Res Welding Section 2

Resistance welding of sheet metals
- a guide to best practice

by Steve Westgate
Section 2 - Spot welding process and equipment
Reproduced by permission from TWI
Copyright 2004, TWI Ltd
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Resistance welding of sheet metals - a guide to best practice. Section 2 - Spot welding process and equipment
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Resistance welding of sheet metals - a guide to

best practice
by Steve Westgate
Section 2 - Spot welding process and equipment

Introduction
Process description
Video clip showing spot welding heating cycle
Equipment
Electrodes
Jigs and tooling
Controllers and monitoring equipment
Economics
Introduction
This part of the guide provides information to aid understanding of the principles of resistance spot welding. It also examines
equipment involved, including the different types of welding current power supply, weld timers and controllers, electrodes
and tooling.
Please note that information on Standards relating to resistance welding, and definitions of frequently encountered
terms used in resistance welding, can be found in Section 1 of the guide.
The resistance spot welding process is versatile and can be operated at a range of different levels: from manual welding of
undemanding applications, through to complex, automated lines. To achieve a product of the required quality, it is important
to consider the fundamental requirements of the process - regardless of the level of operation.
Also provided in this section of the guide are guidelines on process economics in terms of the factors to be considered, whilst
actual costs must be established on a case-by-case basis.
Process description
The fundamental principle which describes the heat generated for welding can be expressed as -
http://www.twi.co.uk/j32k/protected/band_10/bprwsms02.html (1 of 20) [26/05/2004 15:43:58]

Heat = I2Rt where -

I = current flowing
R = electrical resistance to the flow of current through the workpiece
t = duration of the current flow (weld time)
Current is the most significant welding parameter, providing fine control of heat.
Resistance is controlled by the properties (resistivity) and surface condition of the materials being welded. It also
depends on the cross-section area through which current flows. In spot welding, the current is delivered to the
workpiece through shaped electrodes which concentrate the current through a small area. This increases resistance,
providing local intense heating of the materials.
Weld time is normally short, typically 10cycles (0.2s) per mm of the single sheet thickness being joined. This enables
heat to be generated rapidly, and minimises the heat lost by conduction into the electrodes and the bulk of the material
being joined.
Video clip showing spot welding heating cycle
Click on the thumbnail to download the video file (File size: 3MB approx.)
To view this video clip you need an MPEG-1 Video Player . If you have difficulty with this, please talk to an experienced web
user.
Electrode configurations
In normal operation, matching electrodes contact either side of the workpiece. Dissimilar electrodes may be used to
compensate for non-symmetrical heat balance when joining different material thickness combinations. A large flat electrode
or pad can be used on one side to achieve minimum surface marking. Complete freedom from surface marking is very
difficult to obtain without risking unacceptable weld quality. Typical electrode configurations are shown in Fig.2.1.
Fig.2.1 Spot welding electrode configurations

a) Conventional matching electrodes
b) Different tip sizes for large differences in
sheet thickness
c) Flat electrode for minimum marking face weld
Series welding is a possible alternative configuration where access to one side is more convenient . In such cases, two
matching electrodes are applied to one side of the component and a conducting backing-bar is placed on the other side to react
the force and conduct the current between the two electrode contact points, as shown in Fig.2.2. In this way, two welds are
made simultaneously in series. If the lower sheet material is of sufficient thickness it may provide the current path on its own,
allowing the conducting backing to be omitted. It can be difficult to balance the size of welds made by series welding and
process tolerance may be reduced.
In cases where the electrode force cannot be reacted immediately underneath the weld, such as sheet-to-tube joining, welds

are possible, provided that the tube material is sufficiently thick.
Fig.2.2 Series welding operation
The spot welding process involves a series of precisely controlled events. This sequence normally consists of five
time-periods, which are set on the spot welding timer/controller (Fig.2.3) .
1. Squeeze time: time set to ensure predetermined welding force is achieved before current flow; some timers are also
equipped with a pre-squeeze time setting
2. Weld time: time for which welding current is switched on
3. Hold time (forge): time electrodes are held together under pressure after weld time
4. Cool time: current off time between successive current pulses in pulsation or seam welding
5. Off time: time used for repeat welding such as stitch welding; time between end of hold time on one weld and
start of squeeze time on the next, during which electrodes are re-positioned
Fig.2.3 Resistance spot welding sequence
Equipment
There is a large range of equipment types available for resistance spot welding. Factors to consider in equipment selection are:
type of machine and degree of mechanisation or automation required
size of equipment - power and force capacity
type of power supply

load application system

control and monitoring equipment
Type of equipment and degree of automation:
Bench or floor mounted pedestal machines

