion factor: (2.14 m3/cell) (10-9 mm3/ m3) =
2.14 x 10-9 mm3/cell.

b) What is the volume of 105 bacterial cells in L? Use the same plan! (1 cm3 =
1 mL and 1000 mL = 1 L, 10 mm = 1 cm)
Solution: (1 L)(103 mL/L)(1 cm3/mL)(10 mm/cm)3 = 106 mm3 or 1 L = 106 mm3

So (2.14 x 10-9 mm3/cell)(1 L/106 mm3) = 2.14 x 10-15 L/cell

For 105 cells, the volume occupied is:
(105 cells)(2.14 x 10-15 L/cells) = 2.14 x 10-10 L
The relative densities of copper and mercury.

Photo courtesy of James Scherer.

Mass Density = mass/unit volume

d = m/V
 The relative mass densities of some
liquids.

Photo courtesy of American Color.

Hexane, d = 0.70 g/ml

Water, d = 1.00 g/ml
Carbon tetrachloride, d = 1.4 g/ml
 Calculating Mass Density from Mass and Length

PROBLEM: Lithium (Li) is a soft, gray solid that has the lowest mass density
of any metal. If a slab of Li weighs 1.49 x 103 mg and has
sides that measure 20.9 mm by 11.1 mm by 11.9 mm, what
is the density of Li in g/cm3 ?
PLAN: Density is expressed in g/cm3 so we need the mass in grams
11.1 and the volume in cm3.
SOLUTION:
11.9 lengths (mm) of sides 10-3g
20.9 1.49x103mg x = 1.49g
10 mm = 1 cm 1mg
1cm
mass (mg) of Li lengths (cm) of sides 20.9mm x = 2.09cm
10mm
103 mg = 1 g multiply lengths
Similarly the other sides will be 1.11 cm
mass (g) of Li volume (cm3) and 1.19 cm, respectively.
2.09 cm x 1.11 cm x 1.19 cm = 2.76cm3
density (g/cm3) of Li 1.49g
density of Li = = 0.540 g/cm3
2.76 cm3
Or 0.540 g/ml since 1 cm3 = 1 ml
 Sample Problem: Experimental determination of the density of a metal.

A student fills a 50.000 mL volumetric flask with water and finds that the mass of
the flask + water 253.123 g. The empty flask weighed 203.138 g. He discards the
water. He then adds 50.555 g of Pb metal and adds enough water to fill the flask
to 50.000 mL. The flask, Pb, and water now weigh 299.221 g.
What is the density of the Pb in g/mL?

Plan: density = mass substance/volume substance. Since we are given the mass of
the Pb, we only need to find the volume occupied by that mass.
We can determine the density of the water from the first experiment.
Then, from the data in the second experiment, we can use the mass of the water in
the flask and its density to determine the volume occupied in the flask.
MassH2O/density = volume of water. And: Volume Pb = 50.000 mL mL water.

Density of Water: mass water/vol. water = (253.123 g 203.138 g)/50.000 mL =

dwater = 49.985 g water/50.00 mL = 0.99970 g/mL
mass water = 299.221 g (50.555 g Pb + 203.138 g empty flask) = 45.528 g water
Volume of water in flask = mass water/dwater = 45.528 g water/0.99970 g/mL = 45.542 mL
Volume of Pb = 50.000 mL 45.542 mL = 4.458 mL
Density of Pb = 50.555 g/4.458 mL = 11.34 g/mL
The freezing and boiling points of water.
 Temperature Scales and Interconversions
Kelvin ( K ) - The Absolute temperature scale begins at absolute zero and
only has positive values. Water freezes at 273.15 K and boils at 373.15 K

Celsius ( oC ) - The temperature scale used by science, formally called

centigrade, most commonly used scale around the world; water freezes
at 0oC, and boils at 100oC.

Fahrenheit ( oF ) - Commonly used scale in the U.S. for our weather

reports; water freezes at 32oF and boils at 212oF.

