Introduction
Geography is made up of two Latin words geo and graphy.
Geo means Earth and graphy means to describe. Thus
the general meaning of geography is the branch of science
which explains about the Earth.
Greek scholar Haecetus has been regarded as father of
geography. Another Greek scholar Eratosthenes first coined
the term geography. He wrote the book Geography. Alexander
Von Humboldt and Carl Ritter are known as founders of
modern geography.
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called celestial bodies.
Celestial Bodies
l
The Universe
The universe contains billions of stars, planets, asteroids,
comets, meteors, solid and gaseous particles, which are
Nebula: It is a diffused mass of interstellar dust or gas or
both, visible as luminous patches or areas of darkness
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depending on the way the mass absorbs or reflects
incident radiation.
l Galaxy: The universe contains over 100 billion galaxies. A
galaxy is a group of billions of stars. Our own galaxy is
called the Milky Way, and it contains about 300 billion
stars (300,000,000,000) and one of these is our Sun.
(Markenian-348: Largest known galaxy. It is 13 times larger
than Milky Way.)
l Constellation: Constellations are clusters of stars which
appear in a specific form. Centaurus, Gemini, Leo, Hercules
and Virgo are major constellations.
l Stars: Some celestial bodies that have their own heat and
light are called stars. The Sun is also a star.
l The brightest star is Sirius, also called Dog Star, and the
closest to the Earth is Proxima Centauri.
l Stars are made up of vast clouds of hydrogen and helium
gas and dust.
l Planets: Some celestial bodies do not have their own heat
and light. These are called planets. The word planet means
wanderer.
l Satellites: The word satellite means a smaller companion
to anything. True to their meaning, these satellites revolve
around their planets and also follow them in their revolution
around the Sun.
Geography
Techniques in Geography
Important techniques used for the geographic enquiry are
the following:
1. Cartography: It is the science and art of drawing maps
and charts.
2. Mathematical Geography: It is closely related to the
making of maps and interpretation and analysis of
statistical data.
3. Remote Sensing and Geographic Information System
(GIS): Remote Sensing and GIS have emerged as the most
important and powerful technique for the study of
geographic problems.
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l
The Moon, for example, is a satellite of the Earth. It moves
around the Earth and also around the Sun along with the
Earth.
Meteors: Small pieces of space debris (usually parts of
comets or asteroids) that are on a collision course with the
Earth are called meteoroids. When meteoroids enter the
Earths atmosphere they are called meteors or colloquially
a shooting star or falling star.
l Comets: Comets are the most exciting of the heavenly
bodies. They are made up of loose collections of ice,
dust, and small rocky particles. A well developed comet
has a tail which is always turned away from the Sun. The
head forms the bright portion of the comet. Halleys Comet
is one of the important comets. It visits the Earth regularly
and is visible once in 76 years. It was last seen in 1986.
l As comets approach the Sun, they develop enormous
tails of luminous material that extend for millions of
kilometres from the head, away from the Sun.
l Asteroids: Between the orbits of Mars and Jupiter, there
is a swarm of small bodies which also revolve round the
Sun. They are called asteroids.
Our Solar System
Planets and other objects go round the Sun, and these make
up the solar system, with the Sun at the centre.
The solar system contains different types of objects
including:
l a star the Sun
l planets, which go around the Sun
l satellites, which go around the planets
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The Sun Planets of the Sun
l The Sun is 109 times bigger than the Earth and weighs There are eight planets of the Sun which revolve round it in
2 1027 tons. their certain orbits.
l The core of the Sun has a temperature of about 15 million 1. Mercury 2. Venus 3. Earth 4. Mars
degrees C. 5. Jupiter 6. Saturn 7. Uranus 8. Neptune
l Sunlight takes 8 min 16.6 sec to reach Earth. Planets are classified into the following two groups
l The density of the Sun is of that of the Earth. inner and outer planets:
l In its composition, 71% hydrogen and 26.5% of helium Inner Planets: Mercury, Venus, Earth & Mars
are found. Outer Planets: Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus & Neptune
l The Sun is about 150 million km away from the Earth. Note: The first four planets, Mercury, Venus, Earth and
l Light travels with a tremendous speed of about 3,00,000 Mars are called the terrestrial planets, because of their
kilometres per second. Even at this speed the Sun rays take similarity to the Earth.
about eight minutes to reach the Earth.
Planets
l The source of energy of the Sun is nuclear fusion, in which
small nuclei of hydrogen atom fuse into helium atom. According to distance from Sun in ascending order:
Mercury - Venus - Earth - Mars - Jupiter - Saturn - Uranus
Different Layers of the Sun - Neptune
Heat and energy are emitted from the surface of the Sun According to size in descending order:
constantly. This energy is the basis for the life on the Earths Jupiter - Saturn - Uranus - Neptune - Earth - Venus - Mars

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surface. There is 6000 degrees Centigrade temperature found - Mercury
on the surface of the Sun, while it is 15 million degrees Revolves around the Sun in minimum time period:
Centigrade at the core. Venus: 225 days
The central part of the Sun is known as the core. Mercury: 88 days
l The Photosphere is the light sphere. The dark patches Revolves around the Sun in maximum time period:
on it are known as sunspots. Pluto: 248 years
l The Chromosphere (colour sphere) is the next layer. It Neptune: 164 years
contains most of the elements found on Earth, but they
are in a state of vapour. The Solar Prominences (red flames) Description of Different Planets
rise high above the Chromosphere. 1. Mercury
The Corona (crown) lies beyond the Chromosphere. It

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extends in all directions from the Chromosphere out to
distances of million kilometres or more. It looks like a halo
completely surrounding the Sun.
The Planets
The 2006 redefinition of Planet by the International
Astronomical Union (IAU) states that, in the Solar System, a
planet is a celestial body that:
l is in an orbit around the Sun.
l has sufficient mass so that it assumes a hydrostatic
equilibrium shape.
l has cleared the neighbourhood around its orbit.
A "dwarf planet" is a celestial body that (a) is in orbit
around the Sun, (b) has sufficient mass for its self-gravity to
overcome rigid body forces so that it assumes a hydrostatic
equilibrium (nearly round) shape, (c) has not cleared the
neighbourhood around its orbit, and (d) is not a satellite.
According to this definition, there are currently eight
planets and five dwarf planets known in the Solar System.
The five dwarf planets are Pluto, Ceres, Eris, Makemake
and Haumea.
l The nearest planet of the Sun, it is situated 5.7 million
kilometres away from the Sun.
l It is the smallest planet of our Solar System whose diameter
is only 4849.6 kilometres.
l There is no atmosphere; hence there is no possibility of
life.
l It has no satellite. It revolves around the Sun in 88 days.
2. Venus
l It is the brightest of all planets because it reflects more of
the Suns light which falls upon it than other planets do.
l Clouds of sulphuric acid are found here.
l It is the nearest planet to the Earth.
l It is similar to the Earth in volume, weight and density;
therefore, it is called sister of the Earth and twin star. It is
also known as Evening Star and Morning Star.
l The cloud sphere of Venus is of orange colour, therefore it
is known as the orange planet.
l It rotates from east to west while the Earth rotates from
west to east.
l It has no satellite or moon.
3. Earth
l According to distance, it is third from the Sun. It is the fifth
largest planet. It is 148.8 million km away from the Sun.

2 l Geography
l It rotates along its own axis in 24 hours.
l It revolves around the Sun in 365 days 5 hours and 42
minutes.
l It is called the Blue Planet.
l It is the only planet where life exists due to favourable
atmosphere.
l Its diameter is 12,733.2 kilometres.
l It has only one satellite the moon.
l It is tilted at 23 degrees on its axis and thus makes an
angle of 66 degrees.
l It takes 23 hours, 56 minutes and 4 seconds to rotate once
on its axis and 365 days, 5 hours, 48 minutes and 46 seconds
(i.e. approx 365 days) to revolve around the Sun. Rotation
creates days and nights. The earths revolution around the
Sun is responsible for various seasons in a year. For the sake
of convenience, the awkward one quarter of a day is ignored
for three years and then an extra day is added to every fourth
year to give us our Leap years of 366 days.
Statistical Data of the Earth
in a complete revolution, it comes closest to the Earth
twice and goes the farthest twice.
l The nearest position of the Moon to the Earth is known as
perigee and the farthest position is known as apogee.
When the Earth, the Sun and the Moon are collinear, it is
known as syzgie.
Solar Eclipse and Lunar Eclipse
l When the Earth comes between the Sun and the Moon,
the Moon is unable to get sunlight, i.e. the Moon is
partially or fully over-shadowed. This is called the lunar
eclipse.
l When the Moon comes between the Sun and the Earth,
the Earth doesnt get sunlight. This is known as the solar
eclipse.
4. Mars
l It rotates along its own axis in 24.6 hours (almost equal to
the time taken by the Earth).
l Due to presence of iron oxide, it appears red and is called

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The Earth is the fifth largest planet in the solar system. the Red Planet.
l Diameter l On Mars, Nix Olympica Mountain is situated, which is
Equatorial Diameter 12,756 km three times loftier than Mount Everest.
Polar Diameter 12,714 km l Mars has two satellites Phobos and Deimos.
l Circumference l It is the only planet after Earth which has sign of water
Equatorial Circumference 40,077 km and there is possibility of life.
Polar Circumference 40,009 km l Various space missions so far have been sent to Mars, eg
l Density 5.52 g/cu cm (5.2 times Vikings, Pathfinder, Mars Odyssey and Curiosity.
that of water) l It has thin atmosphere comprising nitrogen and argon.
l Age 4.6 billion years 5. Jupiter

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l Highest Land Point (Mt Everest) 8848 m l It is the largest planet of the Solar System. Its diameter is
l Lowest Land Point (Dead Sea) -397 m 11 times and area 120 times that of the Earth. It is called the
l Greatest Ocean Depth 11022 m Lord of Heavens.
(Mariana Trench) l It has more gravity as compared to the Earth.
l Temperature Highest: 58C at Al- l It is the fastest rotating planet.
Aziziyah, Libya l It rotates along its own axis only in 10 hours.
Lowest: 89.6C at l It revolves around the Sun in 11 years and 10 months.
Antarctica l Its surface is not solid and its atmosphere, made of
Average: 49C hydrogen, helium, ammonia and methane, is very dense.
l Escape Velocity: 11200 m/s l One special feature of this planet is the Great Red Spot.
The Moon l Jupiter has 63 satellites.
l Diameter 3,475 km l Ganymede, the largest of these, is larger than the planet
l Gravitational force 1/6 of the Earth Mercury.
l Average distance from the Sun 3.85 lakh km 6. Saturn
l It revolves around the Earth in 27 days 7.4 hours. l It is the second largest planet of the Solar System. It is
l It has low albedo (the amount of sunlight which the planet 141.7 crore km away from the Sun. It revolves around the
reflects). It reflects only 7% and the rest is absorbed. The Sun in 29 years and 6 months.
speed of rotation and revolution of the Moon is almost l Its main feature is the presence of a circular ring around it
the same. Therefore, we always see the same portion of which does not touch the surface of the Saturn.
the Moon. l Saturn is made up of lighter gases, in which 63% is
l Its light reaches the Earth after reflection in 1.3 seconds. hydrogen.
l It has no atmosphere. l It has the largest number of satellites. It has 60 satellites.
l It revolves around the Sun in an elliptical orbit. Therefore, l The largest satellite of Saturn is Titan.

Geography l 3
7. Uranus
l It was discovered in 1781 by Sir William Hershel.
l It rotates along its own axis from east to west direction
unlike the other planets.
l Its atmosphere is dense and in it methane gas is found.
l Its satellites revolve in opposite direction.
l It has 27 satellites.
l The axis of Uranus has large inclination so that it appears
to be lying down, hence it bears the name a planet on its
side.
8. Neptune
l It is situated 447 crore km away from the Sun.
l It rotates along its own axis in 15 hours and 40 minutes
and revolves round the Sun in 165 years.
l Due to presence of methane, it appears greenish and is
called green planet.
l It is an extremely cold planet where the maximum
temperature is -200C.
l It has 13 satellites.
l It was discovered by J Galle in 1846.
Dwarf Planet Pluto
l Till recently (August 2006), Pluto was also considered a
planet. However, in a meeting of the International
Astronomical Union, a decision was taken that Pluto, like
other celestial objects (2003 UB313) discovered in the
recent past, may be called dwarf planet.

Earth and Its Planetary Relations

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Various Concepts Regarding the Origin
of Earth
Theory/Hypothesis
l Gaseous Hypothesis
l Nebular Hypothesis
l Planetesimal Hypothesis
l Tidal Hypothesis
l Binary Star Hypothesis
l Supernova Hypothesis
Rotation
l The Earth rotates along its own axis from west to east, i.e.
in anticlockwise direction. It takes 23 hours, 56 minutes
Scientist/Philosopher and 4.09 seconds in one rotation.
Immanuel Kant l Day and night occur due to this rotational motion.
Laplace l Due to rotation along its own axis, the Earth is not a perfect
Chamberlin & Moulton sphere.
Jeans & Jeffreys Sidereal day
Russell l The period of rotation on the polar axis is called a sidereal
Hoyle

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l Inter-Stellar Dust Hypothesis Otto Schmidt
l Big Bang Theory Georges-Henri Lemaitre
Shape of the Earth
l The true form of the Earth resembles a sphere that has
been compressed along the polar axis and made to bulge
slightly around the equator. This form is known as an
oblate ellipsoid.
l The oblateness is caused by the centrifugal force of the
Earths rotation.
l Perihelion: Nearest position of the Earth to the Sun. The
Earth reaches its perihelion on January 3 every year at a
distance of about 147 million km from the Sun.
l Aphelion: Farthest position of the Earth from the Sun.
The Earth reaches its aphelion on July 4 every year when
the Earth is at a distance of 152 million km.
Motion of the Earth
The Earth has two types of motions:
1. Rotation
2. Revolution or Annual Movement
day.
Revolution
l The annual motion of the Earth is called revolution.
l Since the path of the Earth is elliptical, the distance
between the Earth and the Sun keeps changing.
l The Earth attains four critical positions with respect to the
Sun. This happens due to the inclination of the Earth along
its axis. These are equinoxes and solstices.
l On June 21, the Tropic of Cancer receives the vertical rays
of the Sun. This condition is known as summer solstice.
l At this time the Northern hemisphere experiences the
longest day while the Southern hemisphere has the
shortest night.
l On December 22, the Tropic of Capricorn receives the
vertical rays of the Sun. This condition is called winter
solstice.
l There are two positions of the Earth that occur on March
21 and September 23, when the Equator receives the vertical
rays of the Sun and day and night are equal all over the
world.
l These positions are known as equinoxes. The vernal
equinox occurs on March 21 and the autumnal equinox
on September 23.