Bench-mounted or floor-mounted pedestal machines are the basic type of equipment. These are typically manually
operated and are used for spot and projection welding. With this type of equipment, components are usually loaded into
a fixed electrode position. This may be a manual operation or is sometimes mechanised. The main workpiece handling
options are:
manual load and unload
manual load, auto eject
manual load into carousel feed, auto eject
mechanised, for example bowl feed into carousel for small parts
robot pick and place into machine
Pedestal machines are of most use when the components can be easily fed into the machine and particularly when high
powers are required. Capacities range from 5kVA to over 400kVA.
Fig.2.4 Pedestal spot welding machine

(Courtesy British Federal Ltd)
Projection welding is generally done using pedestal machines equipped with platens since these provide the necessary
frame stiffness and alignment.
Portable guns
Portable welding guns allow the welding gun to be moved around a component either manually or using a robot. This
provides flexibility but several gun designs may be required to reach all the welds. Capacities usually range from
10kVA to 150kVA.
The gun can be suspended from a balancer for manual operation, and power is supplied either from an integral
transformer attached to the gun or from a remote transformer via a kickless cable. This configuration is generally used
for manual welding of large components in medium to high volume applications.

High capacity robots, up to 120kg payload, are required to carry large integrated transformer guns and are used for high
volume assembly. Capacity is linked to the integral transformer gun weight and payload limit of the robot.
Fig.2.5 Portable spot welding gun

(Courtesy Portable Welders Ltd)
Multi-welders
Multi-welder systems are typically large, automatic welding machines with many welding heads and component
fixturing. A number of electrode sets or guns are built into a frame and connected to welding transformers. One
transformer may supply two guns. Such equipment is normally dedicated to high volume production of one component.
Capacities range from 20kVA to over 400kVA. Welds are made virtually simultaneously with weld time cascaded
between transformers to prevent very high instantaneous peak current being drawn from the mains supply.
Fig.2.6. Multi-welder
(Courtesy Ford Motor Co)
Hand operated guns

Hand operated guns (spring pressure) are available, but are not suitable for sustained volume production, where
pneumatic or electric force application is essential. These are used for light-duty work and applications such as vehicle
repair. Some have limited control of the weld settings and care is needed to achieve adequate weld quality.

Fig.2.7 Hand operated spot welding gun

(Courtesy Tecna)
Equipment capacity
The initial choice of equipment size depends on the range of materials and the thicknesses to be joined. This will determine
the welding current and electrode force required.
Electrical factors
The power capacity of a machine is normally quoted in kVA at 50% duty cycle. This refers to the power that may be
drawn by the transformer over a long period of time, with current flowing for 50% of that time, without causing the
transformer to overheat. On a.c. equipment, the maximum allowed current on the primary side of the transformer at 50% duty
cycle is then the kVA rating divided by the mains voltage. In practice, resistance welding machines can draw much higher
primary current levels for short times. This is acceptable, provided account is taken of the actual duty cycle.
The allowable power at duty cycle x% may be calculated as follows:
The welding current available from a transformer of a given capacity depends on the secondary voltage available. In a
simple single phase a.c. power supply, the welding transformer converts the mains supply voltage (primary side) to a low
voltage (secondary side), typically in the range 2 to 20 volts. This depends on the turns ratio of the primary and secondary
transformer windings (e.g. 100 turns on the primary supply side at 400volts would give 4 volts on a single turn secondary). At
the same time, the current is multiplied by the same ratio. The actual welding current that can be drawn depends largely on the
secondary voltage available and the impedance of the welding circuit and transformer.
The available welding current will be much lower than the maximum rated short circuit current for a particular
machine. This is because of the added resistance of the component being welded and the associated electrodes or tooling. In
simple terms, Ohm's law (V=IR) applies: the voltage (V) available equals the current (I) which can be drawn multiplied by the
circuit resistance (R).
The secondary circuit impedance is also influenced by an inductive component. This is related to the size of the machine
throat. Current is reduced if this area is increased, and even more so if there is steel within the throat. Thus, the arm spacing
and routing of jumpers or flexible connections is important in order to minimise the losses. These factors are not easy to
calculate but a long-reach machine with a relatively high secondary circuit resistance could easily require a transformer of
twice the kVA rating compared with a compact, small-throat machine, to give the same welding current.
Add at least 20% to the estimated welding current required. This allows for any minor adjustments to the welding
condition needed, and for automatic heat control adjustments in controllers which provide constant current control or
automatic mains voltage compensation. The maximum available current from a transformer is based on normal mains supply
voltage. The welding transformer voltage would be reduced if the high voltage mains transformer, or the supply lines to the
machine, are of low capacity.

