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PRONOUN
1. What is a pronoun
He, him, his and himself, for example, all refer to a male person or
something belonging to him.
They, them, theirs and themselves all refer to a group or something
belonging to a group, and so on.
The truth is that there are many different types of pronouns, each serving a
different purpose in a sentence.
2. Personal Pronoun
Personal pronouns can also be objective, where they are the object of a verb,
preposition, or infinitive phrase. They are: me, her, him, it, you, them, and us.
Possession can be shown by personal pronouns, like: mine, his, hers, ours, yours,
its, and theirs.
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Subject Pronoun
Subject pronouns are often (but not always) found at the beginning of a
sentence. More precisely, the subject of a sentence is the person or thing that lives
out the verb.
He and I had a fight. This sentence has two subjects because he and
I were both involved in the fight.
He broke my kneecaps. You get the idea. To him, I must now pay my
children's college funds.
Although I is not at the beginning of the sentence. It is the person living out the
action and is,therefore,the subject.
Object Pronoun
Object Pronouns is. By contrast, objects and object pronouns indicate the
recipient of an action or motion. They come after verbs and prepositions (to, with,
for, at, on, beside, under, around, etc.).
3. Possessive Pronoun
Possessive pronouns mine, yours, ours, theirs, his, hers, theirs indicate
possession and they are used as pronouns when they are not followed by the
nouns possessed.
Example:
Is the new car in the park yours?
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Yes,it is;it is mine.
4. Reflexive Pronoun
Reflexive Pronouns myself,ourselves,yourself,yourselves,himself,herself,
Itself,themselves are used as the object of a transitive verb in which the subject is
co-referential to the object.
Example:
I could see my self in the calm water.
Dont cheat yourself by playing truant.
She always admires herself in the mirror.
5. Indefinite Pronoun
Example:
6. Distributive Pronoun
Distributive Pronouns refer to such pronouns as each,both,either,neither,
Everyone as used in the following.
Example:
7. Demonstrative Pronoun
Example:
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These are all the books iam looking for.
What are those which are glittering in the sky.
8. Interrogative Pronoun
Example:
9. Relative Pronoun
Example:
Example:
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a/an is used to modify non-specific or non-particular nouns.We
call the the definite article and a/an the indefinite article.
For example:
The definite article is used before singular and plural nouns when the noun
is specific or particular. The is used to refer to a specific or particular member of
a group.
For example: I just saw the most popular movie of the year." There are many
movies, but only one particular movie is the most popular. Therefore, we use the.
Indefinite Articles
"A" and "an" signal that the noun modified is indefinite, referring
to any member of a group.
For example:
"My daughter really wants a dog for Christmas." This refers to any dog.
We don't know which dog because we haven't found the dog yet.
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about a specific movie. We're talking about any movie. There are many
movies, and I want to see any movie. I don't have a specific one in mind.
o a broken egg
o an unusual problem
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Remember, too, that in English, the indefinite articles are used to indicate
member ship in a group:
The can be used with noncount nouns, or the article can be omitted entirely.
"I love to sail over the water" (some specific body of water) or "I love to
sail over water" (any water).
"He spilled the milk all over the floor" (some specific milk, perhaps the
milk you bought earlier that day) or "He spilled milk all over the floor"
(any milk).
Most of the time, you can't say, "She wants a water," unless you're implying, say, a
bottle of water.
There are some specific rules for using the with geographical nouns.
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names of most countries/territories: Italy, Mexico, Bolivia;
however, the Netherlands,the Dominican
Republic, the Philippines, the United States.
names of lakes and bays: Lake Titicaca, Lake Erie except with a group of
lakes likethe Great Lakes.
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III. VERB and ADVERB
1. Verb
What is a verb
2. Physical Verbs
Physical verbs are action verbs. They describe specific physical actions. If
you can create a motion with your body or use a tool to complete an action, the
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word you use to describe it is most likely a physical verb.The physical verb
examples in the following sentences are in bold for easy identification.
3. Mental Verbs
I am a student.
Please is quiet.
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5. Types of verb
A. Regular verb
Regular verb refer to those verb in which the past tense and the past
participle forms are made up simply by the addition of the inflectional morpheme-
ed,and therefore,such as askasked-asked. Some verbs may have their
conjugations in both regular and irregular forms such as show-showed-showed or
show-showed-shown.
B. Irregular Verbs
Irregular verbs are those that dont take on the regular spelling patterns of
past simple and past participle verbs. The spellings of conjugation can be similar
in three forms such as cut-cut-cut, put-put-put,or similar in the second and the
third forms such as bring-brought-brought,or completely different in the three
forms such as sing-sang-sung,speak-spoke-spoken etc.