4 l Geography
 Globe: Latitudes and Longitudes
l Globe is a true model (miniature form) of the Earth.
l To locate any particular place on the globe we need certain
points of reference and lines.
l It can be noticed that a needle is fixed through the globe in
a tilted manner which is called its axis. Two points on the
globe through which the needle passes are two poles
North Pole and South Pole.
l The Earth moves around its axis, which is an imaginary
line. Another imaginary line running on the globe divides
it into two equal parts. This line is known as the equator.
l The northern half of the Earth is known as the Northern
Hemisphere and the southern half is known as the
Southern Hemisphere. Latitude is the angular distance of
a point on the Earths surface.
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l All parallel circles from the equator up to the poles are
called parallels of latitude. Latitudes are measured in
degrees. The equator represents the zero degree latitude.
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Important Parallels of Latitude
Besides the equator (0), there are four important parallels of
latitude:
(i) Tropic of Cancer (23 N) in the Northern Hemisphere.
(ii) Tropic of Capricorn (23 S) in the Southern
Hemisphere.
(iii) Arctic Circle at 66 north of the equator.
(iv) Antarctic Circle at 66 south of the equator.
Heat Zones of the Earth
l The mid-day Sun is exactly overhead at least once a year
Geography
on all latitudes between the Tropic of Cancer and the
Tropic of Capricorn. This area, therefore, receives the
maximum heat and is called the Torrid Zone.
l The mid-day Sun never shines overhead on any latitude
beyond the Tropic of Cancer and the Tropic of Capricorn.
l The angle of the Suns rays goes on decreasing towards
the poles. As such, the areas bound by the Tropic of
Cancer and the Arctic Circle in the Northern Hemisphere,
and by the Tropic of Capricorn and the Antarctic Circle in
the Southern Hemisphere, have moderate temperatures.
These are, therefore, called Temperate Zones.
l Areas lying between the Arctic Circle and the North Pole
in the Northern Hemisphere and the Antarctic Circle and
the South Pole in the Southern Hemisphere, are very cold.
The Sun does not rise much above the horizon here. Its
rays are always slanting. So, these areas are called Frigid
Zones.
Longitudes
l In order to locate any place precisely, we must find out
how far east or west these places are from a given line of
reference running from the North Pole to the South Pole.
These lines of reference are called the meridians of
longitude.
l Meridians are semi-circles and the distance between them
decreases steadily polewards until it becomes zero at the
poles, where all the meridians meet.
l Unlike parallels of latitude, all meridians are of equal
length. The meridian which passes through Greenwich,
where the British royal observatory is located, is called
the Prime Meridian. Its value is 0 longitude and from it
we count 180 eastward as well as 180 westward.
l The Prime Meridian divides the Earth into two equal halves
the Eastern Hemisphere and the Western Hemisphere.
l Local time can be reckoned by the shadow cast by the
Sun, which is the shortest at noon and the longest at
sunrise and sunset. At any place a watch can be adjusted
to read 12 oclock when the Sun is at the highest point in
the sky, i.e. when it is mid-day. The time shown by such a
watch will give the local time for that place.
l When the Prime Meridian of Greenwich has the Sun at the
highest point in the sky, all the places along this meridian
will have mid-day or noon.
l As the Earth rotates from west to east, those places east
of Greenwich will be ahead of the Greenwich Mean Time
(GMT) and those to the west will be behind it.
l 5
l The rate of difference can be calculated as follows. The
Earth rotates 360 in about 24 hours, which means 15 an
hour or 1 in four minutes.
l Longitudes have one very important function, i.e. they
determine local time in relation to GMT.
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Standard Time
l Standard Time is the local time of the Standard Meridian
of a country.
l
KUNDAN Interior of the Earth
The Earth is an oblate spheroid. The earths radius is 6370
km with average density being 5.5. It is composed of a
number of different layers as determined by deep drilling
and seismic evidence. These layers are:
The Crust
l This is the uppermost and thinnest layer of the Earth. Its
average depth is up to 33 km.
l In continental area the thickness of the crust is around 40
km while the oceanic crust is only 5-10 km thick.
l The crustal part of the Earth is also called Lithosphere. It
comprises two distinct parts: Outer Crust and Inner
Crust.
l The outer thinner part of the Earth crust is composed of
sedimentary rocks. In the Outer Crust, the main
constituents are Silica and Aluminum whose mean average
density is 2.7 g/cm3 and which is collectively called SIAL
(i.e. Silica+ Aluminum).
6 l Geography
l In India, the longitude of 82 E (82 30E) is treated as
the standard meridian. The local time at this meridian is
taken as the standard time for the whole country. It is
known as the Indian Standard Time (IST).
l Indian standard time is 5.30 hours ahead of GMT.
Note: Some countries have a great longitudinal extent and so
they have adopted more than one standard time. For
example, in Russia, there are as many as eleven standard
times. The United States uses nine Standard Time Zones.
l The Earth has been divided into twenty-four time zones
of one hour each. Each zone thus covers 15 of longitude.
International Date Line
l 180 East and 180 West meridians are the same line which
is called International Date Line.
l It is the longitude where the dates change by exactly one
day when it crossed.
l A traveller crossing the dateline from east to west loses a
day and while crossing the dateline from west to east he
gains a day.
l The International Date Line in the mid Pacific curves from
the normal 180 meridian at the Bering Strait, Fiji, Tonga
and other islands to prevent confusion of the day and
date in some of the island groups that are cut through by
the meridian.
l In the Inner Crust, the constituents are Silica and
Magnesium. It is a layer of basalt rock. The constituents
are collectively known as SIMA (Silica+ Magnesium). The
average mean density of SIMA is 3 g/cm3.
The Mantle
l The mantle is almost 2900 km thick and comprises about
83% of the Earths volume.
l The upper portion of the mantle is called Asthenosphere
(extending up to 400 km).
l It is the main source of magma.
l It has a density higher than that of the crust (3.4 g/cm3).
l The crust and the uppermost part of the mantle are called
Lithosphere. Its thickness ranges from 10 to 200 km.
l The mantle is believed to have been formed largely of
silicate minerals rich in iron and magnesium.
The core solid state. In the outer core, however, the pressure is
lesser and the matter is in a liquid state.
l Beyond the mantle, the inner part of the Earth is called its Major Elements in the Earths Crust
core.
l It is made mainly of Nickel and Iron, also called NIFE (Nickel Element By Weight (%)
- Ni + Ferrum - Fe). Oxygen 46.10
l The core is also divided into two parts: outer core and Silicon 28.20
inner core. Aluminium 8.23
l The outer core extends from 2900 km to 5150 km. It is in Iron 5.63
liquid state. Calcium 4.15
l Beyond 5150 km to the centre is called the inner core. It is Sodium 2.36
in solid state due to extreme pressure. In this part the Magnesium 2.33
gases are found in solid state. Others 3.00
l The density and temperature of the core are 13 g/cm3 and Major Elements on Whole Earth
5500 C respectively. Element By Weight (%)
l The temperature inside the Earth increases with depth. Iron 35
Experiments have confirmed that the temperature increases Oxygen 30
at the rate of 1C for every 32 metres. Silicon 15
l At this rate of increase, all the matter at the core should Magnesium 13

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have been in a molten state, but since the pressure at such Nickel 2.4
great depths is also very high, the melting point is higher Sulphur 1.9
than the prevalent temperature and the inner core is in a Calcium 1.1
Aluminium 1.1

Rocks and Minerals

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l Rock is a naturally occurring solid aggregate of minerals On the basis of their mode of formation, rocks are mainly
and/or mineraloids. The Earths outer solid layer, the categorised into three families. These are:
lithosphere, is made of rocks. Rocks may be hard or soft (i) Igneous Rocks solidified from magma and lava;
and of various colours. For example, granite is hard, (ii) Sedimentary Rocks the result of deposition of
soapstone is soft. Gabbro is black and quartzite can be fragments of rocks by exogenous processes;
milky white. (iii) Metamorphic Rocks formed out of existing rocks
l The scientific study of rocks is called petrology. undergoing recrystallisation.
l Feldspar and quartz are the most common minerals found
in rocks. Igneous Rocks
Minerals are of different hardness; ten minerals are selected
to measure the degree of hardness from 1-10. These are: l These rocks are formed by the cooling and solidification
Minerals Hardness of molten magma from the interior of the Earth.
Talc 1 l They are the ancestors of all other rocks and make up 85%
Gypsum 2 of the Earths crust.
Calcite 3 l They are relatively hard and do not allow water to percolate.
Fluorite 4 Minerals of great economic value are found in these, e.g.
Apatite 5 Iron, Nickel, Copper, Lead, Zinc, Chromites, Manganese,
Feldspar 6 Gold, Diamond and Platinum.
Quartz 7 Examples of igneous rocks are basalt, dolerite, granite,
Topaz 8 feldspar.
Corundum 9 l Batholiths: These are gigantic masses of igneous rocks
Diamond 10 that usually lie below the surface of the Earth. They are
chiefly composed of granite.
Ex: Idaho batholith of USA

Geography l 7
Sedimentary Rocks
l Rocks formed on the surface of the Earth due to the erosion
and deposition of igneous and metamorphic rocks are
known as sedimentary rocks. These are also known as
stratified rocks because of their layers.
l They comprise only about 5% of the earths crust but
cover 75% of the total land surface.
l Depending upon the mode of formation, sedimentary rocks
are classified into three major groups:
1. Mechanically formed sandstone, conglomerate,
limestone, shale, loess, clay, gravels, alluvium etc.
2. Organically formed geyserites, chalk, limestone,
coal, coral, petroleum etc.
3. Chemically formed Dolomite, rock salt, borax, chert,
limestone, halite, potash, gypsum, nitrates etc.
Note: Most of the petroleum of the world occurs in sedimentary
rocks.
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The earths surface has a distinct shape and origin. Its
landforms may be of any of the following three orders:
1. First order: Continents and ocean basins
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2. Second order: Mountains, plateaus and plains
3. Third order: Lakes, rivers, valleys, gorges, waterfalls,
moraines, sand dunes, etc.
Major Types of Landform
Mountains
A mountain is any natural elevation of the Earth surface
rising more or less abruptly to a summit, and attaining an
altitude greater than that of a hill.
In some mountains, there are permanently frozen rivers of
ice. These are called glaciers and there are some mountains
not visible as they are under the sea.
The study of mountains is known as orology.
There are four types of mountains:
1. Fold Mountains
2. Block Mountains
3. Volcanic Mountains
4. Residual Mountains
l Fold Mountains: Mountains which have been thrown into
massive folds by the Earth movements are known as Fold
Mountains. Most of the mountains on the Earth are Fold
Mountains.
8 l Geography
Metamorphic Rocks
l The word metamorphic means change of form. It is the
change of form or re-crystallization of minerals under the
influence of high temperature and pressure within the
earths crust.
l These are hardest rocks and do not contain fossils.
Important Metamorphic rocks
Basic rocks Metamorphosed
Limestone Marble
Sandstone Quartzite
Shale/Clay Slate/Schist
Granite Gneiss
Gabbro Serpentine
Amphibblite Basic granulite
Basaltic rock Eclogite
Coal Graphite
Ex: The Himalayas, the Alps, Great dividing range of
Australia, Rockies and Andies.
Note: The Aravalli range in India is one of the oldest fold
mountain systems in the world.
l The Indian tectonic plate split from the ancient continent
of Gondwanaland. The collision of the Indian plate with
the Eurasian plate created the Himalaya mountain.
l Block Mountains are created when large areas are broken
and displaced vertically. The uplifted blocks are termed as
Horsts and the lowered blocks are called Graben or Rift
Valley; eg the Black Forest (Germany) and the Vosges in
France forming the Rift Valley of the Rhine.
l Volcanic Mountains: They are the result of the
accumulation of volcanic material if elevated from the bowls
of the Earth. Hence, they are also known as Mountains of
Accumulation.
Ex: Mt Kilimanjaro in Africa and Mt Fujiyama in Japan.
l Residual Mountains: The agents of denudation such as
wind, rain, frost and running water ceaselessly wear away
the soft rocks of high mountains, leaving behind the harder
rocks as remains. These are the Residual Mountains.
Note: The Residual mountains are formed out of the existing
mountains folded, block or volcanic.
Ex: Nilgiris, Parasnath, Girnar and the Rajmahal Hills
in India, Sierras of Spain and Cotskill Mountain of
New York.
 Major Mountain Ranges of the World Kyzyl Kum Uzbekistan
Range Location Dasht-e-Lut Iran
Andes South America Mojave California (USA)
Himalayas-Karakoram-Hindukush South Central Asia Patagonia Argentina
Rub-al-Khali Arabian peninsula
Rockies North America
Great Dividing Range East Australia Note: Sahara (84,00,000 km2) is the largest desert and Great
Western Ghats Western India Australian desert (15,50,000 km2) is the next largest.
Caucasus Europe, Asia
Islands
Alaska USA
Alps Europe An island is a part of land surrounded by water bodies. On
Apennines Europe the basis of their origin, islands are divided into five
Ural Asia categories:
1. Tectonic Islands: These kinds of islands originate due to
Plateaus submergence of land blocks, emergence of oceanic crust
Plateaus are extensive areas characterised by flat and rough above sea level, etc, when a tectonic movement takes place
top surface as well as steep side walls which rise above the on the Earth. Many islands in the Atlantic and the Pacific
neighbouring ground surface at least 300 metres. The height Ocean have been formed by this process.
of plateaus often varies from a few hundred metres to several 2. Depositional Islands: Such islands are formed due to

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thousand metres.
l Plateaus, like mountains, may be young or old. The Deccan
Plateau in India is one of the oldest plateaus. The East
African Plateau in Kenya, Tanzania and Uganda and the
Western Plateau of Australia are other examples.
l The Plateau of Pamir in Tibet is the highest plateau in the
world with a height of 4,000 to 6,000 metres above the sea
level.
l Plateaus are very useful because they are rich in mineral
deposits. As a result, many of the mining areas in the
deposition of debris by various natural agencies such as
rivers, glaciers and oceanic currents.
3. Erosional Islands: Soft rocks are eroded easilybut relatively
hard rocks remain as islands. For example, Greenland has
been formed by glacial erosion.
4. Volcanic Islands: Lava outflow through oceanic ridge is
sometimes so enormous that it appears above sea level
and looks like an island. Such islands are called volcanic
islands; e.g Hawaii island and Aleutian island
5. Coral Islands: These types of island are formed due to

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world are located in the plateau areas. The African plateau deposition of skeletons of lime-secreting organisms called
is famous for gold and diamond mining. coral polyps; eg Lakshadweep and the Maldives in the
l In India, huge reserves of iron, coal and manganese are Indian Ocean and Bermuda islands in the Atlantic ocean.
found in the Chhotanagpur plateau.
Largest Islands of the World
Deserts Island Location Area (sq km)
Greenland Arctic Ocean 2,175,000
Major deserts Location
New Guinea West Pacific 789,900
Sahara North Africa
Ocean
Australia Australia (includes Barberton,
Gibson, Great Victoria, Great Borneo Indian Ocean 751,000
Sandy, Sturt Stony) (Largest in Indian Ocean)
Arabian Arab countries (includes Saudi Madagascar Indian Ocean 587,041
Arabia, Syria, Nefud region, Baffin Island, Canada Arctic Ocean 5,07,451
Yemen) Sumatra, Indonesia Indian Ocean 4,22,200
Gobi Mongolia & China Honshu, Japan Northwest Pacific
Kalahari Botswana (Africa) 2,30,092
Taklamakan China Great Britain North Atlantic 2,29,849
Sonora USA & Mexico Victoria Island, Canada Arctic Ocean 2,17,290
Namib Namibia Ellesmere Island, Canada Arctic Ocean 1,96,236
Karakum Turkmenistan
Thar India and Pakistan Straits
Somali Somalia Straits join two different water bodies and separate two
Atacama Chile landmasses. These are area of commercial and strategic

Geography l 9
importance. Berring, Gibraltar, Bab-el-Mandeb, Bosphorus There are railway tunnels which join landmasses through
and Torres are straits which separate continents. straits like Tsugaru (Honshu and Hokkaido) and Dover (Britain
Gibraltar is known as the key to the Mediterranean Sea. and France).