Machine manufacturers can normally provide guidance on kVA ratings required, based on application experience with their
equipment.
A.C. power supplies can have a low power factor because of the high inductive component of the power drawn. In large
installations it may be necessary to consider power factor correction, and advice should be taken from the electricity supply
company.
Electrical factors - Key points

1. Ensure the equipment has sufficient power capacity with allowance for current adjustment, constant current control
and current stepping, if required.
2. Available current can be increased by minimising the resistance of the welding circuit (minimising the number of
interfaces, ensuring they are clean and tight, and avoiding conductors with small cross-section area).
3. Available current can be increased by minimising the inductive losses of the welding circuit (minimising the area of
the machine throat and avoiding steel within the throat area).
Mechanical factors
The electrode force required for a specific application depends on the materials to be joined, their thickness and the
weld size required. Recommended values are available in Standards and other published information for a wide range of
applications of both spot and projection welding.
Low inertia, low friction and fast follow-up are important, particularly for projection welding, as this allows rapid response
and movement of the machine head during projection collapse. This helps to avoid weld splash and forges the weld
effectively. Supplementary spring systems may be needed in machines with slow response, such as with hydraulic force
application.
Mechanical factors - Key points

The machine should be sufficiently strong and rigid to avoid undue deformation and electrode skidding under load.
Avoid using machines of too great a capacity as the machine characteristics such as friction and head follow-up may
affect weldability.
Springs are required to enhance follow-up in hydraulic force application systems.
Power supply type
There are a number of power supply types available:

Single phase a.c.
Secondary rectified d.c.
Frequency converter d.c.
Inverter
Capacitor discharge
Transistorised
Single phase a.c.

This is the most commonly used power supply as it is simplest and cheapest. The transformer is connected across two
phases of the mains supply and provides a.c. welding current at mains frequency 50 or 60Hz.

Fig.2.8 Single phase a.c. circuit and current

waveform
Secondary rectified d.c.

This type is used for high power applications as it uses a balanced three-phase supply, and the rectified d.c. welding
current is not subject to the inductive power losses suffered by a.c. current. Single phase d.c. machines are available but
are much less common.

Fig.2.9 Secondary rectified d.c. circuit and current

waveform
Frequency converter d.c.

Primary rectification of a three-phase supply avoids the need to rectify high welding currents. A short duration d.c. (e.g.
0.2s) pulse is then delivered to this welding transformer. The d.c. polarity is changed for each pulse to avoid
transformer saturation. This type of equipment has been widely used for high power applications, such as high quality
welding of aluminium alloys.
Fig.2.10 Frequency converter d.c. current

waveform
Inverter welders
Medium frequency inverter welders, normally about 1,000Hz are used to enable more efficient transformers to be used.
This allows weight-saving compared with a.c. transformers, particularly for robot guns. A three-phase supply is first
rectified then chopped with a transistor unit to give medium frequency a.c. This a.c. at about 600V is then converted in
the welding transformer to low voltage/high current at the same frequency. This is immediately rectified to give a d.c.
welding current. These supplies are finding increasing use in robotic spot welding in the automotive industry, and also

for miniature applications, where fine control of the current pulse shape can be achieved.
Fig.2.11 Inverter welder mf/d.c. supply diagram and current waveform
Capacitor discharge
A short duration d.c. pulse, typically less than 10ms, is achieved by discharging a bank of capacitors through a welding
transformer. A low power demand is required to charge the transformers. Such equipment is common for miniature
applications, but large machines are available for large projection welding operations. These are often portal machines
and have high force capacity with a fast follow-up, low inertia head. The heat input is relatively low compared with a.c.
or d.c. power supplies.
Fig.2.12 Capacitor discharge current waveform
Transistorised power supplies

These are generally small to miniature supplies, up to about 5kA. The current is pure d.c. and the pulse can be shaped
accurately for fine control of the resistance heating of difficult material combinations or configurations, particularly in
electrical and electronics applications.

