Notes on Farm Power and Machinery

Q1 What is meant by farm power source? What are the different sources of farm
power?
A Sources of power used on the farm to carry out the agricultural or cultivation operations
are called as farm power sources.
Sources of farm power
Human power Biogas power
Animal power Solar power
Mechanical power Wind power
Electrical power

Q2 Compare any two sources of farm power. Or Write merits and demerits of any two
farm power sources.
A Human power
Merit Demerit
1 Easily available 1 Costliest power
2 Used for all types of work 2 Low efficiency
3 Require Full maintenance when not in use
4 Affected by weather conditions and seasons

Animal power
Merit
1 Easily available
2 Used for all types of works
3 Low initial investment
4 Supply manures and fuel
Demerit
1 Low efficiency
(Not very effective)
2 Affected by weather
3 Cant work at a stretch.
4 Requires full maintenance while non use
5 Creates unhealthy and dirty atmosphere near
residence
6 Very slow in doing work

Mechanical Power
Merit Demerit
1 High efficiency 1 High initial investment
2 Weather unaffected 2 Costly fuel
3 Cant run at a stretch. 3 High repair and maintenance Cost
4 Requires less space 4 Repair and Maintenance Needs technical
knowledge
5 Cheaper form
 Electrical Power
Merit
1 Very efficiency
2 High efficiency
3 Can work at a stretch
4 Low maintenance
operating cost
5 Weather unaffected
Demerit
1 High initial investment
2 Require Technical knowledge
3 Careful handling is necessary
and

Wind power
1 Cheapest form of power up 1 Plenty of wind availability needed
to a few kilowatts
2 Desired wind velocity necessary
3 Not dependable for regular work
4 Low efficiency

Q Give the comparison between animal power and tractor power.

A Basic Tractor Animal
1 Availability Comparatively less Available in plenty
availability
2 Overload capacity Limited Very high for short time
3 Acceptability Not very common Most important source of power
because (High initial at present
Investment)
4 Tractive work Best source of power for All kinds of farm works
any traction job. With
cage wheel puddling can
be done.
5 Stationary work All kinds Limited use
6 Transport work Quick means for medium Short and medium dist. Transport
distance transport works
7 Initial investment Cost / hp is low but Cost/hp = high overall investment
overall investment / unit less
area high
8 Maintenance cost Reasonable Very high (requires maintenance
when not in use)
9 Rate of Ten percent per year Value increases in beginning and
deprecation then decreases.
 10 Cost of operation Cheaper per horse power Costlier than tractor
hr.
11 Limitations Needs technical Constant care needed to keep
knowledge for opera and animal in good health
maintenance unavailability of medicinal
Facilities in rural areas
12 Idleness Doesnt consume any Needs care, feed and fodder in all
fuel or lubricant in non- conditions but provide manures
use condition. for the crops.
13 Output Very high Less
14 Time Suitable for timely Time consuming
operations
15 Field efficiency Low field efficiency in Overall low field efficiently
smaller fields but high in
larger plots

Q Write a short note on scope of mechanization.

A 1. Farm mechanization improves agricultural productivity.
2. The timeliness of operations has assumed greater significant in obtaining optimal
yields from different crops, which has been possible by way of mechanization.
3. Secondly, the quality and precision of the operations are equally significant for
realizing higher yields. The various operations such as land levelling, irrigation,
sowing and planting, use of fertilizers, plant protection, harvesting and threshing
need a high degree of precision to increase the efficiency of the inputs and reduce
the losses.
4. Thirdly, the time taken to perform sequence of operations is a factor determining
the cropping intensity. So as to ensure timeliness of various operations, it is quite
inevitable to use such mechanical equipments which have higher output capacity
and cut down the number of operations to be performed.
5. Mechanization helps in increasing area under cultivation and increase in cropping
intensity.
6. Higher productivity of land and labour is another factor, which clearly justifies
farm mechanization.
7. Not only the output per hour is more, the total labour requirement is also reduced.
8. The displaced labour may of course be absorbed in the other alternatives created
by the increased mechanization such as manufacturing, repair and service shops
and the sale services.
9. As production increases with mechanization of the farm operations, it creates a
good scope for commercialization of agriculture.
10. Mechanization reduces the cost of production as it saves labour, both human and
bullock.
 11. In the absence of mechanization, the ever-increasing wage rate of human labour
and cost of upkeep of draught animals could have increased the cost of production
much higher.
12. It reduces the weather risk and risk of non-availability of labour and thus wastage
is minimized.
13. Timely marketing is also made possible by quick mechanical transportation,
cleaning and handling.
14. The use of farm mechanization enlarges the employment opportunities both on
farms and in non-farm sectors through increase in area under plough, multiple
cropping, development of agro-industries and related services. On the other hand,
displacement of human labour does take place and demand for semiskilled labour
in place of unskilled labour is increased.
15. Also, the drudgery for human labour is reduced and unhygienic operations such
as handling of farm yard manure can be done with machinery.

Q What is mean by farm mechanization? Mention benefits of farm mechanization.

A It is the application of engineering and technology in agricultural operations to do a job
in a better way to improve productivity.
Benefits:
1. Timeliness of operation, 2. Precision of operation, 3. Improvement of work
environment, 4. Enhancement of safety, 5. Reduction on drudgery of labour, 6.
Reduction of loss of crop and food production.

Q Define heat engine. Give the classification of the engines.

A Heat engine: It is a machine used for converting heat developed by burning fuel into
useful work.
Classification of engines
Heat engine are of broadly of two types
1. External combustion (E. C.) engine
2. Internal combustion (I. C.) engine
i) Carburetor type (Petrol, Kerosene)
ii) Diesel type
iii) Dual fuel type (diesel + gases viz. methane, biogas)

i) External combustion (E. C.) engine: It is the engine in which combustion of fuel
takes place outside the engine cylinder. The combustion uses heat in the form of
steam which is generated in a boiler placed entirely separate from the working
cylinder.
ii) Internal combustion (I. C.) engine: It is the engine in which the combustion of
fuel takes place inside the engine cylinder is called internal combustion or I. C.
engine. I. C. engine is a machine for converting stored energy of gaseous or liquid
fuels into form of useful mechanical work. I. C. engines are made in various sizes
and types depending upon use.
 I. C. engines are further classified into three types
1. Carburetor type: Liquid fuel is atomized, vaporized and mixed with air in
correct proportion before being taken to engine cylinders thro the intake
manifold. Ignition is caused by etc. spark.
2. Diesel type: Liquid fuel alone is injected under high pressure of 105 kg/cm2 or
above, at right moment directly into the combustion chamber which contain
highly compressive air.
3. Dual fuel type: Both diesel and gases like methane, biogas etc. are mixed and
used to develop power. About 75% diesel can be replaced by using gases along
with it. Gases produced in biogas plants and gasifiers are most commonly used.
I. C. engines are also classified as (another Classification of I. C. engines)
1. According fuel used / Ignition system
a) Carburetor type of spark ignition type
b) Diesel type of compression ignition type
2. On the basis of number of cylinders used
a) Single cylinder engine
b) Multiple cylinders engine
3. On the basis of speed
a) Slow speed engines (Speed < 350 rpm)
b) Medium speed engines (Speed 350-1000 rpm)
c) High speed engines (Speed > 1000 rpm)
4. On the basis of mobility
a) Stationary engine
b) Automotive engine
5. On the basis of position a piston.
a) Vertical engine
b) Horizontal engine
6. On the basis of principle of operation.
a) Two stroke engine
b) Four stroke engine
Q Explain working of four stroke engine with neat sketch.
A Four Stroke Cycle Engine: The engine in which one power stroke is generated in four
strokes of piston and two revolutions of the crankshaft is called four stroke cycle engine.
Valves are provided for inlet and exhaust gases.