Major straits of the world

Name Joins Location
1. Malacca Strait Andaman Sea & South China Sea Indonesia-Malaysia
2. Palk Strait Palk Bay & Bay of Bengal India-Sri Lanka
3. Sunda Strait Java Sea & Indian Ocean Indonesia
4. Yucatan Strait Gulf of Mexico & Caribbean Sea Mexico-Cuba
5. Mesina Strait Mediterranean Sea Italy-Sicily
6. Otranto Strait Adriatic Sea & Ionian Sea Italy-Albania
7. Bab-el-Mandeb Strait Red Sea & Gulf of Aden Yemen-Djibouti
8. Cook Strait S Pacific Ocean New Zealand (N & S Islands)
9. Mozambique Strait Indian Ocean Mozambique-Madagascar
10. North Channel Irish Sea & Atlantic Ocean Ireland-England
11. Taurus Strait Arafura Sea & Gulf of Sea Papua New Guinea-Australia
12. Bass Strait Tasman Sea & South Sea Australia
13. Bering Strait Bering Sea & Chuksi Sea Alaska-Russia

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14. Bonne-Fasio Strait Mediterranean Sea Corsika-Sardinia
15. Bosporus Strait Black Sea and Marmara Sea Turkey
16. Dardanelles Strait Marmara Sea and Agean Sea Turkey
17. Davis Strait Baffin Bay & Atlantic Ocean Greenland-Canada
18. Denmark Strait N Atlantic and Arctic Ocean Greenland-Iceland
19. Dover strait English Channel & North Sea England-France
20. Florida Strait Gulf of Mexico and Atlantic Ocean USA-Cuba
21. Hormuz Strait Gulf of Hudson & Atlantic Ocean Oman-Iran
22. Hudson Strait Gulf of Hudson & Atlantic Ocean Canada
23. Gibraltar Strait Mediterranean Sea & Atlantic Ocean Spain-Morocco

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24. Magellan strait Pacific and S Atlantic Ocean Chile
25. Makassar Strait Java Sea & Celebeze Sea Indonesia
26. Tsungaru Strait Japan Sea and Pacific Ocean Japan (Hokkaido-Honshu Island)
27. Tatar Strait Japan Sea & Okhotsk Sea Russia (E Russia-Sakhalin Islands)
28. Foveaux Strait S Pacific Ocean New Zealand (South Island-Stewart Island)
29. Formosa Strait S China Sea & E China Sea China-Taiwan

Important Lakes of the World Largest in Specific Terms

Name Countries (a) Volume of fresh water Baikal
Caspian Sea Kazakhstan, Russia, Turkmenistan (b) Freshwater lake Superior
Superior USA-Canada (c) Highest navigable lake Titicaca
Victoria Uganda-Kenya-Tanzania (d) Deepest lake Baikal
Aral Sea Kazakhstan-Azerbaijan (e) Saltiest lake Don Juan
Huron USA-Canada (f) Lowest lake Dead Sea
Michigan USA (g) Meteoric Crater lake (India) Lonar (in Maharashtra)
Tanganyika Burundi-Tanzania-Zambia-Zaire
Baikal Russia
Great Bear Canada
Nyasa Tanzania-Mozambique-Malawi
Great Slave Canada
Erie USA-Canada
Winnipeg Canada
Ontario USA-Canada

10 l Geography
 Volcanoes and Earthquakes
Volcanoes
A volcano is an opening, or rupture, in a planets surface or
crust which allows hot, molten rock, ash, and gases to escape
from below to the surface. Volcanic activity involving the
extrusion of rock tends to form mountains or features like
mountains over a period of time. The molten rock material
within the Earth, together with whatever gases it may contain,
is called magma. After it rises to the surface, it is spoken of as
lava.
Volcanoes have been traditionally differentiated into
active, dormant and extinct.
l An active volcano is a volcano which erupts periodically.
Ex.: Vesuvius in Italy, Strombali in Italy, Mauna Loa in
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Hawaii, Etna in Sicily (Italy), Mt Cameroon in Africa.
Cotapaxi in Ecuador, Mt Guallatiri in Chile and Ojos del
Salado in Argentina.
Note: 1. Mt Ojos del Salado: It is the most active volcano of
the world .
2. Mt Stromboli: It is known as the lighthouse of the
Mediterranean.
l A dormant volcano means a sleeping volcano. These
volcanoes have shown no sign of activity for many years
but they may become active any time.
Ex: Fujiyama in Japan, Krakatoa in Indonesia, and Barren
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Island in the Andamans.
l An extinct volcano is dead and unlikely to errupt in near
future.
Ex.: Mt Kilimanjaro in Kenya , Mt Warning in Australia,
Mt Popa in Myanmar, Mt Aconcagua (highest extinct
volcanic mountain) in Argentina, Malagasy island in the
Indian Ocean, and Mt Pelee in the West Indies.
l More than 1500 potentially active volcanoes dot the
Earths landscape, of which approximately 500 are active
at any given time.
l The Pacific Ring of Fire (circum-Pacific belt) has nearly
60% of the total active volcanoes. This region is also prone
to seismic activities (earthquake).
l Volcanic soil is very fertile.
l Yellow Stone National Park (USA) has the worlds largest
number of natural springs and geysers. It is known for the
Old Faithful geyser.
l Barren Island, lying east to the Andaman Island, is the
only confirmed active volcano in India.
Geography
Earthquakes
l Any sudden movement of a portion of the earths crust
due to a natural cause, which produces a shaking or
trembling, is known as an earthquake.
l The science of earthquake is known as seismology.
l The passage of earthquake waves is recorded by the
seismograph.
l The place within the Earth where the vibrations originate
is called the seismic focus of the earthquake.
l The point on the earths surface which is vertically above
the focus is called the epicentre.
Earthquake Waves
Earthquakes generate pulses of energy called seismic waves
that can pass through the entire Earth. Three major divisions
of seismic waves have been recognised:
1. Primary (P) Waves, of short wavelength and high
frequency, are longitudinal waves which travel through
all the mediums, including solid, liquid and gaseous. Their
average velocity is 8 km/sec.
2. Secondary (S) Waves, of short wavelength and high
frequency, are transverse waves which travel through all
the solid parts of the Earth but not the through the liquid
part of the core. Their average velocity is 4 km/sec.
3. Long (L) Waves, of long wavelength and low frequency,
are confined to the skin of the earths crust, thereby
causing most of the earthquakes structural damage. These
waves can travel through all the mediums (solids, liquids
and gases). Their average velocity is 3 km/sec.
l The magnitude of earthquakes is measured on the Richter
Scale, invented by Charles F. Richter in 1934.
l The Richter magnitudes are based on a logarithmic scale
(base 10). What this means is that for each whole number
you go up on the Richter Scale, the amplitude of the ground
motion recorded by a seismograph goes up ten times.
l The intensity of the earthquake is also measured on
Mercalli Scale invented by Giuseppe Mercalli in 1902.
This scale uses the observations of the people who
experienced the earthquake to estimate its intensity.
Tsunami: A tsunami is a series of waves that are created
when a large volume of a body of water, such as an ocean, is
rapidly displaced. Tsunami is a Japanese term which is literally
translated into great harbour wave.
Earthquakes, volcanic eruptions and other underwater
explosions, landslides, asteroid impacts, and other mass
movements above or below water, all have the potential to
generate a tsunami.
l 11
 Climatology
Climatology is the branch of science which deals with the l Clouds and various forms of condensation and
study of atmospheric components and their characteristics. precipitation occur due to water vapour.

Atmosphere Structure of the Atmosphere

Structure and composition of atmosphere
l The thick gaseous layer which surrounds the Earth and is
sustained by the Earths gravity is known as the
atmosphere.
l The height of the atmosphere is about 16-29 thousand
kilometres (according to Strahaller). However, it is
estimated that 97 per cent of the atmospheric composition
lies within 29 km.
The Earths atmosphere is composed of various
The atmosphere consists of various concentric layers of air
with varying density and temperature. Density is the highest
near the surface of the Earth and decreases with increasing
altitude.
On the basis of vertical distribution of temperature, the
atmosphere can be divided into the following layers:
1. Troposphere
l The troposphere is the lowest and most dense layer of the
atmosphere. It contains almost 75 % of the total weight of

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l
air.
component particles, which include gaseous molecules,
l The average height of the troposphere from the Earths
water vapour and particulates.
surface is about 14 km. It extends roughly to a height of 8
Composition of atmospheric air km near the poles and about 18 km at the equator.
l The thickness of the troposphere at the equator is the
Various Gases Volume in % greatest because heat is transported to a great height by
1. Nitrogen 78.8% strong conventional currents. Due to these it is also known
2. Oxygen 20.93 as the convectional layer.
3. Argon 0.93 l Due to the presence of dust particles and water vapour,
4. Carbon dioxide 0.036 almost all weather phenomena like fog, cloud, dew, frost,
5. Neon 0.018

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6. Helium 0.0005
7. Ozone 0.00006
l Oxygen is an inflammable gas. Nitrogen dilutes Oxygen
and hence controls the flammable characteristics of
Oxygen. [Oxygen will be almost in negligible quantity at a
height of 120 km.]
l Carbon dioxide is a greenhouse gas. It is transparent for
solar radiation and opaque for outgoing terrestrial
radiation. [Carbon dioxide and water vapour are found
only up to 92 km from the surface of the Earth.]
l Ozone absorbs most of the ultra-violet rays radiated from
the Sun and thus prevents the Earth from becoming too hot.
[Found between 10 and 50 km above the Earths surface].
l Water vapour acts like a blanket for the Earth, allowing it
neither to become too hot nor too cold. Because it absorbs
parts of insulation from the Sun and also preserves the
earths radiated heat.
l The sky appears blue due to selective scattering of solar
radiation.
l From the meteorological standpoint the solid particles are
more important. It is because many of them act as
hygroscopic nucleii around which water vapour is
condensed to produce water drops.
rainfall, hailstorm, cloud-thunder, lightning, etc occur in
this layer.
l The temperature in this layer decreases at the rate of 1C
for every 165m of height.
Note: Aviators of jet aeroplanes often avoid this layer due to
the presence of bumpy air pockets.
l There is a transition zone between Troposphere and
Stratosphere which is called Tropopause.
2. Stratosphere
l The stratosphere extends up to a height of 50 km beyond
the troposphere.
l In the lower part of this layer, i.e. up to a height of 20 km,
temperature remains constant. Afterwards, it gradually
increases up to a height of 50 km.
l The maximum density of Ozone occurs between 20 km and
35 km. Therefore it is called the ozone layer.
l Clouds are almost absent in the stratosphere and there is
very little dust or water vapour. Hence, it provides ideal
flying conditions for large jet aeroplanes.
l In the uppermost part of stratosphere the temperature is
found up to 0C.
l The upper limit of the stratopshere is called stratopause.