Fig.2.13 Transistorised power supply

current waveform (example)
Electrode force application system
Electrode force is usually applied using a pneumatic cylinder. Alternative systems include servo motors, springs or hydraulic
cylinders.
Pneumatic systems involve delivering regulated air pressure to the welding cylinder. The cylinder may be a simple type,
providing single action with a fixed retract position, or incorporate a high lift position and an adjustable working stroke.
Adjustment of the lower cylinder exhaust rate may allow control of the speed at which the electrodes close. High speed causes
undesirable hammering of the electrodes.
Compound cylinders provide higher forces for a given cylinder diameter, and some may be operated with two regulated
pressures to allow dual pressure schedules (welding force/forging force) to be used.
Pneumatic electrode force application - Key points

Air pressure may be set using manually adjusted regulators or electrical regulators, which allow force to be
programmed from the timer.
The air supply should provide a pressure no less than the regulated pressure required, and have sufficient flow to
allow the required electrode force to be achieved rapidly.
A trap should be provided to prevent water and dirt in the air system contaminating the regulator and cylinder.
An oil lubricator may be required but modern cylinders are dry lubricated to avoid the emission of oil mist.
Servo guns use a servo motor to provide controlled electrode position, approach rate and force. Compared with
pneumatic systems, servo guns are more costly but they offer several advantages, for example, savings through not using an
air supply, possible faster operation in robotic application, reduced electrode impact, and feedback of positional information to
the controller.
Spring systems are used for foot-operated machines and some miniature equipment. The electrode force is pre-set, and
the current pulse is triggered by a microswitch. However, the actual force can be affected by the speed of operation of the
machine pedal. In such cases, the equipment would not be recommended for high quality work.
Hydraulic cylinders provide high forces for small diameter cylinders. As the oil is incompressible, it is essential to provide a
spring between the cylinder and electrode to ensure that good head follow-up is available. This helps to minimise weld splash.
Electrodes
Spot welding electrodes apply the force and convey the current into the parts to be joined through a localised area of
contact. The electrodes must deliver the current without themselves overheating, and provide a consistent contact area on the
component, to concentrate the welding current and create the weld. Excessive electrode contamination or wear affects weld
quality.
Electrode materials

Electrode materials in general use are copper alloys developed to combine high conductivity and hardness, plus reasonable
resistance to softening at the working temperature of the tip. Common materials are shown in Table 2.1.
Table 2.1. Common electrode materials
Material Nominal Softening Electrical Minimum Typical

composition temperature conductivity hardness application
Group Type Alloy type (%) (C) (% IACS+ (HV) areas
A 1 Hard drawn, high 99.9Cu 150 98 85 Aluminium
conductivity copper alloys -
limited use
1 Silver/copper 1Ag/Cu Aluminium
alloys -
limited use
1 Zirconium/copper 0.1Zr/Cu ~500 92* 120 Aluminium
alloys,
uncoated
and coated
steels
2 Chromium/copper 1Cr/Cu 500 78 120 Uncoated
and coated
steels
2 Chromium/zirconium/copper 1Cr/0.1Zr/Cu 525 75 120 Uncoated
and coated
steels
2 Al2O3/Copper 1.1 Al2O3/Cu 925 83* 160* Coated
steel,
special
applications
3 Cobalt/beryllium/copper 2.5Co/0.4Be/Cu 500 45 180 Stainless
steels, heat
resisting
materials
3 Nickel/silicon/copper 2.0Ni/0.7Si/Cu 500 32 200 Stainless
steels, heat
resisting
materials
B 11 Copper/tungsten 75W/Cu 1,000 30 220 Inserts for

projection
welding or
13 Molybdenum 99.5Mo 1,000 30 225-260* for
miniature
welds in
high
14 Tungsten 99.5W 1,000 30 440-460
conductivity
materials

+ International Annealed Copper Standard = 100%

* typical values
aluminium oxide dispersion strengthened, other grades also available
Most widely used electrode materials (based on international standards (ISO 5182) and commercial data).
This information is for guidance only and the typical application areas given are not necessarily optimum.
Electrode costs vary with material type. Where suitable alternatives are available, their relative performance and life need to
be considered. A more expensive electrode type can be justified if savings can be achieved by reduction in maintenance and
disruption to production.
Electrode materials - Key points