Principle of operation of four stroke cycle engine

Four strokes are as follows
 1. Suction or Intake or inlet Stroke
2. Compression Stroke
3. Power Stroke
4. Exhaust Stroke
1. Suction Stroke: During suction stroke, piston moves from TDC to BDC. At that
time, inlet valve opens and air or air - fuel mixture is taken in the cylinder through
inlet valve opening (only air in case of C.I. engine and air-fuel mixture in case of S. I.
engine). Inlet valve remains open during suction stroke. A sort of vacuums is created
in the cylinder due to movement of piston. Exhaust valve remains closed during this
stroke.
2. Compression Stroke: During compression stroke, piston moves upward from BDC
to TDC. Both the valves remains closed during this stroke. The charge taken in the
cylinder during suction stroke is compressed to a small volume during this stroke.
In case of C.I. engine, due to compression of air by piston, very high pressure ids
developed in the engine cylinder. At the same time, at the end of compression stroke,
the fuel is injected in the engine cylinder through fuel injector. Burning of fuel takes
place due to the high compression pressure and temperature. The charge is ignited.
In case of S. I. engine, air and fuel is first mixed in the carburetor and it is supplied to
each engine cylinder through inlet manifold according to firing order of the engine.
Charge (air-fuel mixture) taken in the cylinder through inlet valve opening during
suction stroke is ignited by spark at end of compression stoke.
3. Power Stroke: At the end of compression stoke, high pressure is developed in the
engine cylinder due to combustion of fuel. It pushed the piston downward (in back
ward direction) with tremendous amount of force. That means automatic downward
movement of piston takes place. Power developed in this process is transmitted to
crankshaft. Both valves remains closed during power stroke.
4. Exhaust Stroke: During this stroke, exhaust value opens and burnt or exhaust gases
are removed through valve opening out of the cylinder, thus exhaust gases are taken
outside the engine through the exhaust manifold. Inlet valve remains closed during
this stroke.
Q Explain two stroke engine with neat format.
(II) Two Stroke Cycle Engine: The engine in which one power stoke is generated in
two strokes of piston and one revolution of the crankshaft.
Thus, in such engines, the whole sequence of events i.e. suction, compression, power and
exhaust are completed in two strokes of the piston and one complete revolution of the
crankshaft. There is no valve in this type of engine. Gas movement takes place through
holes called ports instead of valves in the cylinder. The crankcase of the engine is gas
tight in which the crankshaft rotates.
 Source: http://www.green-planet-solar-energy.com/images/2-stroke-2.gif
Principle of operation of two stroke cycle engine
Two strokes are as follows
1. First Stroke (Suction + Compression)
2. Second Stroke (Power + Exhaust)
1. First Stroke (Suction + Compression): When the piston moves up in the cylinder it
covers the exhaust port and the transfer port, which are normally almost opposite to
each other. This traps a charge of fresh mixture in the cylinder and further upward
movement of the piston compresses this charge. Further upward movement of the
piston also uncovers a third port in the cylinder called suction port from the bottom
side of the piston. More fresh mixture is drawn through this port into the crankcase.
Just before the end of this stroke, the mixture in the cylinder is ignited as in the four-
stroke cycle.
2. Second Stroke (Power + Exhaust): The rise in pressure in the cylinder caused by
the burning gas forces the piston to move down the cylinder. When the piston goes
down, it covers and closes the suction port, trapping the mixture drawn into the
crankcase during the previous stroke then a compressing it. Further downward
movement of the piston uncovers first the exhaust port and then transfers port. This
allows the burnt gases to flow out through exhaust port. Also the fresh mixture under
pressure in the crankcase is transferred into the cylinder through transfer port during
this stroke. Special shaped piston crown deflects the incoming mixture up around the
cylinder so that it can help in driving out the exhaust gases.
Q Give the comparison between two stroke and four stroke engine
A SN Four Stroke Engine Two Stroke Engine
1. One power stroke in four strokes of One power stroke in two strokes of
piston and two revolutions of the piston and one revolution of the
crankshaft. crankshaft.

2. There are inlet and exhaust valves in There are inlet and exhaust ports instead
the engine of valves
3. Crankcase is not fully closed and air Crankcase is fully closed and air tight.
tight
4. Top of the piston compresses charge Both sides of piston compresses charge
5. Size of the flywheel is Size of the flywheel is comparatively
comparatively larger smaller
6. Fuel is fully consumed Fuel is not fully consumed
7. Weight of engine per hp is high Weight of engine per hp is comparatively
low
8. Thermal efficiency is high Comparatively low
9. Removal of exhaust gases easy Removal of exhaust gases comparatively
difficult
10. Torque produced is even Torque produced is less even
11. All types of speed are possible Mostly high speed engines are there
12. It can be operated in one direction It can be operated in both direction
only

Q Give the comparison between diesel and petrol engine

A Diesel Engine
1. It has got no carburetor, ignition
coil and spark plug
2. Its compression ratio varies from
14 1 to 22 1
3. It uses diesel oil as fuel
4. Only air is sucked in cylinder in
suction stroke
5. It has got fuel injection pump
6. Fuel is injected in combustion
chamber and ignited due to heat
of compression
7. Thermal efficiency 32 to 38 %
8. Engine weight per hp is high
9. Operating cost is low
10. Compression pressure inside the
cylinder varies from 35 to 45
2 O
kg/cm and temp. is about 500 C
Spark Ignition (Petrol) Engine
It has got carburetor, ignition coil and
spark plug.
Its compression ratio varies from
5 1 to 8 1
It uses petrol or power kerosene
Mixture of air and fuel sucked in
cylinder in suction stroke.
It has got no fuel injection pump
Air fuel mixture is compressed in the
combustion chamber where ignited by
an electric spark.
Thermal efficiency 25 to 32 %
Engine weight per hp is low
Operating cost is high
Compression pressure varies from 6
to 10 kg.cm2 and temp. is about
260OC
Q Differentiate diesel engine and petrol engine on the basis of thermal efficiency,
compression ration, body weight and compression pressure inside the cylinder.
A Diesel engine Petrol engine
Thermal efficiency 32 to 38 % 25 to 32 %
Compression ration 14:1 to 22:1 5:1 to 8:1
Body weight Heavy Light
Compression pressure inside 35 to 45 6 to 10 kg/cm2
2
the cylinder kg/cm

Q A two cylinder two stroke engine has cylinder diameter of 22 cm, stroke bore ratio
is 2, clearance volume is 4000 cm3, engine speed is 300 rpm and mechanical
efficiency is 75 %. Mean effective pressure is 700 kPa. Calculate IP, BP,
compression ratio and swept volume.
A Given, L/D = 2 and D = 220 mm = 22 cm
L = 2 220 = 440 mm = 44 cm
A = D2/ 4 = 2202/4 = 38013.27 mm2 = 380.13 cm2
PLAn x
IP = 12
(As two stroke engine)
60 10 1
700 1000 440 38013.27 300 2
IP = = 117.08 kW
60 1012 1
Mechanical efficiency, % = (BP/IP) 100
BP = (75/100) 117.08 = 87.81 kW
Brake mean effective pressure, kPa
BMEP = Mechanical efficiency IMEP / 100
= 75 700 /100 = 525 kPa
Swept volume, cm3 = A L = 380 44 = 16720 cm3
Total volume = Swept volume + Clearance volume = 4000 + 16720 = 20720 cm3
Compression Ratio = Total volume / Clearance volume = 20720 / 4000 = 5.18

Q Explain fuel supply system of CI engine.

A Fuel supply systems for C. I. engines
During engine operation, the fuel is supplied by gravity from fuel tank to the primary
filter where coarse impurities are removed. From the primary filter, the fuel is drawn by
fuel transfer pump and is delivered to fuel injection pump through second fuel filter. The
fuel injection pump supplies fuel under high pressure to the injectors through high
pressure pipes. The injection atomizes the fuel and injects it into the combustion chamber
of the engine. The fuel injection pump is fed with fuel in abundance. The excess fuel is
by passed to the intake side of the fuel transfer pump through a relief valve.
The main components of the fuel system in diesel engine are
1. Fuel filter
2. Fuel lift pump
3. Fuel injection pump
4. Atomizers and
5. High pressure pipe
The fuel lift pump lifts the fuel from the tank to the fuel injection pump. Usually the fuel
goes from the fuel tank to the first filter, then to fuel lift pump, then to second filter, then
 to fuel injection pump and then to the atomizers. On some tractors and industrial engines,
the fuel system is by gravity and hence no fuel lift pump is provided.
Fuel Lift Pump (Feed Pump or Transfer Pump): It is a pump which transfers fuel
from the line to the fuel injection pump. It is mounted on the body of fuel injection pump.
It delivers adequate amount of fuel to the injection pump. It consists of body, piston, inlet
valve and pressure valve
The valves are tightly pressed against their seats by springs. The piston is free to slide in
the bore. The fuel contained in the space below the piston is forced to flow through
secondary fuel filter to the injection pump. At the same time downward movement of the
piston creates a depression in the space above the piston which causes the fuel to be
drawn in the transfer pump from the fuel tank through the inlet valve and the primary
filter.
Fuel Injection Pump: It is a pump which delivers metered quantity of fuel to each
cylinder at appropriate time under high pressure. Tractor engines may use two types of
fuel injection pump
i. Multi element pump and
ii. Distributor (Rotary) type pump.
Atomizers: These are used for breaking the fluid in the small droplets. It is nothing but a
small orifice through the fuel is passed under high pressure.
High pressure pipe line: The pipelines made up of metal for sustaining the high pressure
of the fuel going to the atomizer.

Q Explain fuel supply system of S.I. engine.