12 l Geography
3. Mesosphere
l Beyond the stratosphere lies the mesosphere. It extends
up to 80 km from the stratosphere.
l Further, in this layer also, temperature is decreasing with
increase in height and at the height of 80 km it stands up
to -100 oC.
l The uppermost part of this layer is known as mesopause.
4. Thermosphere
The atmospheric layer beyond mesopause is known as
thermosphere. In thermosphere, the temperature increases
rapidly with increase in height.
Thermosphere is divided into two layers:
(i) Ionosphere
l Ionosphere extends from 80 km to 400 km.
l Temperature rises in this layer rapidly and reaches up to
1000 oC in its uppermost part.
l The radio waves transmitted from this layer are reflected
back to the Earth from this layer.
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(ii) Exosphere
l The uppermost layer of the atmosphere extending beyond
the ionosphere above to a height of about 400 km is known
as the exosphere.
l This layer is extremely rarefied and gradually merges with
the outer space.
l This layer contains the atoms of oxygen, hydrogen and
helium.
Temperature of the Atmosphere
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l Insolation is the incoming solar radiation. It is received in
the form of short wave. The earths surface receives this
radiant energy at the rate of two calories per square
centimetres per minute (2 cal/cm2/minute). This is known
as Solar Constant.
Heating and Cooling of the Atmosphere
l Air, like all other substances, may be heated in three ways:
Radiation, Conduction and Convection.
l Radiation is direct heating of a body or an object by
transmission of heat waves. This is the only mechanism in
which heat can travel through the emptiness of space.
This is the most important way of transmission of heat.
l Earth receives heat from solar radiation in the form of short
waves and emits energy in the form of long waves, which is
called terrestrial radiation.
l The earths atmosphere is transparent to insolation but it
is nearly opaque to long-wave terrestrial radiation since
gases such as water vapour and carbon dioxide are good
absorbers of long wave radiation.
l The atmosphere is therefore heated more by terrestrial
radiation than the incoming solar radiation.
l Transfer of heat through matter by molecular activity is
Geography
called conduction. Transfer of heat by the management of
a mass or substance from one place to another is called
convection.
Heat Budget
l The balance between the amount of insolation received
from the Sun and the outgoing terrestrial radiation is known
as the Earths heat budget.
Pressure Belts and Wind System
l The gases that comprise air create pressure through their
motion, size, and number. This pressure is exerted on all
surfaces in contact with the air. The atmosphere exerts an
average force of approximately 1 kg/cm2.
l At sea level, under the influence of gravity, air is
compressed and is, therefore, denser near the Earths
surface. It rapidly thins with increased altitude.
l The air pressure is measured with the help of an instrument
known as barometer, which was developed by Torricelli.
A more compact design that works without a metre-long
tube of mercury is called an aneroid barometer.
l The distribution of atmospheric pressure is shown on a
map by isobars.
Note: An isobar is an imaginary line drawn through places
having equal atmopsheric pressure selected to sea level.
l The normal pressure at sea level is taken to be about 76
centimetres.
l The units used by meteorologists for this purpose is called
millibars (mb).
One millibar is equal to the force of 1 gram on a centimetre.
l
It will be called the weight of column of mercury 75 cm
height.
Pressure Belts of the Earth
(a) The Equatorial Low Pressure Belt: At the Equator
there is a broad discontinuous belt of low pressure. The Earth
receives maximum heat in this region with the result that the
air is always hot and therefore becomes lighter. It is, therefore,
a belt of rising air, calm and variable winds. It is also referred
to as the Doldrums. Though it is a region of calm, local
thunderstorms occur frequently.
(b) The Sub-Tropical High Pressure Belts: The two belts
of sub-tropical highs, sometimes called the Horse Latitude,
lie just outside the Tropics at approximately 30 to 35 north
and south. They are caused by the piling up of the air due to
the differences in the speed of rotation of the Earth which
affects the masses of air moving from the Equator and the
poles. The warm air rising up from the Equator blows at high
level towards the Poles but a part of it, having cooled,
descends in this region. The air blowing from the circum-
polar low pressure belts also descends in this region, thus
adding to the already high pressure existing in this region.
l 13
On land it is the belt of deserts, widest in Africa and Asia
where there is most land.
N.P.
60
30
0 nomenclature is usually derived from the regional language.
30
60
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(c) The Circum-Polar Low Pressure Belts (or Sub-Polar
Lows) in the vicinity of 60 and 65 north and south are
caused largely by the roation of the Earth. Ordinarily it should
be a high pressure belt because of very cool air. But the air is
rising here and the envelope of air is thin chiefly because
rotation swings the bulk of the air towards the equator.
(d) The High Pressure Belts at the Poles: Beyond the
Sub-Polar Lows, pressure appears to rise with increasing
latitudes, so that at the Poles themselves there are high
pressure centres. These are probably caused by extreme cold
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for cold air is dense and heavy. The polar regions have
permanent ice caps.
Winds System
l The horizontal movement of air is called wind. It originates
due to a horizontal difference in air pressure that creates a
pressure gradient and air blows from high pressure to low
pressure areas.
Note: The spacing of isobars expresses the rate and direction
of pressure change and it is referred to as pressure
gradient.
l The vertical or nearly vertical movement of air is referred
to as air current. Winds and air currents together comprise
a system of circulation in the atmosphere.
l Due to rotation of the Earth, winds do not cross the isobars
at right angles as the pressure gradient force directs but get
deflected from their original path. This deviation is the result
of the Earths movements and is called the Coriolis force.
l According to Ferrels Law, the wind in the northern
hemisphere is deflected towards right hand side and in
southern hemisphere towards left hand side. This happens
due to higher rotating speed at the Equator in comparison
to the Poles.
14 l Geography
Types of Wind
Winds can be divided into three categories:
1. Planetary Winds: Planetary winds or prevailing winds
that blow throughout the year from one latitude to another
in response to the latitudinal differences in air pressure.
2. Periodic Winds: Periodic winds reverse their direction
periodically with seasons. For example, monsoon winds.
3. Local Winds: There are certain winds in different parts of
the world which flow in comparatively small areas and have
special characteristics. These are called local winds and their
Planetary Winds
Planetary winds blow over vast areas of the globe. The two
most prevalent planetary winds are Trade Winds and Westerly
Winds.
1. Trade Winds: The winds blowing from the sub-tropical
high pressure belts to the equatorial low pressure belt.
These winds are extremely steady and consistent
throughout the year.
2. The Westerlies: The winds blowing from the sub-tropical
high pressure belts towards the sub-polar low pressure
belts are known as Westerlies.
Periodic Winds
Land and sea breeze come under this category.
Land and Sea Breezes
l During the day, the greater heating of the land causes the
air to ascend, causing a low pressure area over land and
the cool heavy air from the sea moves in to take its place.
This is Sea Breeze.
l During the night, the land cools quickly so that it is colder
than the sea. A low pressure area is caused over the sea
and the cooler heavier air from the land begins to flow
towards the sea. This is Land Breeze.
Local Winds
Some of the important local winds, their regions of occurrence,
and their characteristics are given below:
l Blizzard (Greenland, Canada, and Antarctica): It is
intensely cold, high wind accompanied by snowing.
l Bora (Adriatic Sea): It descends form the mountains
during the winter season. It blows with a speed of 120 to
150 kmph. Its duration may be from three to five days.
l Brick fielder: It blows from the desert of Australia during
the summer season (December to February).
l Buran (Central Asia and Siberia): It is a strong and cold
north-easterly wind which reduces the temperature up to
-30oC.
l Gibli: Blowing from the Sahara desert towards the
Mediterranean Sea in Libya, it is an extremely scorching
local wind. It blows during the summer season. It may last
from three to four days.
l Haboob (Sudan): It is a hot wind which blows during
summers.
l Harmattan: In West Africa, the North-East trade winds
blow offshore from the Sahara Desert and reach the Guinea
coast as a dry wind called the Harmattan.
l Karaburn (Tarim Basin-China): It blows from March to
May and leads to hazy weather. It is also responsible for
the deposition of loess in the Hwang Ho Valley.
l Loo or hot wind (North-Western India): It blows from
April to June. Its temperature ranges between 45C and
50C, which is hot enough to cause sunstrokes.
l Mistral (Rhone Valley of France): It is a cold wind which
blows during winters with a speed of over 120 kmph. Grape
orchards are adversely affected by it.
l Pampero (Pampas of Argentina): It is a cold and dry wind
which blows during the winter season.
l Samoon (Iran and Kurdistan): It is a hot wind which blows
during summer months.
l Simmom (Saudi Arbia): It is a hot wind which blows from
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March to July.
l Sirocco (Algeria): It blows from the Sahara desert towards
Malta and Sicily during the months of April to July. It is
generally hot and humid. It has other local names: Khamsin
(Egypt), Chile (Tunisia), Sirocco ((Italy), Leveche (Spain).
l Berg (Germany): It descends from the Alps Mountains.
It helps in the melting of snow during the winter months.
l Chinook (snow and ice eater): It blows in Colorado,
Montana, North Dakota, Oregon, and Wyoming (USA)
and in Alberta, Manitoba, Mackenzie (Canada) between
December and March. Warm and dry, it helps in the melting
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of snow and ice. It is also known as ice eater.
l Fohn (Foehn or Fon): It is the name given to the hot dry
wind which blows down the leeward slope of a mountain.
This is best known in the valleys of the northern Alps, for
example, in Switzerland.
l Levant or Levanter: It is an easterly or North-East wind
that rises in the central Mediterranean or around the
Balearic Islands and blows westwards, reaching its greatest
intensity through the Strait of Gibraltar.
l Tramontana: It is a cold dry North or North-East wind in
the western Mediterranean basin. The name is applied
commonly to any wind blowing down from the mountains
as in Italy and Spain.
l Southerly Buster: It is a strong dry wind bringing usually
low temperature. It is a dry bitterly cold wind bringing
especially low temperature in winter to parts of Argentina
and Uruguay.
l Friagem: It is a type of cold strong wind experienced on
the Pampas of Brazil and in East Bolivia.
l Northern Wind: It is cold, dry North winter wind bringing
low temperature to Texas and the Gulf Coast of the USA. It
is a form of polar outbreak where a cold air mass moves
south across the North American continent, unimpeded
Geography
by any transverse relief barrier, A similar wind, Norte,
affects the coast of Mexico and central America.
l Papagayo: It is a type of dry, strong, cold North-East wind
bringing low temperature and clear weather in winter to
the coast of Mexico.
l Santa Ana: It is a hot and dry wind blowing from the North
and North-East, descending from the Sierra Nevada across
the deserts of south California.
l Dust Devil: It is a short live swirling wind round a small
low pressure nucleus which is the result of intense local
surface heating and convection. It whips up dust to form
a rapidly moving pillar. It is found in Sahara, Kalahari,
central and western parts of the US and mid-west.
l Karaburan: It is a strong dust-laden North-East wind in
the Tarim basin of central Asia.
Moisture in the Atmosphere
l Moisture in the atmosphere means the water vapour
present in the atmosphere. Water may be present in the
atmosphere in all the three forms of matter, viz. solid (ice),
liquid (water) and gas (vapour).
l Moisture or water in the atmosphere causes clouds to
form, fog to cover the landscape, and humidity to thicken
the air. It also causes rain, snow and hail.
Clouds
l A cloud is a visible mass of droplet or frozen crystals
floating in the atmosphere above the surface of the Earth
or other planetary bodies. A cloud is also a visible mass
attracted by gravity.
l The branch of meteorology in which clouds are studied is
nephology or cloud physics.
Clouds are classified into the following 10 categories by
the World Meteorological Organisation:
1. Cirrus Clouds: These are high-altitude clouds. They are
composed of tiny ice-crystals. Therefore they do not cause
rainfall. These clouds are seen first when cyclones arrive.
2. Cirro-Stratus Clouds: These clouds are generally white
in colour and spread in the sky like thin sheets. These are
transparent clouds and create a halo around the Sun and
the moon. These are also an indicator of the arrival of
cyclone.
3. Cirro-Cumulus Clouds: These are white-coloured clouds
having patches of small globules which are arranged in
distinct groups or wave-like form. They generally appear
as ripples similar to sand ripples in the desert.
4. Alto-Stratus Clouds: These are thin sheets of grey or
blue clouds having fibrous or uniform appearance. They
yield widespread and continued precipitation.
5. Alto-Cumulus Clouds: These clouds are characterised
by white and gray wavy layers or globular forms. High
l 15
 globular groups of alto-cumulus are sometimes called
sheep clouds or wool pack clouds.
6. Stratus Clouds: These are dense, low-lying fog-like clouds
of dark grey colour, but are seldom close to the ground
surface.
7. Cumulo-Stratus Clouds: These are grey and whitish-
colour clouds. They are generally composed of globular
masses or rolls, which are arranged in lines, waves or
groups. Generally they cover the entire sky in winter. They
are generally associated with fair or clean weather.
8. Cumulus Clouds: These are dense, widespread and dome-
shaped clouds with flat bases. They are associated with
fair or clean weather.
9. Cumulo-Nimbus Clouds: These are thunderstorm clouds.
They are very dark and dense. They show great vertical
development and are spread over a large area. They are
associated with heavy rainfall, hailstorm, thunder, etc.
10. Nimbo-Stratus Clouds: These are clouds of great vertical
development. They are low clouds of dark colour and close
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to the ground surface. They are associated with heavy
rainfall.
Humidity
l Humidity is a measure of the water vapour content of the
air. The amount of water vapour in the air depends on the
controls over evaporation, i.e. depends upon temperature.
If the temperature rises then air can hold more water vapour.
l Air containing moisture to its full capacity at a given
temperature is said to be saturated (when relative humidity
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is 100%). The temperature at which saturation occurs is
known as dew point.
There are several ways in which humidity of air can be
expressed:
1. Absolute Humidity: The actual amount of water vapour in
a given volume of air at a particular temperature is called
absolute humidity.
2. Relative humidity: The ratio of the absolute humidity of a
given mass of air to the maximum amount of water vapour
it can hold at the same temperature is called relative
humidity.
3. Specific humidity: Specific humidity is the weight of water
vapour per unit weight of air, expressed as grams per
kilogram of air.
Fog
Fog is the dense mass of small water drops on smoke or dust
particles in the lower layers of the atmosphere. It is essentially
a cloud on the surface of the Earth. A fog will arise also when
a warm damp current of air passes over a cold surface.
Precipitation
In meteorology, precipitation is any product of the
condensation of atmospheric water vapour that is deposited
on the earths surface.
16 l Geography
Forms of Precipitation
Precipitation includes rain, drizzle, snow, sheet and hail. A
brief account of the different types of precipitation has been
given as under:
Rain
l Rain is a type of precipitation. The liquid water particles
are in the form of either drops of more than 0.5 mm diameter
or smaller widely scattered drops.
Types of Rainfall
1. Relief (Orographical) Rainfall: This is the most wide-
spread form of rainfall. It occurs when mountains stand in the
path of moisture-laden winds and force them to rise. As the
air rises, it expands and cools, and rain falls. Relief rainfall
may often be heavy, especially where a high, continuous
mountain barrier lies close to a coast and the rain-bearing
winds meet it at right angles.
2. Convectional Rainfall: Where due to conduction the
air near the surface at any place becomes warmer than the
surrounding air, it begins to rise in the form of convection
currents. As it reaches the upper layers of the atmosphere, it
cools and rain falls.
l Convection currents are normally set up in the atmosphere
as a result of local heating. The currents rise up at the centre
and are drawn up at the sides. The very rapid rising of the
warm moist air results in the formation of cumulo-nimbus
clouds, which may be several kilometres in depth and may
give very heavy rain, but the rainfall does not last long. We
speak of it as thunder-showers rather than thunder rain.
l Convectional rainfall is common within the tropics,
especially in the equatorial belt, where it occurs almost
every day in the afternoons.
3. Cylonic Rainfall: It is associated with a cyclonic
circulation. The cyclonic rainfall is more effective for
agriculture as the process of run-off is slow.
Snow
l It is a precipitation of white and opaque grains of snow. In
other words, snow is precipitation of solid water.
l Generally, in winter season, when temperatures are below
freezing point, the ice crystals falling from the alto-stratus
clouds do not melt and reach the ground as snow.
Sleet
l Sleet is a type of precipitation in the form of a mixture of
rain and snow. It is frozen rain which forms when rain,
while falling to the earth, passes through a layer of very
cold air mass or freezes.
l Sometimes sleet may grow into hailstorms when violent
vertical currents are produced in the atmosphere.
Hail
l Hail consists of the hard pellets of ice which fall from
cumulo-nimbus clouds and are often associated with
thunderstorms. They are of various shapes and sometimes
they have been known to weigh nearly 1 kg. A severe hail-
storm can cause great damage to growing crops.
Dew
Dew is the moisture deposited on the earths surface, or on
objects near to the earths surface such as blades of grass
and small bushes. It occurs at night under calm, clear
conditions when radiation from the ground has cooled the
lower layers of the atmosphere below the Dew Point and the
water vapour has condensed into drops. Calm weather and a
clear sky provide the best conditions for production of dew.
Cyclones and Anti-Cyclones
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Cyclones
Cyclones and anti-cyclones are known as variable winds. A
cyclone is a dynamically or thermally caused low pressure
area of converging and ascending air flow, while an anti-
cyclone is a dynamically or thermally caused area of high
atmospheric pressure with descending and diverging air flow.
Cyclones originate as a wave along a front separating two
masses of air differing in temperature, density and direction.
They bring rain because in a cyclone the warm moist air is
made to rise over a mass of cold heavier air.
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A cyclone is always on the move and follows in the
direction of the regular wind system in the particular area.
l Cyclones are low pressure zones surrounded by high
pressure zones. Air moves inward from high to low pressure
zone and, under the influence of Coriolis force, whirrs
Oceanography
The oceanic part of the Earth is divided into four oceans:
1. The Pacific Ocean 2. The Atlantic Ocean
3. The Indian Ocean 4. The Arctic Ocean
The various seas, bays, gulfs and other inlets are parts of
these four large oceans.
Oceans and Seas
l The oceans comprise more than 70% of the earths
surface.
l They act as savings bank for solar energy, storing the
Geography
anticlockwise in Northern Hemisphere and clockwise in
Southern Hemisphere.
l Tropical cyclones have diameters of 100 to 500 kilometres.
These are known by different names in different regions,
such as:
(i) Hurricanes: These are tropical storms in West Indies
and Gulf of Mexico which usually occur in August-
September. These may bring thunderstorm and
torrential rain. Wind blows at 160 to 180 kmph.
(ii) Typhoons: These are tropical storms in the China Sea
along the coast of China and Japan. These are similar
to Hurricanes of USA, which may bring thunderstorm
and torrential rain. The winds blow at a speed of 160 to
180 kmph.
(iii) Cyclones: These are tropical low pressure systems
occuring on the Indian coast in Bay of Bengal and
Arabian Sea. These whirl with a wind speed of 280 to
300 kmph. These also bring thunderstorm and rain.
(iv)Willy-Willy: These are tropical storm which originate
in the coast of North-West Australia.
(v) Tornadoes: These are also called Twisters in the USA.
These are very intense and occur in Mississippi-
Missouri basin in the USA. These are accompanied
by dark funnel-shaped clouds. Winds are very violent
with speed of 350 to 500 kmph. These are most intense
cyclones.
Anti-cyclones
An anti-cyclone is an area of high atmospheric pressure
which goes on diminishing outward from the centre. The
winds are usually light and blow clockwise in the Northern
Hemisphere (anti-clockwise in the Southern Hemisphere).
The anti-cyclones do not move in any definite direction.
The weather associated with anticyclones is mainly fine
and dry in summer.
excess during summers and daytime and repaying back
during nights and winters.
l Because of their surface area, the seas receive almost 71
per cent of all incoming Sun energy.
l The seas are much warmer in equatorial latitudes than in
polar latitudes.
l Bromine and Sulphur, which are otherwise rare on land,
can be abundantly sourced from oceans.
l Polymetallic nodules of copper, magnesium and cobalt are
also found on the sea floor.
l There are over 90 different possible ways to obtain energy
l 17
 from oceans. Prominent among them are wave energy, wind
energy and tidal energy.
Relief of the Ocean Floor
l The floors of the oceans are rugged with the worlds largest
mountain ranges, deepest trenches and largest plains.
l A proper mapping of the ocean bottom has been possible
by the indirect measurement of ocean depth with the help
of SONAR (Sound Navigation and Ranging).
In general, ocean floors can be divided into four major
divisions:
1. The Continental Shelf 2. The Continental Slope
3. Deep Sea Plain 4. Ocean Deeps
Continental Shelf
l It is the shallowest part of the ocean showing an average
gradient of 1 or even less.
l It is the seaward extension of the continent from the
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shoreline to the continental edge.
l The shallowness of the shelf enables sunlight to penetrate
through the water, which encourages growth of minute
plants and other microscopic organisms.
l Continental shelves are, thus, rich in plankton, on which
millions of surface and bottom-feeding fishes thrive.
l Marine food comes almost entirely from continental
shelves.
l Continental shelves are the richest fishing grounds in the
world, e.g. the Grand Bank off Newfoundland, the Dogger
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Bank of North Sea and the Sunda Shelf of South-East
Asia.
l The shelves are also potential mining sites for minerals. A
significant portion of the world production of petroleum
and natural gas comes from them.
l The slope of the shelf is usually gentle, but beyond the
180-metre line it descends steeply to the bed of the ocean.
This line is called the continental edge. It represents the
former boundary of the continents.
Continental Slope
l The steep slope which descends from the edge of the
continental shelf to the deep ocean bed is known as the
continental slope.
Deep Sea Plains
l The deep sea plains are wide and almost level areas forming
most of the ocean floor. They are generally 3 to 5 km below
sea level.
Ocean Deeps
l In some places these plains plunge to great depths known
as ocean deeps. Most of the deeps occur around the shores
of the Pacific.
18 l Geography
l The deepest is the Mariana Trench in the Pacific, about
10,800 m below sea level.
Ocean Reliefs
The Pacific Ocean
l This ocean is the largest of all the water bodies. Together
with its associated seas, it covers about one-third of the
earths surface and exceeds the total land area of the world
in size.
l Its shape is roughly triangular with its apex in the north at
the Bering Strait.
l The Pacific is the deepest of all oceans.
l The major portion of the basin has an average depth of
about 7,300 metres.
l This vast ocean is dotted with more than 20,000 islands.
l The Northern Pacific is the deepest part of the ocean.
l The Mariana trench is more than 10,000 metres deep. It is
the worlds deepest and is also known as Challenger
Trench.
The Atlantic Ocean
l The Atlantic Ocean has the longest coastline.
l It is the busiest Ocean for trade and commerce since its
shipping routes connect the two most industrialised
regions, namely Western Europe and North-East USA.
l It is roughly half the size of the Pacific Ocean and covers
about one-sixth of the earths total area.
l It resembles the letter S in shape.
l The Hudson Bay, the Baltic Sea, and the North Sea are
located on the shelves.
l The most striking feature of the Atlantic Ocean is the
presence of the mid-Atlantic Ridge.
l The Atlantic Ocean extends from the north to the south,
paralleling the S shape of the ocean itself.
l There are some coral islands such as Bermuda and volcanic
islands like Ascension and Tristan da Cunha.
l The Labrador current flows along part of east coast of
Canada. It meets the warm Gulf Stream at the Grand
Banks southeast of Newfoundland and again north of
the Outer Banks of North Carolina. The combination of
these two currents, one hot and the other cold, produces
heavy fogs and also creates one of the richest fishing
grounds in the world.
The Indian Ocean
l The two great bays on either side of the peninsula of
India, namely, the Bay of Bengal and the Arabian Sea,
belong to the Indian Ocean.
l The Indian Ocean is dotted with thousands of small islands,
some of which are of coral formation, for example, the
 Maldives and Coco islands, while others like the Mauritius l Sri Lanka and Malagasy are continental islands.
and the Reunions are volcanic. l The principal rivers draining into it are the Zambezi, the
Indus, the Ganga and the Irrawaddy.