Choice of suitable electrode materials depends on the material being joined.
Higher conductivity electrodes create less heat at the contact surface and are less likely to stick (e.g. to coated steels).
Higher hardness materials may be more resistant to tip deformation but if the conductivity is lower, the electrode tip
will work hotter and could soften.
Do not use unidentified or mixed materials.
Electrode design
A wide range of electrode shapes and sizes is available (Fig.2.14) and international Standards apply in most cases. The choice
of design depends on the application and is frequently affected by available access to the joint. Standard female electrode
caps, fitted to adaptors, are commonly used for minimum electrode cost (Fig.2.15). Where possible, observe the following
guidelines for the best results.
Fig.2.14 Electrode designs

Fig.2.15 Common electrode cap shapes
Electrode design - Key points

Electrode shank diameter should ideally be not less than 3 times the tip size used. This minimises the heating within
the electrode itself and allows effective cooling.
Use straight centre tip electrodes if possible. Angled tips or complex shapes may give skidding of the tips, prevent
sufficiently high electrode force being used and make electrode dressing more difficult.
A truncated cone tip (type B) is normally recommended and gives longest life.
Domed tips (type A) are readily aligned and give high quality welds but electrode wear causes a rapid increase in tip
size.
Ball ended or pointed electrodes (types F and E) are often preferred where alignment may be difficult, e.g. scissor
guns and angled electrodes. However, these have a small initial contact area, giving excessive weld splash and deep
indentation. It is advisable to dress the tips before welding to create an initial aligned flat surface. Alternatively,
current stepping is sometimes used to increase welding current as the flat contact tip area develops.
Electrode cooling
Electrode life is critically dependent on water cooling. All electrodes have an internal cooling passage (Fig.2.16). Cooling
of the tip face during the weld time depends on the shape and size of the electrode itself, i.e. the heat sink effect of the copper.
Water cooling prevents progressive build-up of heat in the electrode.

Fig.2.16 Electrode cooling
Electrode cooling - Key points

A minimum flow rate of 4 litres/min is recommended for uncoated steels, and this should be increased for coated
steels and thicker sections. A maximum inlet temperature of 20C and a maximum outlet temperature of 30C are
recommended.
Ensure the water is fully turned on and that the supply is free from restrictions or leaks.
The water supply to the electrodes should not be in series with water supplied in other parts of the machine and
should not be subject to a back pressure preventing proper flow.
The cooling tube should be cut at an angle and positioned close to the back face of the electrode tip.
Open ended adaptors are recommended when using female caps to allow water to be directed onto the back face of
the electrode. Such caps can be changed without switching off the cooling water when using a closed end adaptor,
but the cooling is much less efficient because of the additional interface.
Electrode Maintenance
It is important to maintain consistent electrode contact with the material being joined. The electrode tip contact area,
alignment and surface condition should be regularly maintained, either by changing the electrode or redressing the tip. An
example of a tool for automated electrode tip dressing is shown in Fig.2.17.

Fig.2.17 Electrode dressing tool
Electrode maintenance - Key points

Wherever possible, use a form tool to restore the electrode tip shape, filing is not recommended.
Air or electrically operated tip dressers are available for either manual or automatic use.
Remove material from the cone angle to restore the desired tip diameter. Remove little or no material from the face
so as to maintain tip alignment.
Electrode holders and adaptors
Holders and adaptors provide the transition between the machine arm and the electrodes themselves.
Electrode holders and adaptors - Key points

Avoid use of over-long, small diameter adaptors as these can flex under load, giving electrode skidding.
Ensure tapers match. Replace worn or leaking components.
Ensure the taper on both the electrode and holder are smooth and clean. A thin film of grease makes the electrodes
easier to remove.
To avoid damage, always use the correct tools for removing electrodes. Do not use a steel hammer on electrodes or
holders during alignment, a soft-face mallet may be used.
Jigs and tooling

A jig is a device for holding components in position for presentation to a machine or while being welded with a gun. In some
cases the jig may incorporate the electrodes or backup tooling. Jigs and tooling are required to meet the following demands:
must be -
technically suitable for the resistance welding process
easy to use without undue operator fatigue
suitable for intended production rate and production life

and must allow -

fast operation for maximum productivity
rapid maintenance and replacement of consumable parts
foolproof component location and operation
required accuracy to be achieved
Jig materials - Key points