A Fuel supply systems for S. I. engines: The fuel supply system of spark ignition engine
consists of
1. Fuel Tank
2. Sediment Bowl
3. Fuel Lift Pump
4. Carburetor and
5. Fuel pipes
In some spark ignition engine, the fuel tank is placed above the level of the carburetor.
The fuel flows from the fuel tank to the carburetor under the action of gravity. There are
one or two filters between the fuel tank and the carburetor. A transparent sediment bowl
is also provided to the hold the dust and dirt of the fuel. If the tank is below the level of
the carburetor, a lift pump is provided in between the tank and the carburetor for forcing
fuel from the tank to the carburetor of the engine. The fuel comes from the fuel tank to
the sediment bowl and then to the lift pump. From there the fuel goes to the carburetor
through suitable pipe. From the carburetor, the fuel goes to the engine cylinder through
the inlet manifold of the engine.
Carburetor: The process of preparing an air-fuel mixture away from the cylinders of an
engine is called carburetion and the device in which this process takes place is called
carburetor.
Q What is meant by cooling system? What is the necessity of engine cooling?
A Cooling System
A system which controls the engine temperature is known as cooling system.
Necessity of Cooling
i. The temperature of the burning gases in the cylinder reaches up to 1500 to 2000 O
C, which results in expansion, wear and tear of cylinder.
ii. Due to very high temperature the film of lubricating oil will get oxidized. This
will result in piston deterioration.
iii. Large temperature difference may results in distortion of engine components.
iv. Higher temperature also lowers the volumetric efficiency of engine.
For satisfactory performance of engine, it should neither be overheated nor over cooled.
Experiments have shown that petrol engine operates best at 180OF, kerosene engine at
200OF and diesel engine at 140OF to 165OF.

Q What is the purpose of engine cooling? What are the different methods of engine
cooling?
A Purpose of engine cooling
1. To avoid the seizing of piston in the cylinder.
2. To maintain the lubrication properties of the lubricant.
3. To maintain the volumetric efficiency of the engine.
4. To avoid pre ignition of fuel / charge in the cylinder.
5. To avoid engine knocking.
The methods of engine cooling
a. Air cooling
b. Water cooling
i. Open hopper or open jacket type
ii. Thermosyphon type
iii. Forced circulation system
iv. Forced circulation with thermostat control
v. Forced circulation with thermostat control and pressure cap

Q Enlist the methods of cooling system. Give the advantages and disadvantages of air
cooled engine.
A Methods of Cooling
i. Air cooling
ii. Water Cooling
a. Open jacket or hopper method.
b. Thermosiphon method.
c. Forced circulation method
Advantages of Air Cooled Engine.
i. It is simpler in design and construction.
ii. Water jackets, radiators, water pump thermostat, pipes, houses etc. are not
needed.
iii. It is more compact.
iv. It is comparatively lighter in weight.
 Disadvantages:
i. There is uneven cooling of the engine parts.
ii. Engine temperature is generally high during working period.

Q Write a short note on air cleaner.

A Air cleaner: It is a device which filters and removers dust, moisture and other foreign
matter from the air before if reaches the engine cylinder.
Air cleaner is usually of two types:
1. Dry type air cleaner and
2. Oil bath type air cleaner
1. Dry type air cleaner: The filtering element in this case is a type of felt. The air
passes through the element. The element has got larger surface area so the air speed
becomes relatively low and consequently particle or dirt in the air is deposited on or
stopped by its surface.
2. Oil bath type air cleaner: In this type of air cleaner, this incoming air impinges
upon the surface of the oil, kept in a container in the lower part of the casing. The
foreign particles of the air are trapped in the oil and then the air passes through a wire
element before reaching the inlet manifold of the engine. The wire element also
arrests the remaining dirt particles of the air.

Q Give the detail classification of tractor.

A Classification of Tractor
A) On the basis of structural design
1. Wheel Tractor (Farm Tractors) 3 or 4 pneumatic wheels
2) Crawler tractor (Chain or Track type) Or Earth Moving / industrial Tractor
3) Walking type tractor (Power tiller) two wheels tractor
1. Wheel tractors
B) On the basis of purpose, wheeled tractors are classified as
1. General Purpose (field type) tractors
2. Special purpose tractors
3. Row crop type tractors
4. Field tractors
5. Orchard type tractors
6. Garden types tractors
i. Large Garden tractors
ii. General purpose Garden tractors
iii. Small Power cultivators
1. General purpose tractor It is used for major farm operators such as ploughing,
harrowing, sowing, harvesting and transportation work. Such tractors have
i. low ground clearance
ii. increased engine power
iii. good adhesion with soil (good traction)
iv. wide tyres
2. Special purpose tractor: It is used for definite jobs like working in cotton fields,
marshy lands, hill sides, garden etc. These are specially designed for special purpose.
3. Row crop tractor: It is used for furrow crop cultivation. Such tractor is provided
 with replaceable driving wheels of different tread widths. It has high ground
clearance to save damage of crops. Wide wheel tracks can be adjusted to suit inter
row distance.
4. Field tractors: These types of tractors are generally used for performing all kinds of
major farm operation. It has large axle clearance. In farm tractor, road speed of 19 to
24 kmph is desirable for road transport work.
5. Orchard type: These types of tractors are used in the plantation of fruit trees and
other important operations performed in fruit crops, e.g., thinning, interculturing,
training, pruning, spraying, harvesting etc.
6. Garden type
i. Large garden tractor: Manufactured in the horse power range of 5 to 12 hp or 3
to 4 hp engine. They are mostly of walking type. Output is slightly more than a
pair of bullocks.
ii. General purpose gardens tractor: Used for performing general operations in
the gardens.
iii. Small power cultivators: These tractors have one or two forward speeds and a
reverse speed best suited for small field. These tractors are also known as power
tillers. Smallest size garden tractors are available in 1 to 2 hp range.
C) On the basis of construction type: 1) Riding type and 2) Walking type
D) According to type of drive: 1) Track type 2) Wheel type: i) Two-wheel ii) Three-
wheel iii) Four-wheel
E) According to Purpose: 1) Utility 2) All Purpose 3) Orchard 4) Garden 5) Rotary
tiller 6) Earth mover

Q Enlist and explain the factors affecting the selection of tractors.

A A) Factors affecting Selection of Tractor
Selection of tractor depends upon following factors.
1. Land holding 4. Climatic condition 7. resale value

2. Cropping pattern 5. Repairing facilities 8. Initial cost and resale value

3. Soil condition 6. Running cost 9. Test report.

1. Land holding: If tractor is too big for small size of farm, it will add unnecessarily to
the fixed investment by virtue of depreciation and interest. Similarly a very low hp
tractor may not be able to cover the land within specific time so normally for 5 acres
of land, 1 hp tractor is recommended (20 hp for 100 acres). Thus, if bigger hp tractor
is used for smaller fields, depreciation and interest will be more and therefore fixed
investment will be more.
2. Cropping pattern: If a small tractor is available, it may not be possible to prepare
the seed bed in time. For such farms, generally, 3 acre/hp have been recommended.
(35 hp tractor = 100 acres of farm). Where irrigation facilities are available, time
between harvesting of one crop and sowing of the second crop is to be utilized for
field preparation.
3. Soil condition: Some tractors which are suitable for field operation in light or sandy
soil may not successfully operate in heavy (Black. Cotton) Soil therefore a tractor
with less wheel base, higher ground clearance and low overall weight ay work
 successfully in lighter soil but it will not be able to give sufficient depth in black
cotton soil
4. Climatic conditions: In hot zone say, desert cooled engines are preferred as the
cooling efficiency of an air cooled engine is better than water cooled engines.
Similarly for places at a higher altitude, say the north and north east regions of India,
temp in winter goes some time below the freezing point of water though antifreezers
are use to protect from freezing and therefore air cooled engines are preferred.
5. Repair facilities: Before purchasing any tractor, it is good to lack into the source of
repair. Many times, sowing of crop depends upon the speed of repair of tractor.
Tractor dealer should be available at nearby place with all the technical skill for
repair and sufficient spare part stock.
6. Running cost: Now HSD (High speed diesel) is becoming scare, it is necessary that a
tractor with less specific fuel consumption should be preferred over others.
Sometimes, tractor may consume less HSD, but its maintenance and repairs cost is
high to nullify the saving due to HSD and lubricants. A tractor normally repairs major
repairs after 2000-3000 working hrs.
7. Initial cost and resalable value The life of different tractors varies between wide
limits. A tractor may wear out earlier, where as, another may serve for decades
without much trouble and may have a good market resale value. Initial cost should
not be high otherwise interest on capital will supersede the recommending cost.
8. Test Report Test reports released by the Govt. of India central farm Machinery
Training and Testing Institute, Budani (M.P), Hisar (Haryana) or Anantpur (AP).
These test reports are a good guide to enable you to select the right tractor for your
requirement.

Q Explain the points to be considered for the selection of tractor.

A B) Points to be considered while selecting the tractor
1) Ground clearance: Ground clearance is the height of the lowest point of the tractor
from the level supporting surface when the tractor is loaded to its maximum
permissible weight. It should be high if the tractor is to be used in the standing field
for the interculturing or spraying operations.
2) Tread Spacing: Tread spacing is the gap between the inner edge of the rear wheels
and front wheels respectively. Almost all the tractors have the tread adjustment
facility to adjust it according to the row spacing.
3) Operators visibility: The operator seating in the tractor seat should be able to see the
every controls of the tractor, front wheels and at the rear up to the PTO shaft. Better
the operators visibility, safer the driving will be.
4) Speed: Almost all the tractors have to facility to adjust its speed on the road and off
the road. The speed adjustment should be enough to meet the requirement of the
operator and the conditions in which it is running.
5) Maneuverability (Planned movement of vehicle): Driving of the tractor should be
easier. Every control of the tractor should be within the reach of the operator for it
proper and timely control over the tractor operation.
Q What is the purpose of lubrication? Enlist the different types of lubricants.
A Purpose of lubrication
1. It reduces friction
2. It creates sealing effect.
3. It keeps the rubbing surfaces cleaning.
4. It keeps the rubbing surfaces cool.
5. It reduces the noise due to rubbing of two surfaces.
Types of lubricants
1. Lubricant obtained from animal e.g. ghee, animal fats
2. Lubricants obtained from vegetable vanaspati ghee, castor oil, coconut or
groundnut oil
3. Lubricants obtained from minerals or petroleum lubricants.