Deepest Sea Trenches

SI. Name Ocean Deepest Point Depth (in m)
1. Mariana Trench West Pacific Challenger Deep 11,034
2. Tonga-Kermadec Trench South Pacific Vityaz 11 (Tonga) 10,850
3. Kuril-Kachatka Trench West Pacific 10,542
4. Philippine Trench North Pacific Galathea Deep 10,539
5. Puerto Rico Trench West Atlantic Milwaukee Deep 8,648

Salinity & Temperature l The oceans in the Northern Hemisphere record relatively
higher average temperature than in the Southern
Hemisphere.
Salinity l The maximum temperature of the oceans is always at their
l The major characteristic feature of oceans and seas is surface because they directly receive the heat from the
their salinity. Sun and the heat is transmitted to the lower sections of
the oceans through the process of convection.

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l The imaginary line joining the places of same salinity is
called isohaline.
l The instrument with which salinity of the sea water is Coral Reefs
measured is called salinometer.
l Coral reefs are formed due to accumulation and
l The salinity of the inland seas and lakes is very high
solidification of skeletons of lime-secreting organism
because of the regular supply of salt by the rivers falling
known as coral polyps.
into them. Their water becomes progressively more saline
l Coral reefs are formed in the tropical seas (25N to 25S)
due to evaporation.
up to a depth of 200-300 ft along some islands or coasts
l Salinity determines compressibility, thermal expansion,
on the submarine platforms, where the Suns rays reach.
temperature, absorption of isolation, evaporation and
l The ideal temperature for their growth is 20-25C.
humidity.
High salinity and fresh water both are harmful for their

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l
Most Saline Water Bodies growth.
Great Salt Lake (USA) Types of Coral reefs
Dead Sea (West Asia)
1. Fringing Reef: Coral reefs developed along the coasts
Lake Van (Turkey)
are called fringing reefs. Examples: Gulf of Mannar (India),
Composition of Sea Water Southern Florida (USA), etc.
Of the total salt contents found in seawater, the most abundant 2. Barrier Reef: The coral reefs of the coastal platforms are
salt is Sodium Chloride (NaCl) about (78%). called barrier reefs. There is extensive but shallow lagoon
Salt Percentage between the coastal land and the reef. Great Barrier Reef,
Sodium Chloride (NaCl) 77.8 located parallel to the east coast of Australia, is the largest
Magnesium Chloride (MgCl2) 10.9 of all the barrier reefs of the world. It stretches to a length
Magnesium Sulphate (MgSO4) 4.7 of 1200 miles.
Calcium Sulphate (CaSO4) 3.6 3. Coral Ring or Atoll: A ring of narrow-growing corals of
Potassium Sulphate (K2SO4) 2.5 horseshoe shape is called atoll. It is generally found around
Others 0.5 an island or in elliptical form on a submarine platform.
There is a lagoon in the middle of the coral ring. Examples:
Temperature Fiji Atoll, Funafuti Atoll, etc.
l The temperature decreases according to the increasing
depth of the ocean. Currents of Oceans
l On an average, the temperature of surface water of the l Ocean currents can broadly be divided into two classes:
oceans is 26.70C and the temperature gradually decreases warm currents and cold currents.
from the Equator towards the Poles. l Generally, the currents flowing from the equator to the

Geography l 19
 poles are warm and those flowing from the poles to the Falkland Current Cold
equator are cold. Benguela Current Cold
l Another point to remember is that the Coriolis force caused Currents of Indian Ocean
by the rotation of the Earth results in ocean currents
following curved paths. Current Nature
l Sargasso Sea, situated between 20-40 N and 35-75 W, Mozambique Warm
is a sea surrounded by currents, i.e. it does not have any Agulhas Warm
coast. This is the warmest and most saline part of the S-W Monsoon Current Warm and unstable
Atlantic Ocean. N-E Monsoon Current Cold and unstable
Somali Current Cold and unstable
Currents of Pacific Ocean West Australian Cold and Stable
Current Nature South Indian Ocean Current Cold
Kuroshio Warm
Oyashio or Kuril Cold Tides
Okhotsk Cold
Alaskan Warm l Tides are the rise and fall of sea levels caused by the
California Cold combined effects of the gravitational forces exerted by
East Australian Warm the Moon and the Sun and the rotation of the Earth. The
Peruvian/Humboldt Cold sea wave tides are also called tidal waves.
l The sea water rises regularly twice a day at constant

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Counter Equatorial Warm
South Equatorial Warm intervals.
El Nino Warm l The Moon exerts the strongest influence on tides because
Antarctica Cold of its closeness to Earth.
North Equatorial Warm l Spring tides: They are the high tides when the Moon, the
Earth and the Sun are in a straight line. They occur during
Currents of Atlantic Ocean the new moon and the full moon.
Current Nature l Neap tides: The position is in quadrature, i.e. the Sun, the
Gulf Stream Warm Earth and the Moon are in a right angle. They occur during
Florida Warm the moons first and third quarter. The gravitational forces
North Atlantic Drifts Warm of the Moon and the Sun are perpendicular to one another

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Norwegian Current Warm (with respect to the Earth) and thus low tide is formed.
Irminger Current Warm
Rennell Current Warm Facts about Tides
Labrador Current Cold (i) It takes 24 hours and 52 minutes for the rotating Earth
Canary Current Cold to bring the same meridian vertically below the Moon
Eastern Greenland Current Cold everyday. Hence, tides occur at regular intervals of 12
South Equatorial Current Warm hours and 26 minutes.
Brazilian current Warm (ii) Generally, tides occur twice a day. But Southampton,
Antilles Current Warm along the southern coast of England, experiences tides
South Atlantic Drifts Cold four times a day.

Biomes
A biome is often referred to as a global-scale community of biomes of the world have been divided into the following five
plants and animals and is the largest subdivision of the categories:
biosphere. It may contain various smaller ecosystems. 1. Forest Biome
2. Savanna Biome
Major biomes of the world 3. Grassland Biome
4. Desert Biome
On the basis of availability of soil, water and temperature, the 5. Tundra Biome

20 l Geography
1. Forest Biome
It is further divided into two broad groups and six sub-groups.
A. Evergreen Forests
(i) Tropical Evergreen Rainforests
l Due to heavy rainfall and abundant heat throughout the
year, very dense, high and most diverse forests are found
in the equatorial and tropical coastal regions .
l The trees of these forests include mahogany, rosewood,
and mangroves in the deltaic regions. Twelve per cent of
the earths surface is covered with these forests.
l These are the most biologically diversified forests on the
Earth.
l Major regions of these forests are Amazon basin, Congo
basin, Guinea coast of Africa, Java and Sumatra.
l In Brazil, these forests are called Selvas.
(ii) Mid-Latitude Evergreen Forests
l These are the rainforests on the eastern coasts of the
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continents in the temperate regions.
l Broad-leaf trees like oak, laurel, magnolia and eucalyptus
are the major trees of these forests.
l Major areas covered with these forests are southern China,
Japan, southeast USA, southern Brazil etc.
(iii) Mediterranean Forests
l These forests are found on the western margin of the
continents in the temperate regions, where rainfall generally
occurs in winter season.
l Major tree species of these forests are cork, oak, olive,
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chestnut, pine etc.
(iv) Coniferous Forests
l They are also known as Taiga.
l These are the soft-wood tree forests found around the
North Pole in the mountainous parts of Europe, Asia and
North America.
l Major trees of these forests are fur, hamlock, spruce,
deodar, pine etc. The growth of these trees is restricted
only to the summer season.
B. Deciduous Forests
Geography
(v) Mid-Latitude Deciduous Forests
l These forests are found in the colder coastal parts of the
continents. These forests cover the parts of north-eastern
USA, southern Chile etc.
l Major trees of these forests are oak, birch, walnut, maple,
ash, chestnut etc.
(vi) Tropical Deciduous or Monsoon Forests
l These forests cover the monsoon regions of Asia, Brazil,
Central America and Northern Australia. The regions
covered with these forests have a distinct dry season
after which the rainfall occurs.
l Major trees of this biome are sal, teak, bamboo etc.
2. Savanna Biome
l Wet-dry tropical climate is found in this biome. This is a
parkland region dominated by grasslands.
l Africa, India, Brazil and eastern Australia are the major
regions where this biome is found.
Note: Savanna is known as the natural zoo of the world.
3. Grassland Biome
This biome is further divided into two categories:
(i) Semi-Arid Continental Grasslands
l These grasslands are called Veld in South Africa, Pampas
in Brazil and Steppe in North America, Europe and Russia.
(ii) Mid-Latitude Wet Grasslands
l These are the regions of high and dense grass in wet
temperate climate.
l These are called Prairies in North America, Pampas in
South America, Downs in Australia, Canterbury in New
Zealand and Pustaz in Hungary.
4. Desert Biome
l This biome is normally devoid of vegetation. Only short
shrubs, cacti, acacia and date trees are found here.
5. Tundra Biome
l The only vegetation in this region is lichen, algae, moss
and small herbs.
l The people inhabiting this biome are called Eskimos.
l 21
 Agriculture
Major crops of the world and 3. Sericulture: Rearing of silk worms, including plantation
of mulberry trees
their producer countries 4. Horticulture: Production of various fruits
5. Oliviculture: Cultivation of olives
Crops Producer countries
6. Arboriculture: Cultivation of various types of trees and
1. Rice China, India, Indonesia, Bangladesh,
shrubs
Vietnam, Thailand
7. Apiculture: Rearing of honeybees for the production
2. Wheat China, India, USA, Russia
of honey
3. Barley Russia, Australia, Ukraine
8. Floriculture: Cultivation of various types of flowers
4. Oat Russia, Canada, USA
9. Silviculture: Activity related to the conservation and
5. Maize USA, China, Brazil, Mexico
development of forests
6. Oil-Seeds USA, China, India
10. Vegiculture: It is the primitive type of agriculture
7. Soyabean USA, Brazil, China
practised by the early man of south-eastern Asia
8. Sugarcane Brazil, India, China, Thailand
11. Olericulture: Cultivation of vegetables
9. Sugar beet France, Germany, USA

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12. Mariculture: Raring of organisms (shrimps, oysters etc)
10. Tea China, India, Sri Lanka
13. Vermiculture: Rearing of earthworms
11. Coffee Brazil, Vietnam, Colombia
14. Moriculture: Cultivating of mulberry for silkworm
12. Cocoa Ivory Coast, Costa Rica, Ecuador
15. Aeroponics: Plantation of trees, without surface, in air
13. Cotton China, USA, India, Pakistan
16. Pomology: Science of fruits
14. Tobacco China, USA, India, Brazil
15. Rubber Thailand, Indonesia, Malaysia, India,
China
Major Products of Animal Husbandry
16. Pulses India, Brazil and China
Milk and Milk Products
Shifting Cultivations of the World l India is the largest producer of milk and milk products.

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l Other producing countries of milk products: USA, Canada,
Name Region Russia, Australia and New Zealand.
1. Ray Vietnam and Laos
Meat
2. Caingin Philippines
3. Taungya Myanmar l Meat is mainly obtained from cattle, buffalo, sheep, goat
4. Tamrai Thailand and pig.
5. Chena Sri Lanka l Argentina, Australia and New Zealand are famous for their
6. Ladang Java and Malaysia meat production.
7. Humah Java and Indonesia Wool
8. Tavi Madagascar l Wool is obtained from sheep, goat, camel, llama etc. In
9. Roka Brazil terms of productivity and quality, wool obtained from
sheep is the most important.
Some Scientific Terms for Cultivation l Australia, New Zealand, Argentina and South Africa are
1. Viticulture: Cultivation of grapes important wool-producing countries of the world.
2. Pisciculture/Aquaculture: Breeding of fish l Best-quality wool is obtained from Merino.