The jig should be made from non-magnetic materials where practicable. Steel in the throat of the machine causes
inductive current losses and can heat up by induced currents.
Insulation must be incorporated to avoid any current path or short circuit through the jig other than that conducting
the welding current via the electrodes through the weld point(s). Materials used should have sufficient resistance to
heat and wear.
The shank or body of the electrode must be of copper alloy with sufficient cross-section area and strength to carry
the welding current and electrode force without overheating, deformation or excessive deflection. Electrode
materials should conform to the relevant requirements of ISO 5182. In some projection welding applications, a
suitable refractory electrode insert may be used, e.g. tungsten/copper.
Jig design - Key points

Access and clearance must be sufficient to allow the electrodes free contact with the component at the weld point(s).
The jig should not cause a short circuit with the electrodes or interfere with the application of electrode force, before
and during the weld.
Support and location of the components must provide the required accuracy. In areas where burrs may contact the
jig, relief should be provided to allow correct seating and avoid jig wear.
Height adjustment should be provided where necessary to allow for electrode wear and ensure the full electrode
force is applied to the weld area.
Water cooling should be provided to current carrying tooling or electrodes within the jig to prevent overheating.
It should impossible to locate the component wrongly in the jig. Apply Poka Yoke techniques (foolproofing
devices).
Additional requirements for projection welding
Jigs for multiple projection welds should provide highly accurate alignment of tooling and electrodes. Alignment accuracy
depends on the application but is typically within 0.05mm across the weld array. The jig should also allow a linear weld array
to be positioned in a line across the machine's throat, rather than into it.
Controllers and monitoring equipment

Basic controllers (timers) control the timing of the welding sequence and provide fine adjustment of current using a heat or
phase shift control. A simple timer with one heat pulse is adequate for most thin gauge material welding. Modern controllers,
however, provide a range of sequence options.
Programmable controllers offer further functions including weld counting, current stepping, diagnostics and monitoring.
When welding different material or thickness combinations in an automatic operation, it is possible to find the best settings for
each situation. The appropriate program then be called up according to robot position or by using proximity switches on the
tooling. This improves process reliability by avoiding use of compromise settings.
Monitoring functions may be as simple as detecting no weld, failure of air or water, or feedback control of the welding current
(constant current control). More sophisticated units measure current and electrode voltage, which allows the weld resistance
or energy to be computed, and thus provides monitoring or feedback control of weld quality. Monitored data can be displayed

in statistical form, to warn of deviations in the process and allow process monitor records to be stored.
Constant current control is widely used to correct for variations in available current. Variations may be caused by:
mains supply voltage fluctuation, changes in resistance of the welding circuit (e.g. deterioration of flexible jumper cables),
and the effect of steel within the machine throat. Constant current control will not correct for shunt current losses caused by
variable weld spacing or short circuits between the electrodes and component or tooling.
Current stepping can be programmed to provide progressive increase in current to compensate for electrode wear. The
current level can be stepped or ramped-up by a set percentage according to the number of welds made. Step changes depend
on the application and are usually set by experience and trials.
(Note: trials are required to set up weld quality monitors to ensure that adequate correlation with destructive tests can be
achieved for each application).
Economics
Resistance spot welding is a low cost process, particularly suitable for high volume applications and a high degree of
automation.
The costs associated with spot welding depend on a wide range of factors, in particular the component being joined and the
volume required. The most economic production method would need to be established on a case-by-case basis.
Cost factors to be considered include the following:
Welding machine type.
Degree of mechanisation or automation.
Tooling requirements.
Connection costs - mains supply cables and switch box.
Labour.
Services - electrical power, cooling water, compressed air.
Consumables - welding electrodes.
Maintenance items - electrode holders, jumper cables etc.
Quality assurance.
Capital costs
Cost of equipment depends on the type of welding unit (e.g. pedestal machine or hand operated gun) and its capacity, power
supply type, and degree of automation or mechanisation.
For a given type of set-up, the specification and equipment details will differ between manufacturers. It is, therefore,
necessary to consult equipment manufacturers for actual equipment costs. However, typical price ranges (year 2002) for basic
equipment are shown in Table 2.
Table 2. Approximate cost of spot welding equipment
System type Manual pedestal machine Portable welding gun Multi-welder Robot system
Typical cost range 5-40k + 5-20k + 10-100k + 60-80k +
High volume production is often best achieved using dedicated automated equipment where the high capital cost of a cell may
be offset by the savings in labour cost.
Operating costs
1. Operating costs associated with labour may include the following:

One operator per machine for manually operated equipment.