Conversion factor based on difference in degrees between melting and

freezing points of water:

Ratio of degrees in Fahrenheit/Celsius = (212 32)0F/(100 0)0C = (180 0F/1000C) = 9 0F/5 0C

T (in K) = T (in oC)(1 K/1 0C) + 273.15 K T (in oF) = 9/5 T (in oC) + 32 0F
T (in oC) = T (in K)(1 0C/ 1 K) - 273.15 K T (in oC) = 5/9 [ T (in oF) 32 0F]
 Converting Units of Temperature

PROBLEM: A child has a body temperature of 38.70C.

(a) If normal body temperature is 98.60F, does the child have a fever?

(b) What is the childs temperature in kelvins?

PLAN: We have to convert 0C to 0F to find out if the child has a fever and we
use the 0C to kelvin relationship to find the temperature in kelvins.

SOLUTION:
(a) Converting from 0C to 0F 90F (38.70C) + 32 0F = 101.70F
50C

(b) Converting from 0C to K 38.70C X 1 K + 273.15 K = 311.8K

1 0C
Sample Problem Developing a conversion factors for a new temperature scale
Assume that your new temperature scale is based on ethanol, C2H5OH. On the Celsius
scale, ethanol has a melting point of -114 and a boiling point of 78.1, but on your new
scale calibrated in units of degrees ethanol, 0E, you define ethanol to melt at 0 0E and
boil at 500. 0E.
a. How does your ethanol degree compare with your Celsius degree?
Since it takes the same amount of energy to heat ethanol from its
melting point to its boiling point, regardless of temperature scale:
T, 0E = T, 0C or (500. 0)0E = (78.1 - -114)0C and 500. 0E = 192 0C
=+
And 500. 0E/192 0C = 2.60 0E/0C

b. What are the melting and boiling points of water on the ethanol scale at 1 atm pressure?

Tmp, 0E = 2.60 0E/0C [ 0.00 0C + 114 0C] = 296 0E

Adjustment for setting mp ETOH as zero

Tbp, 0E = 2.60 0E/0C [ 100.0 0C + 114 0C] = 556 0E

 Energy is the capacity to do work.

energy due to the position of the object or

Potential Energy energy from a chemical reaction (bond
energies are an example of chemical potential
energy)
Kinetic Energy energy due to the motion of the object

Potential and kinetic energy can be interconverted.

4C3H5N3O9 (s) 6N2(g) + 12CO(g) + 10H2O(g) + 7O2 (g)

+ heat, light, sound & shock waves
Kinetic energy associated with motions of molecules which, in
this case, are so violent that they result in a shock wave!
 PE = mgh KE = mv2

Less stable
Potential Energy

Stretched

Potential Energy
Less stable
Change in
potential energy Change in
equals potential energy
kinetic energy equals
Relaxed kinetic energy
More stable More stable

A A gravitational system. The potential energy gained B A system of two balls attached by a spring.
when a weight is lifted is converted to kinetic energy The potential energy gained when the spring is stretched
as the weight falls. is converted to the kinetic energy of the moving balls
when it is released.

E = kQ+Q-/r
Potential Energy

Potential Energy
Less stable Less stable

Change in Change in
potential energy potential energy
equals equals
kinetic energy exhaust kinetic energy
More stable More stable

C A system of oppositely charged particles. The D A system of fuel and exhaust. A fuel is higher in
potential energy gained when the charges are separated chemical potential energy than the exhaust. As the fuel
is converted to kinetic energy as the attraction pulls burns, some of its potential energy is converted to the
them together. kinetic energy of the moving car.
 Significant Figures

The number of significant figures in a measurement depends upon the measuring

device.

32.330C 32.30C

The least significant digit is the number that you estimate on the measuring device.
 How Precise is My Measurement?

Precision of measurement with a centimeter ruler.

A. 9.1 .1 cm B. 9 1 cm C. 9.150 .002 cm D. 9.13 .02 cm

 Rules for Determining Which Digits are Significant

Start at the left of the number and move right until you reach the first nonzero
digit.

Count the first nonzero digit and every nonzero digit to its right as significant.

Determine if the measured quantity has a decimal point .