Q Define tillage. Enlist the objectives of tillage.

A Tillage: Tillage can be defined as mechanical manipulation of soil to provide favorable
conditions for crop growth. Or
Mechanical manipulation of soil with tools and implements for loosening the
surface crust and bringing the soil condition favorable for seed germination and crop
growth is called tillage.
Objectives of Tillage
1) To break the hard pan of soil surface
2) To remove the stubbles from the soil
3) To get or to prepare deep seedbed suitable for different types of crops
4) To loose the earth crust
5) To make soil more porous
6) To aerate the soil
7) To get repeated exchange of air
8) To increase the soil temperature
9) To destroy harmful insects and pests and their breeding places.
10) To destroy weeds.
11) To add more humus and fertility to soil by covering the vegetations.
12) To add org. manures to soil
13) To increase water absorbing capacity of soil.
14) To reduce the soil erosion

Q Write a short note on standard disk plough.

Standard Disk Plough
It consists of steel disk of 60 to 80 cm diameter set at certain angle to the direction of
travel. Disk is made of heat treated steel 1/16 to 3/8 thick edge of which is well
sharpened. Concavity varies with diameter of a disk (Approximate values of concavity
being 3 for 24 diameter disk and 6.5 for a 18 diameter. disk).
Weight of plough Tractor drawn - 180 to 540 kg
Animal drawn - 32 kg.
The scraper is provided to remove soil that tends to stick to working surface of the disk.
Each disk revolves on a stub axle in a thrust bearing, carried at the lower end of a strong
stand bolted to the plough beam.
Q Write a short note vertical disk plough.
A Vertical Disk Plough: It combines the principles of regular disk plough and disk harrow
and used in shallow soil working in the soil (3 to 4 deep). It consists of frame, wheel
arrangements, depth adjusting device are as Std. disk plough but the disks are fitted on
single shaft and turn as on unit.
The diameter of disk is smaller and varies between 50 to 60 cm. Disk angle ranges
between 35O to 55O. There may be 2 to 32 disks spaced about 30 cm apart. All disks are
fixed to throw soil in one direction. This plough is preferred in wheat growing areas.

Q Find the field capacity (actual and theoretical) of a 9 tyne seed drill running at 4.5
km/h speed. The spacing between the tynes in 50 cm and 19 percent time loss is
expected during the operation. Find the time required to cover 9 hectare of land
with this seed drill.
A Theoretical field capacity = SW/10
Where, S = speed of the implement, km/h and W = width of the implement, m
W = 9 50/100 = 4.5 m
Theoretical filed capacity, ha/h = 4.5 4.5 /10 = 2.025 ha/h
Actual field capacity = Theoretical field capacity filed efficiency
= 2.025 (100 - 19)/100 = 2.025 0.81 = 1.64 ha/h
Time required to cover 9 hectare area
= Area to be covered / Actual field capacity = 9 / 1.64 = 5.49 h.

Q Enlist the different methods of sowing. Write the functions of seed drill.
A 1) Broad casting: Broad casting is a process of random scattering of seeds on the
surface of seed bed. It can be done manually or mechanically both. When it is done
manually, uniformity of seeds depends upon the skill of the man. Soon after
broadcasting, the seeds are covered by planking or some other devices. This method
is costly as it takes higher seed rates. Mechanical broadcasters are used for large scale
work. This machine scatters the seeds on seedbed at controlled rates.
2) Dibbling: It can be defined as process of placing the seeds in holes made in seedbed
and covering them.
Here seeds are placed n holes made at definite depth at fixed spacing the equipment
used for dibbling is called dibbler. It is a conical instrument used to make proper
holes in the field.
3) Drilling: Method of dropping the seeds in furrow lines in a continuous flow and
covering them with soil
Seed metering may be done either manually or mechanically. The no. of rows planed
may be one or more.
Drilling methods 1) Sowing behind the plough, 2) Pollock drown seed drills 3)
Tractor drown seed drills
Seed drill: A machine used for placing the valet and seeds in rows at uniform rate
and controlled with continuous flow with or without arrant of covering them with
soil.
Seed drill Classification
1) Bullock drum
2) Tractor drum
 4) Seed dropping behind plough: A man drops seeds in the furrows behind the plough
called seeding behind the plough. It is used for seeds like maize gram peas, wheat and
barley. It consists of bamboo tube provided with or fixed with a funnel shaped mouth.
One man drops the seed through the funnel and other man handles the plough and
bullocks.
5) Transplanting: It consists of preparing seedlings in nursery and then planting these
seedlings in the prepared field. It is commonly done for paddy, vegetables Equipment
for placing plants in the soil is called Transplanted.
6) Hill dropping: In this method seeds are dropped at fixed spacing and not in a
continuous stream. Thus the spacing between plant to plant in a row is constant.
7) Check row planting: It is a method of planting in which row to row and plant to
plant distance is uniform. The rows are always in two perpendicular directions. A
machine used for check row planting is called check row planter.
Functions of seed drill:
1) To carry the seeds 2) To open furrow to uniform depth, 3) To meter the seeds 4)
To deposit in furrow in an acceptable pattern, 5) To cover the seeds of compact the
soil around the seed.

Q Define calibration of seed drill. Explain the procedure for the calibration of seed
drill.
A 1. Calibration of seed drill: The procedure of testing the seed drill for correct seed rate
is called calibration of drill. Calibration is done to get predetermined seed rate of a
machine.
It is desirable to calibrate the seed drill to find the desired seed rate before putting it in
actual use. Procedure for the Calibration of seed drill
1. Measure the diameter of driving wheel, say D meter.
2. Find the effective width of the machine by measuring the spacing between furrow
openers (S), and multiplying it by number of furrow openers (M).
Effective width W, m = M x S
3. Considering the actual width and diameter of ground wheel of the seed drill,
determine the number of turns (N) required to cover 1/100th of one hectare area. (1
ha = 10000 sq. m)
10000/100, sq. m = W, m X L, m X N
Therefore, N = 100/ (W X L)
4. After determining number of turns of driving wheel, the actual calibration is done as
follows.
5. Jack up the seed drill so that its driving wheel will not touch the ground and will be
free to rotate.
6. Tie the carry bags or gunny bags at the outlet of the seed tube.
7. Fill the seed hopper with the desired seed.
8. Put the mark on the wheels so that the revolutions may be counted easily. Turn the
wheel for N number of turns and collect the seed under each seed tube on a paper,
canvass or cloth and weigh it. This weight of seed is meant for 1/100 ha area.
9. Lever provided for adjusting the seed flow is changed and same process is repeated
until desired seed rate is obtained.
Q Define planter. Write the functions of planter. Or Write a short note on planters.
A Planter: Planter is a seed sowing machine that maintains the distance between row to
row and spacing plant to plant in each row.
Planter is normally used for those seeds which are larger in size and cannot be used by
usual seed drills.
The popular planters are Potato, Sugarcane planters, Cotton planter
The accuracy of planter depends upon
1) Speed of seed plate
2) Shape and size of cells
3) Shape of hopper bottom
4) Uniformity of seed size.
Function of Planter
i. to open the furrow
ii. to meter the seed
iii. to deposit the seed in the furrow
iv. to cover the seeds and compact the soil over it.

Q The following observations were recorded while calibrating a seed drill. Calculate
the seed rate per hectare. Number of furrow openers is 9, Spacing between the
furrow openers is 27 cm, Diameter of drive wheel is 1 m, Number of revolutions of
drive wheel are 540, Quantity of seed collected was 36 kg.
A Width of the seed drill, m = W = 9 27/100 = 2.43 m
Length of travel covered by drive wheel in 540 revolutions, m
L = D N = 1 540 = 1695.6 m
Area covered in 540 revolutions, sq. m = W L = 2.43 1695.6 = 4120.31 sq. m
i.e. 4120.31/ 10000 = 0.4120 ha
Seeds collected in 540 revolutions of drive wheel i.e. for 0.4120 ha area = 36 kg.
Seed rate, kg/ha = 36/0.4120 = 87.37 kg/ha

Q Define sprayer. Write the functions and purpose of sprayer.

A Sprayers: Sprayer is a machine to apply fluids in the form of droplets.
Purposes of sprayer are
1) Application of herbicides to remove weeds.
2) Application of fungicides to minimize fungus discuses.
3) Application of insecticides to control insect pests.
4) Application of micronutrients on the plants.
Functions of sprayer are
1) To break the liquid into droplets of effective size.
2) To distribute them uniformly over the plants.
3) To regulate the amount of liquid to avoid excessive application.