22 l Geography
 Worlds Resources
Mineral Resources Major mining centres
l Mexico: Chihuahua, Hildaho
1. Iron ore l Canada: Ontario, British Columbia, Quebec
l USA: Utah, Montana, Arizona, Colorado
Main ores are magnetite, haemetite, limonite, siderite and
Major producer countries
pyrite.
Mexico, Peru, USA, Australia
Major mining centres
l Ukraine: Magnetogorsk mountain and Kujnets 7. Tin
l Brazil: Minas Gerais region (Itabira hills) Major mining centres
l China: Manchuria, Shantung and Xhansi l Malaysia: Salangore, Penang island, Jelubu valley
l USA: Lake Superior region (Mesabi range) and Alabama l Indonesia: Banka, Malacca strait
State l China: Yunnan, Hunnan
Major producer countries Major producer countries
China, Brazil, Australia, Russia, India China, Indonesia, Peru
2. Manganese 8. Lead

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Major mining centres Main ore: Galena
l Georgia: Chiatura in Black Sea region Major mining centres
l Brazil: Amapa region l Australia: Broken Hill, Mt Isa (Queensland)
l Gabon: Maod mine l Canada: Sadburry
l S Africa: Postmasburg region, Kimberley Major producer countries
Major producer countries Australia, China, USA
China, South Africa, Gabon
9. Zinc
3. Copper Main ore: Calemine
Major mining centres Major mining centres

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l Chile: Mt Chuquicamata l Australia: Broken Hill and Mt Isa
l USA: Arizona state, Butte region of Montana state l Canada: British Columbia
l Canada: Sudbury district of Ontario Major producer countries
Major producer countries China, Australia, Canada
Chile, USA, Indonesia, Australia
10. Diamond
4. Aluminium Major mining centres
Main ore: Bauxite l South Africa: Kimberley (Johannesburg), Cape Town
Major mining centres l Zaire: Katanga plateau
l Australia: Cape York peninsula, Waipa region l India: Panna and Golconda mines
l USA: Saline county region of Arakansas state Major producer countries
Major producer countries (bauxite) Congo Republic, Botswana, South Africa
Australia, China, Brazil, India
5. Gold Power Resources
Major mining centres
1. Coal
l South Africa: Johannesburg, Boksburg and Orange Free
State, Kimberley Types: Anthracite, Bituminous, Lignite, Peat, etc
l USA: Salt Lake region and Alaska Major mining centres
l Australia: Mount Morgan, Kalgoorlie and Coolgardie l USA: Appalachian coal region
Major producer countries l China: Shansi, Shensi, Szechwan Basin
China, South Africa, Austria, USA l Australia: New South Wales, Queensland and Victoria
Major producer countries
6. Silver China, USA, India
Main Ore: Argentite

Geography l 23
2. Petroleum Major producer countries
Major mining centres Russia, USA, Canada
l USA: Appalachian region, Gulf Coast region, California 4. Atomic minerals
region
Canada, USA, Zaire and South Africa are the major
l Saudi Arabia: Dammam, Ghavar and Dhahran (oil refinery
producers of atomic minerals.
centre at Rasantura)
Main source: Uranium and thorium
l Kuwait: Burghan hill (Worlds largest reserve)
Major producer countries (Uranium)
l Iran: Lali, Karamshah, Naffad Safid, Haft Khel, Gach Saaran
l Canada: Uranium city near Lake Athabaska and Port
l Venezuela: Maracaibo region, Orinoco basin and Apure
Radium near Lake Great Bear
basin
l USA: Colarado plateau
Major producer countries
l S Africa: Witwatersrand hills
Saudi Arabia, Russia, USA, Iran
Major producer countries (Uranium)
3. Natural Gas l Australia, Canada, Kazakhstan
Natural gas and petroleum are found in same places. However, Major producer countries (Thorium)
natural gas is also found in independent form. l India, Turkey, Brazil, Australia

Major Industrial Centres of the World

Country Industrial Centres Industry

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USA Pittsburgh (Steel Capital of the World) Iron & Steel
Los Angeles (Hollywood) Films and Aircraft
Chicago Meat Processing
Detroit Automobiles
San Francisco (Silicon Valley) Oil refineries, Computer & Technology industries,
Ship-building
Seattle (Most important industrial region) Lumbering, Aluminium Smelting
Canada Montreal Ships and Aircraft
Ottawa Paper
Hamilton (Bermingham of Canada) Iron & Steel, Engineering

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Toronto Engineering and Automobiles
Birmingham Iron & Steel
Britain Manchester Cotton textile
Liverpool Ship-building and oil refining
Bradford Woollen textile
London Engineering and transport
Derbyshire Woollen textile
France Paris Aircraft and transport
Lyon Village Iron & Steel
Germany Dortmund Iron & Steel, Chemical
Frankfurt Engineering & Transport
Russia Moscow and Gorki Iron & Steel, Chemicals
Magnitogorsk Iron & Steel, Oil refining
Leningrad (St Petersburg) Textile, Chemicals, Paper
Moscow-Ivanovo (Manchester of Russia) Cotton textile
Ukraine Krivoy Rog-Rostogo Iron & steel, Heavy machinery
Netherlands Rotterdam Marine Engineering, Ship-building
Amsterdam Diamond polishing
Denmark Copenhagen Dairy
Italy Milan (Manchester of Italy) Silk textile
Turin (Detroit of Italy) Automobiles
Sweden Stockholm Ship-building
Brazil Sao Paulo Textile, Coffee
Rio de Janeiro Textile, Coffee

24 l Geography
Argentina Buenos Aires Ship-building
Chile Santiago Wine and liquor
Venezuela Maracaibo Oil refining
Morocco Casablanca Chemical industry
Egypt Cairo and Alexandria Cotton textile
Japan Nagoya (Detroit of Japan) Aircraft, Automobile and machinery
Osaka (Manchester of Japan) Ships, Iron & Steel, Textile
Kobe and Kyoto Ship-building, Iron & Steel, Textile
Nagasaki Iron & Steel, Ship-building, Machinery
Tokyo Engineering, Textile
China Shanghai Textile, machinery
Beijing Textile, machinery
Anshan-Mukden (Pittsburgh of China) Iron & Steel
Australia Vienna Glass

Water Transport

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Important Sea Routes
1. The Northern Atlantic Sea Route: It links North-
eastern USA and Northwestern Europe. It is the busiest
sea route in the world and is called the Big Trunk Route.
2. The MediterraneanIndian Ocean Sea Route: This sea
route passes through the heart of the Old World. Port
Said, Aden, Mumbai, Colombo and Singapore are some
of the important ports on this route. This trade route
connects the highly industrialised Western European
waterway. Volga river drains into the Caspian Sea.
Moscow region has been connected to this waterway
through Volga-Moscow canal. Navigation is possible
up to Black sea through Volga-Don canal.
2. Suez Canal: It is the largest canal of the world,
connecting Red Sea and Mediterranean Sea, where
navigation is possible. French engineer Ferdinard de
Lasseps played an important role in constructing this
canal. Completed in 1869, it separates the lower part of
the Nile basin and the Sinai Peninsula. The

KUNDAN
region with West Africa, South Africa, South-east Asia
and the commercial agriculture and livestock economies
of Australia and New Zealand.
3. The Cape of Good Hope Sea Route: This sea route is
another important one across the Atlantic Ocean which
connects West European and West African countries
with Brazil, Argentina and Uruguay in South America.
4. The North Pacific Sea Route: This sea route links the
ports on the west coast of North America with those of
Asia. These are Vancouver, Seattle, Portland, San
Francisco and Los Angeles on the American side and
Yokohama, Kobe, Shanghai, Hong Kong, Manila and
Singapore on the Asian side.
5. The South Pacific Sea Route: This sea route connects
Western Europe and North America with Australia, New
Zealand and the scattered Pacific islands via the
Panama Canal. Honolulu is an important port on this
route.
Shipping Canals
1. Volga Canal System: This is an important navigable
canal system of the world, with 11,200 km navigable
northernmost port on this canal is Port Said and the
southernmost port is Port Suez. In the middle, Port Faud,
Port Taufique and Ismailia are the important ports. This
canal is 162 km long. In 1956, this canal was
nationalised by the Egyptian government.
3. Panama Canal: This canal has been constructed by
cutting across the Panama isthmus, connecting the
Pacific Ocean and the Caribbean Sea. On the Pacific
coast is located the Panama port and on the Caribbean
coast is located the Colon port. The 72-km-long canal
shortens the distance between New York and San
Francisco by 13,000 km by sea.
4. Kiel Canal: This canal in Germany connects the North
Sea with the Baltic Sea.
5. Stalin or White Sea-Baltic Canal: This canal joins
Baltic Sea with the Arctic Ocean.
6. Rhine-Maine-Danube Canal: This canal connects North
Sea with Black Sea.
7. Soo Canals: The two canals join the L. Superior and L.
Huron.
8. Erie Canal: This canal connects L. Erie and L. Huron.
9. Wellend Canal: This canal reduces the distance
between L. Erie and L. Ontario.

Geography l 25
 Continents
The seven continents can be ranked according to their
size or area as
1. Asia 2. Africa
3. North America 4. South America
5. Antarctica 6. Europe
7. Australia
Brief survey of continents
Asia
It is the largest continent of the world both in terms of
population and area.
Chief mountain ranges and peaks
K
Himalayas, Karakoram, Kunlun, Hindu Kush, Tien Shan,
Elbruz, Altai, Taurus, Sulaiman, Ural.
l Highest Point: Mt Everest (8848 m) in the Himalayas
l Chief Rivers: Yangtze , Huang He or Yellow River, Amur,
Lena, Ob, Mekong, Yenisei, Irtysh, Indus, Brahmaputra,
Irrawaddy.
l Irrawaddy river is known as the lifeline of Myanmar.
l Huang He or the Yellow river is known as the sorrow of
China.
l Chief Lakes: Aral, Baikal, Balkash, Tungting, Tonle Sap.
Chief Deserts: Gobi, Takla Makan, Kara-Kum, Thar, Kyzyl-
KUNDAN
l
Kum.
l Mineral Resources: Coal, iron, manganese, tin, antimony,
gold.
l Myanmar is called the Land of Mountains and Rivers.
l Myanmar is famous for its beautiful Buddhist temples called
Pagodas. It is known as the Land of Golden Pagodas.
l Pakistan is called the country of canals.
l Bangladesh is called the country of rivers and tributaries.
l Turkey is called the Sickman of Europe.
l Lebanon is called the Switzerland of Middle East.
l Bhutan is called the Land of Thunder Dragons.
l Thailand is called the Land of White Elephants.
l South Korea is called the Land of Morning Calm.
l Japan is called the Land of Rising Sun.
l Osaka is called the Manchester of Japan.
Africa
Africa is the worlds second largest continent and three times
larger than Europe. It straddles the Equator. It is the only
continent to have both the Tropic of Cancer and the Tropic
of Capricorn passing through it and having almost the same
distance north and south of the Equator.
26 l Geography
Chief Mountain Ranges and Peaks
Kilimanjaro, Ruwenzori, Atlas, Drakensberg, Tibesti Massif.
l Chief Rivers: Nile, Congo, Niger, Zambezi, Orange, Kasai,
Limpopo, Senegal.
l Chief Deserts: Sahara (largest in the world) in the north;
Kalahari and Namib in the south.
l Mineral Resources: Gold, diamonds, bauxite, copper, iron
ore, cobalt, manganese, uranium, lead, zinc, asbestos,
phosphate.
l The highest temperature in the world has been recorded
at Al-Aziziyah (Libya) as 58C, making it the hottest place
in the world.
l The Nile is the longest river in the world. It has two
tributaries, viz. Blue Nile and White Nile. Blue Nile
originates from Lake Tana in Ethiopia whereas White Nile
originates from Lake Albert in Uganda. Blue Nile and White
Nile meet at Khartoum (capital of Sudan) and flow in the
name of Nile from thereon. It falls in Mediterranean Sea,
forming a large delta.
l Ostrich is a flightless, fast running bird which is found in
Kalahari desert. (It is similar to rhea of South America and
emu of Australia.)
l Cocoa is one of the important crops of Africa. Ghana &
Nigeria are the largest producers of cocoa in the world.
l Johannesburg and Witwatersrand in South Africa are
famous for gold and Kimberley is famous for diamond.
l Zanzibar is the largest producer of cloves in the world
followed by Pemba Islands.
North America
North America is less than half the size of Asia.
l Mountain Ranges: The Rocky Mts. (extend more than
4800 km), Alaska Range, Sierra Madre, Saint Elias Mts.
l Chief Rivers: Missouri, Mississippi, Yukon, Rio Grande,
Arkansas, Colorado, Red, St Lawrence.
l Chief Lakes: Superior, Huron, Michigan, Great Bear, Great
Slave, Winnipeg, Ontario.
l Mineral Resources: Coal, iron ore, petroleum, gold, silver,
copper.
l Grand Bank near Newfoundland is very famous for fishing.
Tuna and salmon are the main variety of fish catches.
l New York is called the city of skyscrapers.
l Hartsfield Jackson Atlanta Inernational Airport (Atlanta)
of USA is busiest airport of the world.
l Chicago railway junction is the busiest railway junction
of the world.
l North America produces 1/5 of the worlds wheat. Prairries
of the USA are very famous for wheat and maize. Prairies
are called worlds bread basket.
South America
South America is the fourth largest continent. It is triangular
in shape and somewhat smaller and less favoured for
settlement than North America. The most striking feature of
the relief is the mountain chain, the Andes, which runs through
the whole length of the continent.
l Chief Mountain Ranges: Andes (highest peak,
Aconcagua), Brazilian Highlands, Guiana Highlands.
l Chief Rivers: Amazon, Parana, San Francisco, Orinoco,
Rio Negro, Paraguay, Uruguay, La Plata.
l Chief Desert: Atacama in the south.
l Chief Lakes: Maracaibo, Titicaca, Mirim.
l Mineral Resources: Petroleum, iron ore, silver, gold,
copper, tin, lead, zinc.
l Equatorial rain forests of the Amazon are the storehouses
of hard wood such as mahogany. However, the lightest
wood in the world balsa also comes from these forests.
l The rubber tree is native to South America (Amazon basin).
l Antwerp (Belgium) is the worlds biggest diamond trading
centre.
l Finland is known as the land of thousand lakes.
l Dogger Bank in UK is a famous fishing ground.
Australia
l Chief Rivers: Murray (2,500 km) is the longest river. Its
chief tributaries are Darling and Murrumbidgee.
l Mineral Resources: Gold, silver, coal, iron ore, lead, zinc,
bauxite, copper, uranium and tungsten.
l MacDonnell and Musgrave ranges lie in Central Australia.
l The Tasmania Sea separates Australia from New Zealand.
l Australia is the largest producer of bauxite in the
world.
Antarctica
l It was discovered in 1820.
l Roald Amundsen was the first man to reach Antarctica.

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l Carnauba palm trees (Brazil), Cinchona bark (used for l It is called the continent for science because it provides
medicine quinine) and Chicle (used for chewing gum) are a unique opportunity to scientists to learn more about
the products of the equatorial rain forests of South America. the world.
l South America, Mexico, Central America and West Indies l Bharati is an Indian station for research at Antarctica.
are collectively known as Latin America. l It is the only continent which is completely frozen. It is,
threfore, known as the White Continent.
Europe
Highest Peaks of Continents
l Chief Mountain Ranges: Caucasus, Alps, Pyrenees, Sierra
Continent Peak Height Country
Nevada.
(in mts.)
l Chief Rivers: Volga, Danube, Dnieper, Don, Pechora,
Asia Mt. Everest 8,848 Nepal

KUNDAN
Dniester, Rhine.
S. America Mt. Aconcagua 6,960 Argentina
l Chief Lakes: Ladoga, Onega, Vaner.
N. America Mt. McKinley 6,194 Alaska
l Mineral Resources: Coal, Iron Ore, Mercury, Bauxite.
Africa Mt. Kilimanjaro 5,895 Tanzania
l Scotland, Wales and England are together known as Great
Europe Mt Elbrus 5,663 Russia
Britain.
Antarctica Mt Vinson 5,140 Antarctica
l Great Britain and Northern Ireland are jointly called as
Australia Mt Kosciuszko 2,230 Australia
United Kingdom.