Operator for loading one or more mechanised or automated machines.

Setter/maintenance staff to cover a number of machines for setting up, electrode changes and other routine
maintenance.
Operator/quality assurance staff for periodic quality checks on the weld quality.
Some of the functions may overlap, and the operator may have responsibility for certain tasks, such as electrode
changes or quality checks.
2. Service costs depend on equipment type, size and production rate and are based on the following requirements.
Power for welding is high but of short duration and may be estimated from the product of secondary current x
open circuit voltage x weld time. The energy consumed per 1000 welds is typically about 2 to 4kWh for 1mm
steel and 15 to 30kWh for 3mm steel.
Cooling water requirement is typically 10 to 20 litres/min continuously, per single machine, although larger
machines or high duty cycles may demand more. Check manufacturers' recommendations. Depending on the
system volume, a chiller may be required to maintain a maximum inlet temperature of 20C.
Air usage depends on the cylinder size and type, and the welding stroke. When welding thin sheet steel, e.g.
1mm, the air requirement per weld is likely to be around 0.25 to 0.5 litres of air at line pressure (about 6 bar).
3. Electrode usage depends on the application, cooling efficiency and the type of electrodes used. Standard cap electrodes
are generally the lowest cost, and 10,000 to 50,000 welds may be achieved per pair, with good dressing procedures.
The cost of electrodes depends on the supplier and the number of electrodes purchased. Typical prices are shown in
Table 3.
Type
Special electrode shapes or special
Cu/Cr/Zr caps Cu/Cr/Zr straight electrodes
materials
Typical price (each) 30-50p 50-100p 1 +
4. Maintenance items depend very much on the type of machine and the operating conditions. In volume production
applications using welding guns, maintenance items may be in the region of 10% of the gun cost per year.
5. Quality assurance costs include simple instrumentation or monitoring equipment for setting up and routine checks of
process parameters plus the cost of routine destructive tests. In some cases, non-destructive testing can be applied, and
the welding timers provide process control functions.
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Res Welding Section 2

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Resistance welding of sheet metals

- a guide to best practice

Section 2 - Spot welding process and equipment

Reproduced by permission from TWI

Copyright 2004, TWI Ltd

WORLD CENTRE FOR MATERIALS JOINING TECHNOLOGY

TWI WORLD CENTRE FOR MATERIALS JOINING TECHNOLOGY

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Resistance welding of sheet metals - a guide to

Section 2 - Spot welding process and equipment

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Heat = I2Rt where -

Video clip showing spot welding heating cycle

Fig.2.1 Spot welding electrode configurations

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are possible, provided that the tube material is sufficiently thick.

Fig.2.2 Series welding operation

Fig.2.3 Resistance spot welding sequence

size of equipment - power and force capacity

type of power supply

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load application system

Type of equipment and degree of automation:

Bench or floor mounted pedestal machines

manual load, auto eject

manual load into carousel feed, auto eject

robot pick and place into machine

Fig.2.4 Pedestal spot welding machine

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Fig.2.5 Portable spot welding gun

Hand operated guns

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Fig.2.7 Hand operated spot welding gun

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Electrical factors - Key points

Mechanical factors - Key points

Power supply type

There are a number of power supply types available:

Secondary rectified d.c.

Frequency converter d.c.

Single phase a.c.

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Fig.2.8 Single phase a.c. circuit and current

Secondary rectified d.c.

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Fig.2.9 Secondary rectified d.c. circuit and current

Frequency converter d.c.

Fig.2.10 Frequency converter d.c. current

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Fig.2.11 Inverter welder mf/d.c. supply diagram and current waveform

Fig.2.12 Capacitor discharge current waveform

Transistorised power supplies

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Fig.2.13 Transistorised power supply

Electrode force application system

Pneumatic electrode force application - Key points

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Table 2.1. Common electrode materials

Material Nominal Softening Electrical Minimum Typical

B 11 Copper/tungsten 75W/Cu 1,000 30 220 Inserts for

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+ International Annealed Copper Standard = 100%

Electrode materials - Key points

Fig.2.14 Electrode designs