Q Write a short note on power sprayer.

A Power Sprayer: Power sprayers are operated usually with internal combustion engines.
The prime mover capacity varies from 1 to 5 HP. The pressure pump is operated by a
small power unit ensuring a constant steady pressure. They are operated at pressure from
 20 to 55 kg/sq. cm. These machines are usually portable type. Sometimes, power
sprayers are operated by the power take-off (PTO) shaft of the tractor besides being
pulled by it. Some sprayers are tractor mounted and PTO operated also. A power sprayer
essentially consists of (i) Prime mover (ii) Tank (iii) Agitator (iv) Air-chamber (v)
Pressure gauge (vi) Pressure regulator (vii) Boom (viii) Nozzles.

Q Give the classification of sprayers.

A Spraying machines can be broadly classified into
1. Hand Operated Machines: Suitable for small holdings, they are operated at the
pressures ranging from 1 to 7 kg/sq. cm.
2. Power Operated Machines: Suitable for treating a large area. They are operated at
pressure from 20 to 55 kg/sq. cm.
3. Air planes: Suitable for large scale work.

The following types of sprayers are most widely used

1. Bucket Type Sprayer: This equipment consists of a single or double pump which
may be placed into any ordinary bucket containing spraying solution. It is very light
and easily handled and development sufficient pressure to spray small gardens and
low trees.
2. Knapsack Sprayer: The common type of knapsack sprayer is provided with a pump
and large air chamber permanently mounted in a 9 to 22.5 liters tank. The apparatus
is quite useful for spraying small trees, shrubs and row crops. One man can spray
about 0.4 ha in a day thus spraying about 90 liters of liquid.
3. Compression Sprayer: It consists of an air pump mounted in an air tight chamber
which is filled (3/4) with the spraying material. The pressure is developed by
pumping air into the tank and the spray is forced out under pressure. The tank
capacity is usually 14 liters and frequently pumping is to be done to maintain the
pressure.
4. Hand Atomizer: This is the smallest type of hand sprayer used to treat the plants in
home garden or nursery and to apply fly spray in the house. In this instrument
compressed air is allowed to pass over the end of tube of which the other end dips
into the spray material. Blowing air sucks the material through the tube and blows it
out of the nozzles as mist.
5. Engine Powered Sprayers: These machines are usually portable types. Since the
sprayer pump is driven by an engine there is no variation in output, pressure and
performance of the P.T.O. shaft of the tractor besides being pulled by it.
6. Air Plane Sprayers: Either centrifugal pump of a gear pump is used to force the
spray liquid through the nozzles. These pumps work at the pressure of about 2.8 to
8.5 kg/cm2. The pump sets it driven from a wind driven propeller having four to six
bland. The tank capacity may range between 450 to 2550 liters.

Q Define duster. Classify dusters and write in short about each. Or Write a short note
on duster.
A Dusters: Duster is a machine to apply chemical in dust form.
Dusters make use of air streams to carry pesticides in finely divided dry form on the
plants. A duster essentially consists of (a) Hopper (b) Agitator (c) Feed control (d) Fan or
 blower and (e) delivery nozzle.
Types of Duster :There are several types of dusters in the common use, such as
Plunger type 2) Knapsack type 3) Rotary type 4) Power operated duster.
1) Plunger Type: It is a simple duster with a small piston. The piston drives a current of
air over the dust in the hopper. The dust is carried away through a delivery spout. Small
hand pump dusters of this type are available and are suitable only where the area to be
dusted is small like vegetable or flower garden.
2) Knapsack Type Duster: It is a duster with the powder container on the back of the
operator. Knapsack dusters have a hopper through which a current of air is blown to pick
up the dust. The air current is produced by lever operated leather blows. Shoulder straps
or carrying straps are generally provided in such dusters and they can be easily carried in
the fields. These dusters are suited for small areas only.
3) Rotary Duster: It is a duster with a hand-operated rotor in front of the operator. For
spraying tall crops, more force of delivery is required, hence rotary dusters are preferred.
Dust is fed from a hopper into a current of air produced by a rotary fan and is blown out
through a delivery pipe. Most of the models have stirring device, actuated by the fan
crank to ensure a steady flow of dust. The rate of delivery can be regulated by a valve
below the hopper. The delivery force is controlled by controlling the speed of the fan.
4) Power Operated Duster: Power operated duster mainly consists of a power driven
fan, a hopper and a delivery spout. The fan creates strong airflow, which causes the dust
to blow off from the hopper to a considerable distance either vertically of horizontally.
The direction of the dust is regulated by a movable delivery spout suitably fitted with the
unit. These types of dusters are used for large areas.

Q Write a short note on reaper.

A Reaper
Animal Drawn Reaper: Reaper is a machine to cut grain crops. Anima drawn reaper is
getting popular gradually in the country. It is pulled by a pair of animals. It can harvest
nearly 5 to 8 cm above the ground. The machine consists of frame, cutter bar, knife,
wheel, bearings and other attachments. Frame is usually made of mild steel sections. The
cutter bar knife is made of high carbon steel. The shoes are usually made of malleable
casting. Ball bearings are used for efficient and durable working. Usually two persons are
required to operate the machine. One man guides the animals and another man is engaged
in dropping the cut crops from the platform to the ground.
Vertical Conveyer Reaper (Tractor Mounted): It is mostly used for harvesting paddy
and wheat. The reaper is front mounted at the tractor which can be lowered and raised by
the hydraulic control. It is powered by the PTO of the tractor. Crop is guided by the star
wheel to the cutter bar and held in vertical position by the springs. The crop is conveyed
to the side by the conveyer belt. Its capacity may be 0.4 - 0.6 ha/hr.
Vertical Conveyer Reaper (Power Tiller Operated): It can be used for harvesting
wheat and paddy. The reaper is front mounted on the power tiller. Power is transmitted
from the engine flywheel to the reaper either through V belt or by providing gear box and
propeller shafts. Crop is guided by the star wheels tot he cutter bar and held in vertical
position by the springs. The crop is conveyed to the side by the conveyor belt. Cutter bar
length maybe 100-160 cm. The capacity may be 0.25-0.35 ha/hr.
Reaper Binder: It cuts and binds the crop simultaneously. It cuts the crop at the height
 of about 10 cm from the ground level. The harvesting capacity is 0.25 - 0.35 ha/hr.

Q Write a short note on clod crushers.

A Clod crushers and levers: These implements are used immediately after ploughing or
harrowing if the land is to be prepared for sowing. The purpose of using these
implements is to crush, grind and tear the unevenly ploughed soils to produce a smooth,
well packed seedbed. It also reduces evaporation losses from the land surface. While
operating these implements if hard clods are encountered, they will be forced down into
the soil if remained uncrushed. Clods are not al all desirable in the field. They cause
obstruction to the penetration of furrow openers of the seed drill, besides not allowing
intimate contact between the seeds and the soil, which is essential for good germination.
They are generally formed in clayey soil if the soil is ploughed under too wet condition.
The best way of controlling clods is not to let them to be formed.

Q Write a short note on Patela or plank clod crusher.

A The most common clod crusher is Pata or Patela (planker) which is generally a wooden
log of rectangular cross section or a ladder type frame provided with two pegs or steel
rings for hitching. The length of the patela varies depending on whether one or two pairs
of bullocks are employed to pull it. The most common length for a single pair is 2.1 m
and for two pairs it may be about 3 m. If necessary, while operating the pate/a, the
operators ride on it to add extra weight on it. In some parts of the country bamboo
ladders made of three bamboo pieces are also used as pate/a. Such a patela is
comparatively cheaper in the initial cost, but does not last more than two years. Useful
life of the wooden planker is about ten years. Patela harrow are the improved designs of
the levelers. They are provided with small tynes or steel hooks behind the levelling board
to collect the trash and root stumps. Tractor drawn indigenous clod crushers are made of
angle iron frame suitably braced. It is generally helpful to use smaller size angle iron in
the front and larger size at the rear. This will not collect too much soil in the front. In
order to increase the weight, two or more larger size angles may be welded to it at the
top. The most convenient and effective size of clod crusher for a 28 kW tractor may be 3
x 1 m size, made of 7.5 cm size angle iron.

(i) Leveling frame/ ladder (ii) Leveling board {Pata}

 Clod crusher and Leveling devices

Wooden patella

Q Write a short note on levelers.