C. Transitive Verbs
Transitive verbs are action verbs that always express doable activities.
These verbs always have direct objects, meaning someone or something receives
the action of the verb. A Transitive verb which is followed by one object is called
mono- transitive verb such as accept,answer,bite,blow,catch,drive,kill,take,etc.
The boy accepted the offer although he had just been beaten.
The mad dog bit the old woman on the leg.
The drunken man drove the car in the high speed.
The crocodile has killed two fishermen this week.
He took my new pen without permission.
D. Intransitive Verbs
Intransitive verbs are action verbs that always express doable activities. No
direct object follows an intransitive verb.
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The meeting will begin at nine oclock.
The number of attendance increases gradually.
After drinking cold water he sneezes terribly.
E. Action Verbs
Action verbs express specific actions, and are used any time you want to
show action or discuss someone doing something.
F. Auxiliary Verbs
Auxiliary verbs are also known as helping verbs, and are used together
with a main verb to show the verbs tense or to form a question or negative.
Stative Verbs
Stative verbs can be recognized because they express a state rather than an
action. They typically relate to thoughts, emotions, relationships, senses, states of
being, and measurements.
Modal Verbs
Modal verbs are auxiliary verbs that are used to express abilities,
possibilities, permissions, and obligations.
Phrasal Verbs
Phrasal verbs arent single words; instead, they are combinations of words
that are used together to take on a different meaning to that of the original verb.
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ADVERB
2. Adverb
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3.Degree : stating to what extent (degree or degrees) an activity / event
(absolutely, barely, really).
6. Place & Direction: stating the place and direction occurrence of an activity /
event (here, in, somewhere).
7. Purpose: answering the question "why" (for a reason, to buy some clothes).
8. Focus: indicates that what was discussed is limited to the part that is focused
(also, just, only).
Example of adverb:
If there is more than one adverb in a sentence, we need to follow the rules adverb
order: Manner - place - frequency - time - purpose.
I took the cooking course for three days every week last month.
B. Degree adverb
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Degree adverb To declare a comparison, it can be used adverb in the form:
2.comparative degree: to compare two things (She walks slower than a turtle).
3.superlative degree: to compare three or more (She runs the most slowest in my
class).
C. Adverbial clause
Shorten adverbial clause (reduced adverbial clause) can be carried out on the
condition in the complex sentence there is only one subject.
1. Noun clause
Noun clause is a dependent clause that acts as a noun. Noun clauses begin
with words such as how, that, what, whatever, when, where, whether, which,
whichever, who, whoever, whom, whomever, and why. Noun clauses can act as
subjects, direct objects, indirect objects, predicate nominatives, or objects of a
preposition.
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Whoever thought of that idea is a genius.
( Whoever thought of that idea is a noun clause. It contains the subject whoever
and the verb thought. The clause acts as a subject in the sentence.)w
( Whatever we want is a noun clause. It contains the subject we and the verb want.
The clause acts as a direct object in the sentence.)
The focus of our work is how we can satisfy customers most effectively.
( How we can satisfy customers most effectively is a noun clause. It contains the
subject we and the verb phrase can satisfy. The clause acts as a predicate
nominative in the sentence, identifying focus.)
( Whomever you want is a noun clause. It contains the subject you and the verb
want. The clause acts as an object of the preposition for in the sentence.)
( Whichever restaurant you pick is a noun clause. It contains the subject you and
the verb pick. The clause acts as a subject in the sentence.)
( Whoever interviewed you is a noun clause. It contains the subject whoever and
the verb interviewed. The clause acts as an indirect object in the sentence.)
( What the weather will be is a noun clause. It contains the subject weather and the
verb phrase will be. The clause acts as a direct object in the sentence.)
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My greatest asset is that I am a hard worker.
( That I am a hard worker is a noun clause. It contains the subject I and the verb
am. The clause acts as a predicate nominative in the sentence, identifying asset.)
( Why we make certain decisions is a noun clause. It contains the subject we and
the verb make. The clause acts as an object of the preposition about in the
sentence.)
( How long we should wait here is a noun clause. It contains the subject we and
the verb phrase should wait. The clause acts as a direct object in the sentence.)
( Whichever audience you perform for is a noun clause. It contains the subject you
and the verb perform. The clause acts as an indirect object in the sentence.)
( When we get hungry is a noun clause. It contains the subject we and the verb get.
The clause acts as an object of the preposition for in the sentence.)
1. Subject of a clause
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a. What you say is true.
b. That the world is round is not naturally realized by most people.
c. Where he was born in unclear.