Longest Rivers of the World

Sl. Name Source Outflow Length (in km)
1. Nile Lake Victoria, Africa Mediterranean Sea 6,690
2. Amazon Glacier-fed lakes, Peru Atlantic Ocean 6,296
3. Mississippi-Missouri Red Rock, Montana (USA) Gulf of Mexico 6,240
4. Yangtze Kiang Tibetan Plateau, China China Sea 5,797
5. Ob Altai Mountains, Russia Gulf of Ob 5,567
6. Yellow River (Huang He) Eastern part of Kunina Mts., Gulf of Chihli 4,667
West China
7. Yenisel Tannu-Ola Mts., Western Arctic Ocean 4,506
Tuva, Russia
8. Parana Confluence of Paranaiba and Rio de la Plata 4,498
Grande rivers, Brazil
9. Irtish Altai Mountains, Russia Ob River 4,438
10. Congo Confluence of Lualaba and Atlantic Ocean 4,371
Luapula rivers, Zaire
Geography l 27
Classification of Vegetation Rotterdam The Netherlands Nieuwe Maas
l Tropophyte: Forest and grassland vegetation of the tropical Stalingrad Russia Volga
belt. Shanghai China Yang-tse-kiang
l Hydrophyte: Vegetation growing on the surface of water Sydney Australia Darling
bodies. Saint Louis USA Mississippi
l Hygrophyte: Vegetation found in the areas of high Tokyo Japan Arakava
humidity. Vienna Austria Danube
l Xerophyte: Vegetation found in the tropical deserts. Warsaw Poland Vistula
l Mesophyte: Temperate taiga vegetation Washington DC USA Potomac
l Cryophyte: Tundra vegetation like lichen and algae. Yangon Myanmar Irrawaddy
l Halophyte: Vegetation of saline soil like mangroves.
l Lithophyte: Vegetation growing on hard rocks. Important waterfalls of the world
l Pyrophyte: Fire-resistant vegetation (found in Savanna Angel Venezuela
region). Tugela Natal, South Africa
Cuquenan Venezuela
Important Cities on River Banks (World) Sutherland New Zealand
City Country River Ribbon California, USA
Amsterdam Netherlands Amsel Niagra USA-Canada Border
Della Canada

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Ankara Turkey Kazil
Bangkok Thailand Chao Praya Gavarnie South-West France
Baghdad Iraq Tigris Vettisfoss Norway
Berlin Germany Spree Jog India
Bonn Germany Rhine Victoria Zambia (Africa)
Budapest Hungary Danube
Bristol UK Avon Famous tribes of the world
Buenos Aires Argentina Rio de la Plata Abhors People of Mongoloid blood living between
Cairo Egypt Nile Assam and eastern tribes
Dublin Ireland Liffey Afridis Tribes residing in the North-West Frontier
Hamburg Germany Elbe Province (Pakistan)

KUNDAN
Kabul Afghanistan Kabul Bantus Negroes living in the Central and South Africa
Karachi Pakistan Indus Boers Dutch settlers of South Africa
Khartoum Sudan Confluence of Cossacks People living in the southern and eastern
Blue & White Nile frontiers of Russia
Lahore Pakistan Ravi Eskimos Inhabitants of Greenland and Arctic regions
Leningrad Russia Neva Flemish A term used for the people of Belgium
Lishan Portugal Tagus Hamites Inhabitants of North-West Africa
Liverpool England Messey Khirgiz People Living in Central Asia
London England Thames Kurds Tribes living in Kurdistan (Iraq)
Moscow Russia Muskova Magyars Inhabitants of Hungary
Montreal Canada St. Lawrence Maoris Inhabitants of New Zealand
Nanking China Yang-tse-kiang Negroes Mostly found in Africa
New York USA Hudson Pygmies Short-sized people found in Congo basin in
Ottawa Canada Ottawa Africa
Paris France Seine Red Indians Original inhabitants of North America
Perth Australia Swan Semites Caucasian people of ancient times
Prague Czech Republic Vitava Zulus People of South Africa living in certain parts
Quebec Canada St. Lawrence of Natal
Rome Italy Tiber

28 l Geography
 Indian Geography
Introduction
l According to geographical extension, India is the seventh
largest country of the world after Russia, Canada, China,
USA, Brazil and Australia, with an area of about 3.28 million
sq km, which is almost 2.4 per cent of the geographical
area of the world.
l Politically, it makes boundary with China, Pakistan,
Bangladesh, Nepal, Bhutan, Myanmar and Afghanistan.
Across the Indian Ocean also there are two island
neighbours of India Sri Lanka and the Maldives. Sri
Lanka is separated from India by the Palk Strait.
l The 9 Channel separates Minicoy island from other smaller
islands of Lakshadweep, and between Maldives and
Minicoy is the 8 Channel. The 10 Channel separates
the Andaman from the Nicobar. The channel between the
Indira Point and Indonesia is the Great Channel.

India: Geographical Extremes

Feature Description
1. Area 3.28 million km2, which is 2.4% of the Worlds area

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2. Length (N-S) 3214 km
3. Width (E-W) 2933 km
4. Length of Land Frontier 15200 km
5. Length of Coast Line 7516.6 km
6. Latitudinal Extent (main land) 8 4 N to 37 6 N
7. Longitudinal Extent 68 7 E to 97 25 E
8. Southernmost Point of Indian Main Land 8 4 N, known as Kanya Kumari or Cape Comorin
9. Southernmost Point of India 6 N, known as Indira Point or Pygmalion point in Great Nicobar

KUNDAN
10. Highest Peak Mt K2 known as Godwin Austin or Qagir (8611 m)
11. Highest Dam Bhakra (226 m) on Sutlej river in Punjab
12. Highest Waterfall Doodh Sagar on river Mandovi, Goa (600 m). The earlier known highest
waterfall was Jog (Gershoppa) on R. Sarawati (Karnataka).
13. Longest River Ganga (2510 km)
14. Longest Dam Hirakud on Mahanadi river in Odisha
15. Longest Coast Line Gujarat coast followed by Andhra coast
16. Longest Canal Indira Gandhi Canal, also called Rajasthan Canal
17. Longest Beach Marina beach in Chennai
18. Coldest Place Drass in J&K (45C)
19. Hottest Place Briyawali in Bikaner district of Rajasthan (56 C)
20. Wettest Place Mawsynram in Meghalaya (1220 cm/year)
21. Largest Plateau Deccan Plateau
22. Largest Riverine Island Majuli Island on Brahmaputra river in Assam
23. Indian Standard Meridian 82 E longitude: it passes through Naini near Allahabad
24. Tropic of Cancer 23 N latitude: it passes through eight states (Gujarat, Rajasthan, MP,
Chhattisgarh, Jharkhand, WB, Tripura & Mizoram)

Geography l 29
Neighbouring countries Indian states forming boundary
Pakistan Jammu & Kashmir, Punjab, Rajasthan and Gujarat
Afghanistan Jammu & Kashmir
China Jammu & Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh, Uttarakhand, Sikkim and Arunachal Pradesh
Nepal Uttarakhand, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, West Bengal and Sikkim
Bangladesh Mizoram, Tripura, Assam, Meghalaya and West Bengal
Bhutan Sikkim, West Bengal, Assam and Arunachal Pradesh
Myanmar Arunachal Pradesh, Nagaland, Manipur and Mizoram

Important International Boundary Lines

Boundary Line Countries
1. Durand Line (drawn in 1896) Pakistan and Afghanistan
2. Radcliffe Line (drawn in 1947) India and Pakistan
3. McMahon Line (drawn in 1914) India and China (Arunachal Pradesh Region)
4. 24th Parallel Pakistan claims that it is the boundary between India and Pakistan
in the Rann of Kutch
5. 17th Parallel North Vietnam and South Vietnam
6. 38th Parallel North Korea and South Korea
7. 49th Parallel Canada and USA

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8. Maginot Line Germany and France
9. Seigfried Line Fortification between Germany and France

Length of Indias border with The Himalayas

its neighbouring countries
l Means abode of snow.
Country Length of border in km % of total border l Total length is about 5000 km.
Bangladesh 4,096 26.95 l These are huge fold mountains of tertiary period which
China 3,917 25.55 were folded over Tethys Sea due to inter-continental
Pakistan 3,310 21.78 collision.

KUNDAN
Nepal 1,752 11.53 l These extend for about 2500 km between the Indus and
Myanmar 1,458 9.89 Brahmaputra gorges from west to east in an arc shape.
Bhutan 587 3.86 l The Pamir, popularly known as the Roof of the World, is
Afghanistan 80 0.52 the connecting link between the Himalayas and the high
l India area is almost equal to the area of Europe (excluding range of Central Asia.
Russia), one-third of Canada, one-fifth of Russia, eight The Himalayas can be divided into three zones:
times of Japan and 12 times of United Kingdom.
1. Outer Himalayas
Geological Structure and l Its Vedic name is Sivalik.
l Its height varies between 600 m and 1200 m, but rarely
Physical Division of India exceeds 650 m.
In India, of the total land mass 2. Middle Himalayas or Lesser Himalayas
Plains : 43.3% Plateaus : 27.7% l Average height 3700-4500 m.
Hills : 18.6% Mountains: 10.4% l It Vedic name is Himachal.
On the basis of its geological structure India can be broadly l Most of the hill stations such as Dalhousie, Manali, Shimla,
divided into five parts: Nainital, Mussoorie, Ranikhet and Darjeeling are located
1. The Himalayan range of mountains in this range.
2. The Peninsular plateau l The Middle Himalayas are divided into following ranges:
3. The Great plain of India (i) Pir Panjal range (J&K): It is longest range of the
4. The Coastal plains Middle Himalayas.
5. The Islands of India (ii) Dhauladhar range (Himachal Pradesh)
(iii) Mussoorie range (Uttarakhand)
l The Kashmir valley, which is about 150 km long and 80 km

30 l Geography
 wide, lies between the Pir Panjal and the Zaskar ranges. Kashmir in the Karakoram range. It is the highest peak
3. Inner Himalayas or Greater Himalayas of India.
(c) Mt Kunchenjanga (8598 m): It is the third highest
l Its Vedic names are Himadri and Bahirgiri. It is the peak of the world and the second highest of ndia
highest mountain range of the world. Its average height is located in Sikkim.
6100 m.
Trans Himalayas
Important peaks in the Inner Himalayas:
l This region lies to the north of the Greater Himalayas.
(a) Mt Everest (8848 m): It is know as Sagarmatha in
l It includes the glacier Siachen in Nubra Valley, which is
Nepal and Chomolangma in China. It is the highest
the biggest glacier in the world.
peak of the world located in Nepal.
Note: The highest peak of Ladakh ranges, Mt Rakashposhi,
(b) Mt K2 (Godwin Austin 8611 m): It is the second
lies in the Trans Himalayas.
highest peak of the world located in Pak-Occupied

Important Passes in the Inner Himalayas

Area Location Connectivity
1. Karakoram pass J&K India to China
2. Burzil pass J&K Kashmir Valley to Central Asia
3. Zojila pass J&K Srinagar to Leh

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4. Bara Lacha-la pass Himachal Pradesh Mandi to Leh
5. Shipki-la pass Himachal Pradesh Shimla to Garetok (Tibet)
6. Mana pass Uttarakhand Entry to Mansarovar Lake through Kailash Ghati
7. Niti pass Uttarakhand Entry to Mansarovar Lake through Kailash Ghati
8. Lipulekh pass Uttarakhand Entry to Mansarovar Lake through Kailash Ghati
9. Nathu La pass Sikkim Entry to Chumbi Valley
10. Jelep La pass Sikkim Kalingpong (West Bengal) to Lhasa (Tibet)
11. Bomdila pass Arunachal Pradesh
12. Yang-Yap pass Arunachal Pradesh Entry of Brahmaputra river
13. Pangsad pass Arunachal Pradesh Dibrugarh to Myanmar
14. Pir Panjal pass Banihal Rohtang

KUNDAN
Note: Karakoram pass connects India to China.

The Peninsular Plateau Nilgiri Hills is Dodabetta situated near Ootacamund.

l Eastern Ghats: These are located along the easter coast
l It covers an area of about 16 lakh sq km.
in Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh and Odisha.
Important ranges and Plateau l Mahadeo hills: These are located in MP.
l Aravali range: The Aravali range lies in the North-West. l Cardamom hills: These are the southernmost hill ranges
It is one of the oldest mountain ranges of the world. of India.
l Vindhya Range: The Sone, flowing towards east, and the
Narmada, flowing towards west, are two important rivers Important Hills of India
of the range. It separates South India from North India. Hill Range Peak Location
l Satpura Range: It lies between Narmada and Tapti. The Aravali Gurushikhar Rajasthan
highest point of Satpura range is Dhupgarh in Panchmarhi. Western Ghats Anaimudi Kerala
l Chhotanagpur plateau ends in Rajmahal Hills. It includes (Annamalai hills)
the Jharkhand plateau and the eastern fringe of Eastern Ghats Deodimunda Odisha
Chhattisgarh. Parasnath in the east rises to 1,366 m. Rajmahal hills Parasnath West Bengal
l Western Ghats (Sahyadris): These are located on the Note: The highest peak of South India is Annaimudi (2,695 m)
west coast in Maharashtra, Goa, Karnataka, Kerala and on Annamalai Hills.
Tamil Nadu. It reaches Kanyakumari and joins the Eastern
Ghats at Nilgiri Hills. The Deccan Plateau
l The Nilgiri hills of India are block mountains which are This is the largest unit of the Peninsular Plateau of India. This
also known as blue mountain. The highest peak of the triangular plateau is bounded by the Satpura and the Vindhya

Geography l 31
in the northwest, the Mahadev and the Maikal in the north, the l Tamil Nadu coast is called Coromandel coast while Odisha
Western Ghats in the west and the Eastern Ghats in the east. and West Bengal coast are called Northern Circars coast.
l The region of Mahanadi delta is called the Utkal Plain.
Important Passes in South India
Pass Metre Connectivity State/UT with Longest Coastline
Thalghat 580 Bombay-Nasik State/UT Length of coastline
Bhorghat 520 Bombay-Pune 1. Andaman & Nicobar Islands 1,962
Palghat 510 Kochi-Coimbatore 2. Gujarat 1,215
Shenkota pass 280 Thiruvananthapuram-Madurai 3. Andhra Pradesh 974
4. Tamil Nadu 907
The Great Plain of India 5. Maharastra 653
l It is formed by the Indus, the Ganga and the Brahmaputra
rivers. The Islands of India
l It mainly consists of alluvial soils. India has nearly 247 islands, most of which are located in
l It covers an area of over 7 lakh sq km. Important two groups:
characteristics incude Bhabar (unassorted sediments), (i) Andaman and Nicobar group
Terai (marshy tract), Bhangar (older alluvium) and Khadar (ii) Lakshadweep group
(newer alluvium).
1. Andaman & Nicobar group

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The Great Northern Plains consists of the following
l There are nearly 203 islands in Andaman group whereas
regions:
the Nicobar group of islands consists of seven big and 12
1. The Punjab-Haryana Plains: These fertile plains include
small islands.
the Bari Doab (between Ravi and Beas rivers) and Bisht
l Ten Degree Channel separates Andaman group from
Doab (between Beas and Satluj).
Nicobar group.
l The Rajasthan Plains: It includes the Marusthali of Thar
l Duncan passage separates Little Andaman from South
desert and Bagar tract west of the Aravalis. River Luni is
Andaman.
only an inland drainage river.
l Middle Andaman is the largest (areawise) while the capital
l The Ganga Plains: The Ganga plains of UP, West Bengal
Port Blair is located in South Andaman.
and Bihar occupy an area of 3.57 lakh sq km. The Bengal
l Saddle peak (737 m) is the highest peak of Andaman &
basin is mainly composed of the Ganga delta.

KUNDAN
l The Brahmputra Plains: The Brahmputra plains contain
alluvial deposits of the Brahmaputra. This is also known
as the Brahmaputra valley or Assam valley or Assam plain
as most of the Brahmputra valley is situated in Assam.
The Coastal Plains
1. West Coastal Plain
l The West Coastal Plain is narrower than the East Coastal
Plain.
l The West Coastal Plain is divided into following parts:
(i) Konkan coast (Mahrashtra coast) - Gujarat to Goa
(ii) Kannara coast (Karnataka coast) - Goa to Mangalore
(iii) Malabar coast (Kerala coast) - Mangalore to
Kanyakumari
2. East Coastal Plain
l The east coast is mainly emergent type, i.e. its outline is
regular and is characterised by offshore bars, sea beachers,
sand ridges and lagoons.
Nicobar and is lcoated in North Andaman.
l Indira Point (Pygmalion point) is the southernmost point
of Indian territory (6 N), which is located in Great
Nicobar.
2. Other Important Islands
l Newmore Island: It is located in Bay of Bengal on the
mouth of Ganga.
l Pumban Island: It is located in the Gulf of Mannar between
India and Sri Lanka.
Drainage System of India
The flow of water through well-defined channels is known
as drainage. The network of such channels is called a
drainage system.
On the basis of the mode of origin, nature and
characteristics, the Indian drainage system may be
classified into the Himalayan drainage and the
Peninsular drainage.
Three major river systems the Indus, the Ganga and
the Brahmaputra comprise the Himalayan river
system.

32 l Geography
 Rivers and Their Tributaries
River Source Total length (km) Tributaries
Indus Tibet near Mansarovar 2880; 709 km in India Zanskar, Astar, Dras, Shyok, Skardu,
Swat, Kurram, Shigar, Gilgit, Kabul,
Jhelum, Chenab, Ravi, Beas and Sutlej

Jhelum From a mountain spur 400 in India Kishanganga

at Verinage
Chenab Chandra Bhaga stream of HP (near Lahaul) 1180 in India
Ravi Kulu Hills of HP 725
Beas HP (Rohtang Pass) 460
Sutlej Mansarovar (Rakash Lake) 1050 in India Beas joins at Harike

Sutlej river forms the boundary between India and Pakistan near Ferozpur.
Beas joins Sutlej at Harike (Punjab). Indira Gandhi Canal takes off from the Harike barrage, which is the longest irrigation
canal of India. It runs up to Jaisalmer district of Rajasthan.