Levelers: In irrigated areas land leveling is an essential operation of farming. Leveled
fields receive uniform penetration of irrigation water with high efficiency. The possibility
of water logging and soil erosion is reduced considerably. The entire leveled field
becomes ready to receive timely agricultural operations like ploughing, seeding and
interculturing without any delay. Smooth fields also facilitate the operation of field
equipment and are highly desirable for using mechanical harvesters. Land leveling is
usually done in the slack season when the field is free from crops, and the labourers and
bullocks are idle.
Wooden logs or planks are the most common type of land levelers used by Indian
farmers. They are operated in ploughed land to collect loose soil form high spots and to
dump it into depressions. While operating in the field, the leveler is raised from the rear
to take more cut and then it is tilted upside down to fill up the low spots elsewhere. The
other improved type of land leveler which is used on the medium size farms, is called the
leveling karaha or scraper. The scraper essentially consists of a bowl or 'U' shaped steel
sheet made of 3 mm thick metal. Its cutting edge is generally made of high carbon steel.
It is also provided with a wooden handle in the middle or two handles on the sides at the
rear end. Provision is made at the front end for hitching. For taking the wear. An extra
steel sheet is welded underneath at the centre. The implement is pulled by a pair of
bullocks. Two men are needed to operate it. One man controls the bullocks and the other
man does the loading and unloading. The amount of work done in a day depends upon
various factors such as hardness of the soil, transportation distance (lead) and volume of
the soil cut each time. If the soil is hard, it is always helpful to loosen the soil first by
 ploughing or by any other means and then proceed with leveling. Tractor mounted type
or animal operated improved levelers are also used in India.

Q A farmer purchased a 35 HP wheel tractor at a total cost of Rs 350000/- and 3-

bottom plough with 30 cm bottom width, at Rs 25000/- only. The fuel consumption
of tractor was at the ploughing speed of 5 kmph. a) Calculate the area ploughed/hr.
b) Determine cost of ploughing/ha make necessary assumptions if any.
A Solution
a) Area covered, ha/hr = Speed of plough (m/h) Total plough width (m) / 10000
5 30 3
= = 0.45 ha/h
100 1000
b) Cost of Ploughing
i) For Tractor
a) Fixed cost/h
= Depreciation + Interest + Repair and maintenance + Housing+ Taxes+ Insurance
Depreciation = (C S)/(L H)
Where, C = Capital cost or purchase price of the item
S = Salvage value = 10 % of capital cost = 0.1 C
L = Life of the item and
H = Annual use of the item in hours
Depreciation, Rs/h = (350000 0.1 350000)/(10 1000) = Rs 31.50
2) Interest on Capital = (C + S)/2 (i/H)
= (350000 + 35000)/2 (0.12/1000) = 23.10
3) Housing @ 1% of initial cost = 0.01 X 350000/1000 = Rs 3.50
4) Taxes @ 2% of initial cost = 0.02 X 350000/1000 = Rs. 7
5) Insurance @ 1% of initial cost = 0.01 X 350000/1000 = Rs 3.50
Total fixed Cost = 31.50 + 23.10 + 3.50 + 7.00 + 3.50 = 68.60
b) Operating Cost
1) Fuel cost, Rs/h assuming rate of diesel as Rs 42 per litre = 6 X 42 = Rs 252
2) Cost of lubricant, Rs/hr. @ 30% of fuel cost = 252 X 0.3 = 75.6
3) Repair and Maintenance, Rs/h @ 10% of initial cost = 0.1 X 350000/1000 = Rs 35
4) Wages of driver, Rs/h assuming that he is paid @ Rs120/day of 8 h = 120/8 = Rs 15
Total operating cost = 252 + 75.6 + 35 + 15 = Rs 377.6
Total cost of using tractor / hr (fixed + op) = 68.60 + 377.6 = Rs 446.2
ii) For Plough
Assume life of plough as 10 years and annual use as 250 h.
a) Fixed cost
= Depreciation + Interest + Repair and maintenance + Housing+ Taxes+ Insurance
i) Depreciation, Rs/h = (25000 0.1 25000)/(250 10) = Rs 9.
ii) Interest, Rs/h = (25000 + 0.1 25000)/2 (0.12/250) = Rs 6.6
iii) Housing cost, Rs/h @ 1 % of initial cost = 25000 0.01 / 250 = Rs 1
iv) Insurance = Nil
b) Operating cost
i) Repair cost, Rs/h @10 % of initial cost = 25000 0.1 / 250 = Rs 10
Cost of ploughing, Rs/h = 9 + 6.6 + 10 + 1 = Rs 26.6
 Total cost of ploughing with tractor, Rs/h = 446.2 + 26.6 = Rs 472.8 / h
Total cost of ploughing, Rs/ha = 472.8/0.45= Rs 1050.67 / ha

Q Calculate HP required to pull 4 bottom 30 cm plough working to a depth of 15 cm.

The tractor is operating at a speed of 5 kmph. Soil resistance is 0.7 kg/cm2.
Solution
HP = Draft (kg) X Speed (m/min)
Total draft = Soil resistance X cross section area of furrow
Furrow c/s area = Total width of ploughing X depth of ploughing
= [(4 X 30) X 15]
= 1800 cm2
Total draft = 0.7 X 1800 = 1260 kg.
HP = 1260 X (6 X1000) / 4500 X 60 = 28

Q Calculate area covered per day of 8 h by a tractor drawn 4 bottom 35 cm plough if

speed of ploughing is 6 km/ph. Time lost in turning is 6%.
Solution
Area covered (ha/hr) = W (m) speed (m/h)/10000.
= [{(4 35)/100} (6 1000)]/10000
= 0.84 ha/h
Therefore, area covered in a day of 8 hour = 8 0.84 = 6.72 ha/day
But time loss in turning is 6% i.e. time utilized is = 100 6 = 94%
Actual Area Covered = 6.72 0.94 = 6.32 ha

Q Total draft of 4 bottom, 40 cm MB plough when ploughing 17.5 cm deep at 5.5

kmph is 1700 kg. Calculate unit draft in kg/cm2. Find actual power required, if field
efficiency is 75% what is rate of doing work in ha/hr.
Solution
a) Unit draft = Total draft (kg) cross sectional area of furrow cut (cm2)
= 1700 [(4 40) 17.5]
= 0.607 kg/cm2
b) HP required = Draft Speed 4500
= 1700 [5.5 1000] 4500 60
= 34.62 HP
c) Area covered / hr = W S 10
= 4 0.40 5.50 10
= 0.88 ha/h
but field efficiency = 75%
Actual area covered (rate of doing work) = 0.88 0.75 = 0.66 ha/h.
Q A three bottom, 40 cm MB plough working at 15 cm depth has total draft of 1200
kg. The speed of operation is 4 kmph with field efficiency of 80%. Find (a) Unit
draft (b) Actual area covered (c) actual field capacity.
A a) Area of furrow cross section of ploughing = 3 X 40 X 15 = 1800 cm2
Unit draft = Total draft area of cross section of cut = 12001800 = 0.67 kg/cm2
b) Actual HP = Draft (kg) X Speed (m/min) 4500
= 1200 X (4 X 1000) (4500 X 60) = 17.77 HP
c) Actual field capacity = Theoretical field capacity X Field efficiency
Actual field capacity= Theoretical field capacity X Field efficiency
= [Width of cut (m) X Speed (m/h) 10] X Field efficiency
= [3 X 0.40 X 4] 10 X 0.80 = 0.384 ha/h.

Q How many acres can be covered by harrow of width 1.5 m in a day of 8 h with
bullock power? The speed of bullocks is to be assumed. If each spike of harrow is
giving 1 kg resistance when there are 50 spikes, what HP would be necessary for the
bullocks to pull the narrow with assumed speed?
A Solution
a) Area covered / h = = [Width of cut (m) X Speed (m/h) 10]
= 1.5 X 4 10(Assume bullock speed as 4 km/hr)
= 0.6 ha/h
Area covered/day = 0.6 X 8 (A day of 8 hrs)
= 4.8 ha/day= 12 acres/day (since, 1 ha = 2.5 acre)
b) HP required= Draft (kg) X Speed (m/min) 4500
Total draft = No. of spikes X soil resistance
= 50 X 1 = 50 kg.
HP = 50 X (4 X 1000) 4500 60 = 0.74 HP

Q What HP is necessary for pulling a harrow of 50 tynes each giving a resistance of 1.2
kg when speed of harrow is 4.5 km/hr.
A Solution:
HP = Draft (kg) or Resistance X Speed (m/min) = (50 X 1.2) X (4.5 X 1000) 4500
Total draft = 50 tynes X 1.2 kg resistance = 60 kg
HP = 60 X 4.5 X 1000 4500 60 = 1

Q A 5 tyne cultivator having tynes spaced 8 cm apart and work at depth of 5 cm is

running at a speed of 3 km/h. There is a time loss of 10% in turning. Calculate time
requred to cultivate one hectare area. If resistance to soil is 0.6 kg/cm2, what would
be draft and HP required when width of each furrow is 5 cm.
Solution
a) Area covered (ha/h) = WS10 = [(5 X 0.08) X 3] 10 = 0.12 ha/h.
Actual area cover (ha/h) = 0.12 X 0.90 = 0.108 ha/h
For 0.108 ha area time required is 1 hr.
Hence, time required for 1 ha= 1 0.108= 9.26 h
HP = Draft (kg) X Speed (m/min) 4500 = = 45 X 3 X 1000 4500 60 = 0.5
Draft = No. of tynes X Area of cross section of each tyne, cm2 X Soil Resistsance,
kg/cm2 = 5 X 5 X 3 X 0.6 = 45
 Numerical on seed rate/ha, cost of seeding
Q The following results were obtained while calibrating a seed drill. Calculate the seed
rate per hector. No of furrow openers = 10, Spacing between furrows = 20 cm,
Diameter of seed drill wheel = 1.5 cm, No. of resolution of wheel = 500, Seed
dropped / Collected = 20 kg.
Solution
Area covered in one resolution = Circumference of wheel X Effective width of seed drill
= 2 r X W
Circumference of wheel = Linear distance traveled by wheel in 1 resolution
= 2 r = D
= 2 X X 0.75 cm
= 4.71 cm = 0.471 m
Effective width of seed drill = Size of seed drill = No of tynes X Spacing between tynes
= 10 X 20 = 200 cm = 2m
Therefore, area covered in 1 revolution = 0.471 X 2 = 9.42 m2
So, area covered in 500 revolution = 9.42 X 500 = 4710 m2
Seed dropped for 4710 m2 area = 20 kg.
Seed dropped for 1 ha (10,000m2 area) = ?
= 10,000 X 20 4712
= 42.46 kg. = 42.5 kg.
Required seed rate/ ha = 42.5 kg.
Assignment
Calculate seed rate in kg/ha if a) Size of seed drill = 5 X 18 cm b) Diameter of ground
wheel = 10 cm, c) No. of revolution = 250 d) Seed dropped = 6 kg.
Ans. = (77 kg.)