A noun clause may function as the object of a transitive verb either direct
object or indirect object as in the following.
3. Object of a preposition
4. Subject complement
5. Object complement
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Object complement supplies a complete sense of the object in a clause and a
noun clause may function as an object complement as given bellow.
NOUN PHRASE
2. Noun phrase
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"The home of the Little family was a pleasant place near a park in New
York City."
"When the story was finished, I read it to my teacher, and I recall now
vividly the pleasure I felt in the more beautiful passages."
"I would hold my laugh, bite my tongue, grit my teeth, and very seriously
erase even the touch of a smile from my face."
"The wells and water table had been polluted by chemical pesticides and
fertilizers that leached into the earth and were washed by rain.
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subjects of sentences should convince you that an exhaustive catalog of noun
phrases would be, if at all possible, incredibly long and complex. Consider, as a
single example, the subject of the preceding sentence: Just thinking about the
possible structures that can serve as subjects of sentences. In form, this string of
words is nothing like the prototypical noun phrases described above, yet a
pronoun can substitute for it (It should convince you), and it functions quite
naturally in a noun phrase slot.
A noun head may also have more than one postmodifier. Two postmodifiers are
exhibited in I think it is a pity that LB is the only major corporation I have
worked for where this has been a problem.
The noun head is corporation and the two postmodifiers are I have worked
for and where this has been a problem. The second postmodifier modifies the
whole of the preceding noun phrase, including the first postmodifier, since clearly
the writer does not want to generalize by extending the reference to major
corporations where he has not worked. On the other hand, the two postmodifiers
in modify the head separately:
we could not trace the invoice dated 22nd March 1990 for 43.13. We could
reverse the order of the postmodifiers without changing the meaning."
(Sidney Greenbaum, Oxford English Grammar. Oxford Univ. Press, 1996)
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"A noun phrase is a unit that can have very simple or very complicated internal
structure:
The phrase in (3b) has quite a bit of internal complexity, and therefore requires a
lot of mental processing. However, once it is processed, it can enter into larger
structures as easily (well, almost as easily) as simple structures such as (3a). They
are both just noun phrases as far as the structure of the larger clause is concerned.
Noun-Noun phrase
"This kind of noun phrase can cause problems for EAL [English as an
additional language] writers, in our experience. An example of a noun-noun
phrase is 'resource availability.' This phrase means 'availability of resources.' To
shorten phrases like this, it is very common in scientific English for the second
part (of resources) to be moved in front of the headword (availability). When this
happens, the part that moves is always written in its singular form (resource) and
the preposition is omitted. Style Advice: Noun Phrases in Technical Writing and
Global English "Most forms of controlled English suggest revising noun phrases
that are more than three words long. However, even a two- or three-word noun
phrase can be unclear or ambiguous. For example, in the following sentences,
someone who is not familiar with the subject matter cannot fully understand the
two-word noun phrases, because each individual word has multiple possible
meanings:
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- If you haven't imported a filter, the default is a unity gain.
- The tracking loop mitigates the effects of multi-path interference on code-phase
errors.On the other hand, some longer noun phrases are easy to comprehend--
especially if part of the noun phrase is a proper noun. As long as the reader
understands the two-word noun phrase dialog box, the four-word noun phrase in
the following sentence is comprehensible:
In the Advanced Options dialog box, use the arrows to adjust the percentage.
" Clearly it is important to keep noun phrases as short as possible in English. But
even the short ones often need to be explained or defined in order for translators
to be sure about their meanings."
CONNECTOR
1. connector
Conjunction
A. Coordinate Conjunction
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Coordinate Conjunctions refer to those Conjunctions which are used
compound sentences to connect two independent clauses such as
and,or,so,then,but,for,still,yet,and then,and so,and yet,and therefore or else,etc.
B. Subordinate Conjunction
C. Correclative Conjunction
E.g : After the accident the child can neither speak nor cry.
Relative
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1. Relative pronoun
The relative pronoun which is used for non-human antecedent as either a subject
or an object in the relative clause.
That as a relative pronoun may be used to replace the other three relative
pronouns who,whom and which orn condition that it is not preceded by a
preposition.
That is compulsory if the noun phrase as the antecedent makes use of certain
words such as only, little,all,something etc.
2. Relative Determiner
3. Relative Adjunct
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Relative Adjuncts in english cover such interrogatives as
why,when,where,and how which are used to connect the dependent clause to the
independent clause and express semantic features of adjuncts.
Interrogative word
1. Interrogative pronoun
2. Interrogative adjunct
E.g : The teacher asked the students why they came late.
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3. Interrogative determiner
Conjunctive adjunct
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