Zeros that are used only to position the decimal point (leading zeroes such as 0.012)
are not significant.
Zeros that end a number (trailing zeroes such as 0.01200) and lie either after or
before the decimal point are significant; thus 1.030 ml has four significant
figures, and 5300. L has four significant figures also. All captured zeroes are
significant. Decimal point
Numbers with no decimal point, such as 5300 L trailing zeroes are not significant
while all captured zeroes are significant. A terminal decimal point is often used to
clarify the situation, but scientific notation is the best! (5.3 x 103)
Exact numbers do not influence significant figures. Numbers of items, exact
conversions are examples of exact numbers.
 Rules for Significant Figures in Answers

1. For addition and subtraction. The answer has the same

number of decimal places as there are in the
measurement with the fewest decimal places.

Example: adding two volumes 83.5 mL

+ 23.28 mL
106.78 mL = 106.8 mL

Example: subtracting two volumes 865.9 mL

- 2.8121 mL
863.0879 mL = 863.1 mL
 Rules for Significant Figures in Answers

2. For multiplication and division. The number with the least certainty limits
the certainty of the result. Therefore, the answer contains the same number of
significant figures as there are in the measurement with the fewest significant
figures.

Multiply the following numbers:

9.2 cm x 6.8 cm x 0.3744 cm = 23.4225 cm3 = 23 cm3

 Rules for Rounding Off Numbers
1. If the digit removed is more than 5, the preceding number increases by 1.
5.379 rounds to 5.38 if three significant figures are retained and to 5.4 if two
significant figures are retained.

2. If the digit removed is less than 5, the preceding number is unchanged.

0.2413 rounds to 0.241 if three significant figures are retained and to 0.24
if two significant figures are retained.

3.If the digit removed is exactly 5, round up. So, 2.375 rounds to 2.38 and
2. 365 rounds to 2.37.

4. Be sure to carry two or more additional significant figures through a

multistep calculation and round off only the final answer.
 Significant Figures and Rounding

PROBLEM: Perform the following calculations and round the answer to the
correct number of significant figures:
1g
16.3521 cm2 - 1.448 cm2 4.80x104 mg 1000 mg
(a) (b)
7.085 cm 11.55 cm3

PLAN: In (a) we subtract before we divide; for (b) we are using an exact
number.

SOLUTION: 16.3521 cm2 - 1.448 cm2 14.904 cm2

(a) = = 2.104 cm
7.085 cm 7.085 cm

1g
4.80x104 mg 1000 mg 48.0 g
(b) = = 4.16 g/ cm3
11.55 cm3 11.55 cm3
 Precision and Accuracy
Errors in Scientific Measurements
Precision -
Refers to reproducibility or how close the measurements are to each other.
Use range or average deviation (or standard deviation if normally
distributed) to determine precision

Accuracy -
Refers to how close a measurement is to the real value. Compare average to
known mean value Mean value = (value 1 + value 2 + value 3)/no. values

Systematic Error -
Values that are either all higher or all lower than the actual value.

Random Error -
In the absence of systematic error, some values that are higher and some
that are lower than the actual value.
 Precision and accuracy in the laboratory.

Mean = (25.2 + 25.1 + 24.8 +24.9)/4 = 25.0

precise and accurate

Range : 25.2 24.6 = 0.4

0.4 x 100% = 2 %
25.0

Mean = (27.0 + 26.8 + 26.8 +27.3)/4 = 27.0

precise but not accurate

 Precision and accuracy in the laboratory.
continued
Mean = (24.0 + 26.5 + 25.6 +24.0)/4 = 25.0

Accurate but not precise

random error
26.5 24.0 = 2.5 and 2.5 x 100% = 10. %
25.0
Mean = (27.2 + 26.0 + 27.0 +25.6)/4 = 26.5

systematic error

Not precise or accurate

 A student makes 4 measurements of the
freezing point of water: 5.0 0C, 5.1 0C, 5.0
0C, and, 5.10C.

1. The results are precise & accurate

2. The results are accurate but not precise
3. The results are precise but not accurate.
4. The results are not precise or accurate