Q Calculate the time required for sowing 1.6 ha of land by 5 furrow seed drill going
12.5 cm deep. The speed of seed drill is 3.2 km/hr. and pressure entered by the soil
on the seed drill is 0.42 kg/cm2. The Space between furrow openers is 10 cm and
time loss in turning is 10%.
Solution
1) Area = 1.6 ha.
2) No. of furrows = 5
3) Depth of furrow = 12.5 cm
4) Speed of s drill = 3.2 km/hr.
5) Pressure = 0.42 kg/cm2
6) Spacing between furrow openers = 10 cm
7) Loss in turning = 10%
Total width of seed drill = 5 X 10 cm = 50 cm = 0.50 cm
SW
Area covered / hr. =
10
W = Total width (hr)
S = Speed of seed drill (km/hr.)
0.5 3.2
= = 0.16 ha/hr.
10
 0.16 90
Actual area covered /hr. = = 0.144 ha/hr.
100
(Loss in turning = 10% actual working time = 90%)
For 0.144 ha, 1 hr is required
1 .6
So time for 1.6 ha= = 11 hrs.
0.144

Q Calculate time for by 4% s drill going 100 mm deep speed and speed drill is 50 cm
min and pressure exerted by soil is D. 50 kg/cm2 space between 0 = 120 mm and
turning loss is 15%
Solution: Area covered/ha/hr. = WS = 4 X 0.12 X 3 = 0.144 ha/hr.
= 0.144 X 85 = 0.122

Q Calculate area covered by per day of 8 hrs. by 4 bottom 35 cm tractor plough if

speed of ploughing is slow/hr. and time last in future etc. = 6%
A Solution: Let, W = Total width of plough
S = Speed of plough (km/hr)
A = Area covered in ha.
A = WS. = (4 X 35) X 6 = 0.84 ha/hr.
Actual time used = 100 6 % = 94%
0.84 94
Actual area covered = = 0.78 ha/hr.
100
In 1 hr area covered is 0.78ha
Therefore, in 8 hr area covered will be = 8 X 0.78 = 6.24 ha.

Q Calculate cost of seeding 1 ha of land with bullock drawn seed drill of 5X22cm. The
speed of bullock is 3 kmph. Hire charge of bullock is Rs. 150/ pair, hire changes for
seed drill is Rs. 75 / day and wage of operator Rs. 50 day of 8 hrs.
A Solution: Area covered by seed drill, ha/hr. = WS/ 10
= (5X0.22) X3 / 10 = 0.33 ha/hr.
Therefore time required to cover one hectare = 1 / 0.33 = 3.03 hrs
Cost of seeding Rs. (150Rs + 75Rs) per day of 8 hr.
= 225/8 = Rs. 28.12 Rs/hr.
Cost of Rs./ha = Time taken/ha X Cost of sowing/hr = 3.03 X 28.12 = Rs. 85.21

Q What HP will be required to pull 1.2 m mower working at a speed of 4.8 kmph, if
there is a load of 50 kg/m length of mower and the mechanical efficiency is 80%?
A Solution: Total HP = Draft X Speed / 4500
Total draft/ Load = 1.2m X 50 kg/m length load = 60 kg.
Total HP = 60 X (4.8 X 100) / (4500 X 60) = 1.066 HP
BHP read to pull the mower = Total HP / ME
= 1.066 X 100 / 80 = 1.33 HP
Q Calculate the total time required to harvest 2.5 ha of grass by means of a 2 m
mower being operated at 4 km/hr. Take field efficiency of mower as 80%
A Solution: Theoretical area covered /hr. =WS / 10
= 2 X 4 / 10
= 8 / 10 = 0.8 ha/hr.
Actual area covered = 0.8 X field efficiency = 0.8 X 0.80 = 0.64 ha/hr
Therefore for 2.5 ha time required = 2.5 / 0.64 = 3.9 hrs.

Assignments
A farmer purchased a 35 HP wheel type tractor at a total cost of Rs.3,50,000 and three
bottom plough with 30 cm bottom width at Rs. 6000 only. The fuel consumption of the
tractor was 6 lit/hr. at the ploughing speed of 5 kmph.
a) Calculate the area ploughed per hr.
b) Determine cost of ploughing per hectare. Make necessary assumption if any.

Determine the horse power required to pull a four bottom 30 cm plough working to depth
of 15 cm. The tractor is operating at a speed of 6 kmph. The soil resistance is 0.7 kg/cm2.

Total draft of four bottom 40 cm M.B. plough when ploughing 17.5 cm deep at 5.5 km/hr
speed is 1700 kg. a) Calculate the unit draft in kg/cm2. b) What is actual power
requirement? c) If field efficiency is 75 % what is the rate of doing work in ha/hr.

How many acres can be covered by a harrow of width 1.5 m in a day of 8 hrs with
bullock power? The speed of the bullocks it to be assumed. If each spike tooth harrow is
giving 1 kg resistance when there are 50 spikes what HP would be necessary for the
bullocks to pull the harrow with the assumed speed?

A five tyne cultivator having tynes spaced 8 cm a part and working to a depth of 5 cm is
running at a speed of 3 kmph. There is a time loss of 10 per cent while turning. Calculate
the time required to cultivate per hectare. If the resistance of the soil is 0.6 kg/cm2. What
would be the maximum draft and HP required when the width of each furrow is 5 cm?

Calculate the cost of seeding 1 hectare of land with bullock drawn seed drill of 5 x 22 cm
size. The speed of bullock is 3 kmph. Hire charge of bullock is Rs. 150 per pair hire
charges of seed drill Rs. 75 per day and wage of operator Rs. 50 per day of 8 hrs.

Calculate the time required for sowing 1.6 hectare of land by five furrows seed drill
going 12.5 cm deep. the speed of seed drill is 3.2 kmph and pressure exerted by the soil
on the seed drill is 0.42 kg/cm2. The space between furrow opener is 10 cm and loss in
turning is 10 per cent.

The following results were obtained while calibrating a seed drill. Calculate the seed rate
per hectare a) No.of furrows = 10, b) Spacing between furrows = 20 cm, c) Dia of drive
wheel = 1.5 m, d) RPM = 500, e) Seed collected = 20 kg.
Definitions
1. Farm mechanization: Application of engineering tools and technology in agriculture
to carry out the agricultural operations.
2. Heat engine: It is a machine used for converting heat developed by burning fuel into
useful work.
3. External combustion (E. C.) engine: It is the engine in which combustion of fuel
takes place outside the engine cylinder.
4. Internal combustion (I. C.) engine: It is the engine in which the combustion of fuel
takes place inside the engine cylinder is called internal combustion or I. C. engine.
5. Four Stroke Cycle Engine: The engine in which one power stroke is generated in
four strokes of piston and two revolutions of the crankshaft is called four stroke cycle
engine.
6. Two Stroke Cycle Engine: The engine in which one power stoke is generated in two
strokes of piston and one revolution of the crankshaft.
7. Scavenging: The process of removal of burnt or exhaust gases from the engine
cylinder is known as scavenging.
8. Carburetor: The process of preparing an air-fuel mixture away from the cylinders of
an engine is called carburetion and the device in which this process takes place is
called carburetor.
9. Cooling System : A system which controls the engine temperature is known as
cooling system.
10. Tractor: It is a self propelled machine, having wheels or tracks, used for pulling or
pushing loads, for operating agricultural implements and machines including trailers
or for stationary belt work.
11. Tillage. Mechanical manipulation of soil with tools and implements for loosening the
surface crust and bringing the soil condition favorable for seed germination and crop
growth is called tillage.
12. Primary tillage: Operations performed to open up any cultivation land with a view to
prepare a seedbed for growing crops.
13. Secondary tillage: Lighter and finer operators performed on the soil after primary
tillage but before and after seed placement.
14. Conventional tillage: Using conventional mould board or disk plough for seedbed
preparation.
15. Share: It is that part of the plough bottom, which penetrates into the soil and makes a
horizontal cut below the surface.
16. Mould Board: It is the curved part, which lifts and turns the furrow slice.
17. Land Side: It is the flat part, which bears against and transmits the rear side lateral
thrust of the plough bottom to the furrow wall.
18. Frog: It is the part to which other components of the plough bottom are attached.
19. Tail Piece: It is an adjustable extension, which can be fastened to the rear of a mould
board to help in turning a furrow slice.
20. Disk: It is a circular, concave revolving steel plate use for cutting and inverting the
soil.
21. Disk Angle: It is the angle of which place of the cutting edge of the disk is inclined to
the direction of travel. This angle of good plough varies between 42O & 45O.
22. Tilt Angle: It is the angle at which the plane of cutting edge of the disk is inclined to
 a vertical line. It varies between 15O & 25O.
23. Concavity: It is the depth measured at the centre of disk by placing its concave side
on the level surface.
24. Harrows: These are used to break the clods, pulverize the soil and cut the wood at
the time of preparing seed beds.
25. Disc Harrow: It is a harrow which performs the harrowing operations by means of a
set of a number of sets of rotating steel disc, each set being mounted on a common
shaft.
26. Single Action Disc Harrow: It is a harrow with two gangs plough end to end, which
throw the soil in opposite direction. The discs are arranged in such a way that right
side gang throws the soil towards right and left side gang throws the soil towards left.
27. Double action (Tandem) Disc Harrow: It is a disc harrow consisting of four gangs
in which a set of two gangs follow behinds the set of the other two gangs, arranged in
such a way that the front and back gangs throw the soil in opposite directions. It can
be said that the two front gangs throw the soil outwards while the two rear gangs shift
the soil inwards. Thus the entries field is worked twice in each trip.
28. Offset Disc Harrow: It has got only gangs, fitted one behind the other. The soil is
throws in both directions because discs of gangs face in opposite directions.
29. Cultivators: It is an implement for inter cultivation with laterally adjustable tines or
discs to work between crop rows.
30. Sowing: It is an art of placing seeds in the soil to have good germination in the field.
31. Calibration of seed drill: The procedure of testing the seed drill for correct seed rate
is called calibration of drill.
32. Planter: It is seed sowing machine that maintains the plant to plant and row to row
spacing.
33. Sprayers: Sprayer is a machine to apply fluids in the form of droplets.
34. Dusters: Duster is a machine to apply chemical in dust form.
35. Harvesting: It is the operation of cutting, picking, plucking digging or a combination
of these operations for removing the crop from under the ground of above the ground
of removing the useful part or fruits from plants.
36. Mower: It is a machine to cut herbage crops and leave them in swath.
37. Reaper: It is a machine to cut grain crops.
38. Reaper binder: It is a reaper which cuts the crops and ties them into neat and
uniform sheaves.
39. Swath: It is the material as left by the harvesting machine.
40. Sickle: It is a curved steel blade having a hand grip used for harvesting by manual
power.
41. Windrow: It is a row of material formed by combining two or more swatch.
42. Windrower: It is a machine to cut crops and deliver them in an uniform manner in a
row.
43. Sickle: Sickle is a simple harvesting tool. It is used for harvesting crops and cutting
other vegetations.
44. Threshing: It is the process of detaching grains from the ear heads or from the plants.
45. Seed cum fertilizer drill: The seed drill which is fitted with fertilizer dropping
attachment distributes the fertilizer uniformly on the ground is called seed-cum-
fertilizer drill.
Terminology connected with engine power (Important definitions)
1. Heat engine: The machine, which converts heat energy into mechanical energy.
2. Internal Combustion (I. C.) Engine: The engine in which combustion of fuel takes
place inside the engine cylinder.
3. External Combustion (E. C.) Engine: The engine in which combustion of fuel takes
place outside the engine cylinder.
4. Four stroke engine: The engine in which we get one power stroke after four strokes
of piston and two revolutions of crankshaft.
5. Two stroke engine: Engine in which we get one power stroke after two strokes of
piston and one revolutions of crankshaft.
6. Stroke: Displacement or travel of piston from top dead center (TDC) to bottom dead
center (BDC) of the engine cylinder is called stroke.
7. Bore: The diameter of engine cylinder is called bore.
8. Stroke-Bore ratio: The ratio of stroke length of piston and diameter (bore) of engine
cylinder is called as Stroke-bore ratio.
Stroke-bore ratio = L/D
L= stroke length of piston, D= diameter (bore) of cylinder
Stroke-bore ratio varies between 1- 1.45 (for tractor engine = 1.25)
9. Power: Rate of doing work is called power.
Unit of power
a) In metric system kg-m/sec b) In FPS system ft-lbs/sec. c) In SI system watt or
Joule /sec.
1 metric HP = 75 kg.m/s = 4500 kg-m/min = 746 watts
10. Indicated Horse Power (IHP): The power generated in engine cylinder and
available at the top of the piston is called IHP. It is measured by indicator.
In metric system
PLAN n
IHP= x for four stroke engine and
4500 2

PLAN
IHP= x n for two stroke engine
4500
Where,
P = mean effective pressure, kg/cm2
L = stoke length of piston, m
A = cross sectional area of piston, cm2
N = engine speed, rpm
n = number of cylinders
OR In FPS system
PLAN n
IHP= x for four stroke engine and
33000 2
PLAN
IHP= x n for two stroke engine
33000
Where,
P = mean effective pressure, PSI (pounds per sq.inch)
L = stoke length of piston, ft
 A = cross sectional area of piston, in2
N = engine speed, rpm
n = number of cylinders
11. Brake Horse Power (BHP): Horse power delivered by engine at the end of
crankshaft is called as Brake Horse Power.
12. Mechanical Efficiency: Ratio of brake horse power to indicated horse power
expressed in percentage is called as Mechanical Efficiency.
ME = (BHP/ IHP) x 100
Mechanical Efficiency is always less than 100 and BHP is smaller than IHP.
13. PTO horse power or belt horse power: Power delivered by tractor through PTO
Shaft is called PTO HP.
14. Drawbar HP: Power of tractor measured at end of drawbar or hitch point. is
called drawbar HP.
15. Frictional HP: Power required to run the engine at a given speed without producing
any useful work is called FHP.
IHP = BHP + FHP
16. Piston displacement (swept volume): Volume displaced by one stroke of piston is
called piston displacement or swept volume. or
Volume that the piston displaces during its movement from BDC to TDC is called
Piston displacement (swept volume).

P.D. = A x L = d 2 .L
4
A = Cross sectional area of piston cm2, or inch2,
L= stroke length of piston, cm or inch.
17. Displacement volume: The total swept volume of all pistons during power strokes
occurring in one minute.
Vd = A L N n (for 4 stroke engine) and
2
Vd = A L N n (for 2 stroke engine)
Where, Vd = displacement volume (cc/min), A = cross sectional area of piston cm2,
L= stroke length of piston, cm, N = engine speed, rpm, n = number of cylinders
18. Piston speed: Total length of travel of piston in cylinder in one minute is called
piston speed.
Np = 2 L N
Np = m/min or ft/min, L = m or ft , N = engine speed (rpm)
Piston speed of high-speed tractor engine is 300 to 500 m/min (1000 to 1500 ft/min)
19. Compression Ratio: Ratio of volume of air when piston is at BDC and volume of air
when piston is at TDC is called compression ratio.
Volume of air when piston is at BDC
Compression Ratio=
Volume of air when piston is at TDC
Total cylinder volume Swept volume + Clearnce volume
= = =V1/V2
Clearance volume Clearance volume
Compression Ratio of diesel engine is 14:1 to 20:1 and petrol engine is 4:1 to 8:1. It
is a measure of how much the air-fuel mixture or air is compressed in the cylinder.
20. Mean effective pressure (P): Average pressure during power stroke minus average
pressure during other three strokes is called Mean effective pressure (P)
 Indicated mean effective pressure (IMEP)
IHP 4500
IMEP= x for four stroke engine and
LAN n
2
IHP 4500
IMEP= x for two stroke engine
LAN n
Break Mean Effective Pressure (BMEP)
BHP 4500
BMEP= x for four stroke engine and
LAN n
2
BHP 4500
BMEP= x for two stroke engine
LAN n
21. Volumetric efficiency: Ratio of actual air taken into the cylinder to the swept
volume. Or
Ratio of actual weight air introduced by the engine on intake stroke to the theoretical
weight of air that have introduced by filing the piston displacement volume with air
atmospheric pressure and temperature.
22. Thermal efficiency: Ratio of horsepower output of engine to the fuel horsepower.
Or
Ratio of heat available to (utilized by) engine to heat supplied to the engine
2545
Brake thrmal eficiency =
( fuel consumed , hp / bhp hr )(calorific value of fuel , BTU / lb )
23. Specific fuel consumption (SFC): Quantity of fuel consumed by engine per bhp per
hour is called Specific fuel consumption. It is expressed in kg/bhp-hr.
24. Torque: Any force applied on some point causing turning effect is called torque.
Torque = Force x distance of force from center of shaft
T=Fxr