Ganga and Its Tributaries

River Sources Total length (km) Tributaries

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Ganga Alaknanda (Gangotri) 2526 Yamuna, Ram-Ganga, Gandak, Koshi,
Ghaghara, Gandak, Gomti, Bhagirathi, Son,
Triveni.
Yamuna Yamunotri 1380 Chambal, Betwa, Sarda.
Ram Ganga Near Nainital 596 Khos, Anil-Koshi.
Ghaghara Near Mansarovar Lake 1080 Rapti, Sharda, joins Ganga near Chapra
(Bihar)
Gandak Central Him. 730 In Nepal called Narayani,
Near Tibet (in India) joins Ganga at Monghyr.
Son Amarkantak Plateau 784 It joins Ganga upstream of Danapur in Patna

KUNDAN
district of Bihar.
Kosi From Tibet/Nepal 730 (in India) Kosi, Arun, Tamur
Damodar Chotanagpur Plateau 541 Joins Hoogly below Kolkata
near Tori Konar, Jomunia
Chambal South-West of Mhow Hills 1050 Banas
Gomti East of Pilibhit 940 Sai, Barma, Saryu, joins Ganga near Ghazipur
(UP)
Sharda or Kaliganga Kumaon Himalaya 602 Sarayu; it joins Ghaghra which meets Ganga
near Chapra (Bihar)

Bhagirathi is joined by Alaknanda (originates from Badrinath) at Devprayag. Alaknanda and Bhagirathi flow in the name
of Ganga below Devprayag.
Ganga is the longest river of India. In Bangladesh it is known by the name of Padma.
States covered by Ganga UP, Bihar, Uttarakhand, W. Bengal
Total length of the Ganga river is 2525 km, of which 1,140 km is in UP, which is the largest length.
Yamuna joins Ganga at Allahabad.
Kosi is known as the Sorrow of Bihar.
Numerous deep ravines have been formed in the Chambal valley.

Geography l 33
 Brahmaputra and its tributaries
River Source Total length (km) Tributaries
Brahmaputra and 2580 Joins Ganga near
its tributaries Ghazipur (UP)
Brahmaputra Chemayungdung glacier, 885 (in India) Rajo-Tsngpo, Lihotse- Dzong, Ngang chu,
in the Kailash range Kyi chu, Glamdu-chu, Lohit, Dihang,
of Himalayas Disang, Dhansiri, Tista, Torsa.

It is known as Tsangpo in Tibet, Dihang or Siang in Arunachal Pradesh, Jamuna in Bangladesh.

Brahmaputra forms the worlds largest riverine island Majuli.
Brahmaputra is volume-wise the largest river of India, whereas length-wise Ganga is the largest.
Before entering the Bay of Bengal, the Brahmaputra along with the Ganga forms the largest delta of the world.
The delta is made of a web of distributaries and islands and is covered by dense forests called the Sunderbans.

West Flowing Peninsular Rivers

Narmada Amarkantak Plateau (MP) 312 Burhner, Balyar, Sher, Duchi, Shakkar, Tawa, Hiran,
Tendoni, Barna, Kotar, Anjal, Machak, Kundi, Goi,
Karyan

K
Tapti Near Multai in Betul Districts 724 Purna, Betul, Wards, Vaghur,
Patki, Gangal, Dathranj, Bohad, Bori, Anbhora, Khuru,
Kapra, Sipra, Garja, Khokri, Utaols, Bhokar, Subi, Mor,
Mautri, Gull, Aner, Anunavati, Gomati, Harki, Valer.
Mahi Vindhyam range 533 Son, Anasi, Panam
Luni (Salt river) From Annasagar in Ajmer 450 It disappears in Rann of Kutch

Sabarmati Aravali Hill 416 Wakai, Jawal, Mitri, Sei, Harnov, Hathmathi, Watrak,
Meshwa.
The peninsular rivers which fall into the Arabian Sea do not form deltas, but only estuaries.

KUNDAN
There are several islands in the estuary of the Narmada, of which Aliabet is the largest.
Tapti is know as the twin river of Narmada.
Note: Trans-Himalayan river There are only three Trans-Himalayan rivers originating in the high Tibetan Plateau that cut
across the mighty Himalayan ranges: the Satluj, the Indus, the Brahmaputra.

Important Lakes of India

Lakes Related State 16. Jaisamand Rajasthan
1. Dal Jammu & Kashmir 17. Didwana Rajasthan
2. Wular Jammu & Kashmir 18. Devtal Uttarakhand
3. Bareenag Jammu & Kashmir 19. Naukuchital Uttarakhand
4. Manas Bal Jammu & Kashmir 20. Kolleru Andhra Pradesh
5. Rajasmand Rajasthan 21. Chilka (Indias largest lake) Odisha
6. Pichhala Rajasthan 22. Lonar Maharashtra
7. Sambhar Rajasthan 23. Vembanad Kerala
8. Saat-tal Uttarakhand 24. Cholamu Sikkim
9. Rakashatal Uttarakhand Note: Lonar lake was formed due to volcanic activity.
10. Hussainsagar Andhra Pradesh Chilka, Pulicat and Kolleru are lagoon lakes.
11. Pulikat Tamil Nadu Largest freshwater lake in India Wular
12. Loktak Manipur Asias largest brackish water lake Chilka
13. Nagin Jammu & Kashmir Sambhar lake is Indias largest salt lake.
14. Sheshnag Jammu & Kashmir Indias highest lake Cholamu
15. Anantnag Jammu & Kashmir

34 l Geography
 Major Waterfalls of India
Waterfall Place River
Jog/Garsoppa/Mahatma Gandhi Karnataka Sharavati river
Yena Mahabaleshwar Yena river
Shivsamudram Karnataka Cauveri river
Hundru Jharkhand Suvarnrekha river
Gokak Karnataka Gokak
Chulia Rajasthan Chambal river
Punasa Rajasthan Chambal river
Pyakara Tamil Nadu Pyakara river
Kapildhara Madhya Pradesh Narmada
Dhuandhar (It is known as the smoke that thunders) Jabalpur Narmada river

Climate of India

K
l The momentary state of the atmospheric conditions over
an area at any point of time is known as the weather of
that area while climate refers to the average of the weather
conditions over a longer period of time.
l India Meteorological Department (IMD) has recognised
the following four distinct seasons:
(i) Cold weather season (Winter): December to Feb
(ii) Hot weather seaon (Summer): March to May
(iii) South-West Monsoon Season (Rainy): June to
September
South-West Monsoon (Rainy) Season
(iii) Norwesters: There are dreaded evening thunderstorms
in Bengal and Assam. Their notorious nature can be
understood from the local nomeclature of Kalbaisakhi,
a calamity of the month of Baisakh. These showers are
useful or tea, jute and rice cultivation. In Assam, these
storms are known as Bardoili Chheerha.
(iv) Loo: Hot, dry and oppressing winds blowing in the
Northern plains from Punjab to Bihar with higher intensity
between Delhi and Patna.

KUNDAN
(iv)Season of Retreating Monsoon (Autumn or Cool
season): October to November
Cold Weather Season
l During this seaon, the north-east trade winds prevail over
the country. They blow from land to sea.
l Although the total amount of winter rainfall locally known
as Mahawat is small, they are of immense importance for
the cultivation of rabi crops.
Hot Weather Season
l With the apparent northward movement of the Sun towards
the Tropic of Cancer in March, temperature starts rising in
North-India.
l Some famous local storms of hot weather season
(i) Mango Shower: Towards the end of summer, there are
pre-monsoon showers which are a common phenomena
in Kerala and coastal areas of Karnataka. Locally, they are
known as mango showers since they help in the early
ripening of mangoes.
(ii) Blossom Shower: With this shower, coffee flowers
blossom in Kerala and nearby areas.
The south-west monsoon approaches the landmass in
two branches:
(i) The Arabian Sea branch
(ii) The Bay of Bengal branch
l During summer, South-West monsoon winds [The Arabian
Sea Branch] strike suddenly on the coast of Kerala, which
is called burst of moonsoon.
l South-West monsoon advances progressively from the
1st of June and covers entire India by 15th of July.
l The rainfall brought by the monsoon decreases away from
the sea.
l Monsoons play a pivotal role in the agarian economy of
India because over 3/4 of total rain in the country is
received during South-West monsoon season.
Note: The Arabian Sea branch is more powerful than the Bay
of Bengal branch.
l This season has the maximum number of rainy days as a
result of which it is called the wet season.
l The Bay of Bengal branch, after crossing the deltaic region,
enters the Khasi Valley (Meghalaya) and strikes Cherapunji
and Mawsynram in a perpendicular direction.
Mawsynram, located on the crust of Khasi Hills, receives

Geography l 35
 the highest average annual rainfall in the world.
l Tamil Nadu coast remains dry during this season because
it lies in the rain shadow area of the Arabian Sea branch of
the South-West monsoon.
Season of Retreating Monsoon or
North-East Monsoon in Winter
l During winter, while retreating back, winds become north-
east and such winds, when they cross the Bay of Bengal,
become moist and produce rainfall in east Tamil Nadu and
Andhra Pradesh. Such winds are called N-E Monsoon
winds. These produce 40-60 cm rain on Tamil Nadu coast
during winter.
l N-W India, including parts of J&K, Punjab, Haryana, Delhi
and Uttarakhand, also recieves winter rain due to the
influence of:
(i) Jet streams (ii) Western disturbances
l Jet streams are formed when pressure gradient force
becomes equal and opposite to Coriolis force.
l Jet streams are a kind of Geo-Strophic Winds. Westerly
Jet Streams of Northern Hemisphere affect Indian climate
during winter and produce little rainfall (2-5 cm).
Annual Rainfall
Rainfall regions may be classified in two categories:
1. Regions of heavy rainfall (more than 300 cm per annum):
(i) Western slopes of Western Ghats
(ii) Eastern part of India, including Meghalaya hills
2. Regions of very low rainfall (less than 50 cm per annum):
(i) Western Rajasthan (Thar Desert)
(ii) Leh and Ladakh region of J&K
Percentage of the Amount of annual
total land area rainfall (cm)
11 above 200

K
Jet Streams 21 125 to 200
l These are strong waves of air circulating on the Earth at 37 75 to 125
an altitude of 6 to 10 km with a speed of 250 to 400 kmph.
24 35 to 75
These are 2 to 4 km thick, hundreds of km wide and
thousands of km long. 7 below 35
Note: The average annual rainfall in India is about 125 cm.

Soil

KUNDAN
Classification of Soils
The World Reference Base for Soil resources: In 1998, the
International Union of Soil Sciences (IUSS) officially adopted
the World Reference Base for Soil Resoruces (WRB) as the
Unions system for soil correlation. The structure, concept
and definitions of the WRB are strongly influenced by the
philosophy behind and experience gained with the FAO-
drained locations or where soil-forming processes have not
operated for a sufficiently long time due to environmental
restrictions.
(iii) The Azonal order includes the new soils and they are
not considered to be mature soils. Generally they represent
the parent material which may be converted into mature soils
if sufficient time is available.
Zonal soils can be classified as follows:
UNESCO Soil Classification System. 1. Laterite Soil 2. Red Soil
The first format system of soil classification was 3. Red and Yellow Soils 4. Black Soil
introduced in the US by Curtis F Marbut. The modified 5. Red Desert Soil 6. Tundra Soil
Marbut System divides the soil into three broad groups or
zonal orders. Classification of the Indian Soils
(i) Zonal soils are those which occur over large areas or
climatic zones having geographical characteristics of their Owing to vast regional variations and on the basis of
own, sited on well-drained undulating land, having well- genesis, colour, composition and location, the Indian Council
developed profiles and other properties, developed on parent of Agricultural Research has classified the soils of India into
material which has remained in its original place for a 8 categories:
sufficiently long time to have been affected by climatic and (i) Alluvial soils (ii) Black soils
organism processes. (iii) Red and Yellow soils (iv) Laterite soils
(ii) The Intrazonal order includes soils developed in poorly (v) Forest soils (vi) Arid soils
(vii) Saline and Basic soils (viii) Peaty soils

36 l Geography
Alluvial Soils
l Alluvial soils are deposotional soils transported and
deposited by rivers and streams. It is spread over 15 lac
km2 area of the country, which constitutes about 40 per
cent of total land area of the country.
l This is the most widely spread and important soil. In fact,
the entire Northern Plains are made of alluvial soil.
l These have been deposited by three important Himalayan
river systems - the Indus, the Ganga and the Brahmaputra.
l These soils also extend in Rajasthan and Gujarat through
a narrow corridor.
l The alluvial soil consists of various proportions of sand,
silt and clay. As we move inland towards the river valleys,
soil particles appear somewhat bigger in size.
l Apart from the size of their grains or components, soils
are also described on the basis of their age. According to
their age, alluvial soils can be classified as old alluvial
(Bangar) and new alluvial (Khadar).
l The Bangar soil has higher concentration of kanker
K
nodules than the Khadar. It has more fine particles and is
more fertile than the Bangar.
l Mostly these soils contain adequate proportion of potash,
phosphoric acid and lime, which are ideal for the growth
of sugarcane, paddy, wheat and other cereal and pulse
crops. Due to their high fertility, regions of alluvial soils
are intensively cultivated and densely populated.
l Alluvial soils as a whole are very fertile.
Black Soils
KUNDAN
l Black soil is formed by the weathering and erosion of
volcanic lavas. It is known as Regur. It is of black colour
and best suited for cultivation of cotton. Therefore, it is
also known as Black Cotton Soil.
l It spreads over about 5.46 lakhs km2 area. It covers most
of the Deccan Plateau, which includes Maharastra,
Madhya Pradesh, Gujarat, Andhra Pradesh and some parts
of Tamil Nadu.
l Its black colour is due to the presence of magnetite, iron,
compounds of aluminium, aluminium silicate, etc.
l During the dry season, these soils develop wide cracks.
Thus, there occurs a kind of self-ploughing.
l The black soil has high moisture-retaining capacity for a
very long time, which helps the crops, especially the rain-
fed ones, to sustain even during the dry season.
l Cotton, coarse grains, sunflower, oil seeds, vegetables
and citrus fruits are grown in it. It is rich in aluminium,
calcium and magnesium, iron, lime and potash but poor in
nitrogen, phosphorus and carbon compounds.
Red and Yellow Soils
l Red soil spreads over an area of about 5.18 lakh km2. It
develops on crystalline igneous rocks of low rainfall in
Geography
the eastern and southern part of the Deccan Plateau.
l Along the piedmont zone of the Western Ghat, a long
stretch of area is occupied by red loamy soil. Yellow and
red soils are also found in parts of Odisha and
Chhattisgarh and in the southern parts of the middle Ganga
plain.
l Red and yellow soils are normally fertile. They are generally
poor in nitrogen, phosphorus and humus, and rich in
potash.
l These soils develop a reddish colour due to diffusion of
iron in crystalline and metamorphic rocks. They look yellow
when they occur in a hydrated form.
Laterite Soils
l Laterite soils develop in areas with high temperature and
high rainfall.
l These soils are widely cut as bricks for use in house
construction. Actually laterite has been derived from the
Latin word later, which means brick.
l These soils have mainly developed in the higher areas of
the Peninsular Plateau and are suitable for tree crops like
cashewnut.
l Laterite soils are suitable for cultivation with adequate
doses of manure and fertilizers.
l The laterite soils are commonly found in Karnataka, Kerala,
Tamil Nadu, Madhya Pradesh and the hilly areas of Odisha
and Assam.
Forest and Mountainous Soils
l These soils are found in the hilly and mountainous areas
where sufficient rain forests are available.
l These soils are spread over an area of about 2.85 lakh km2.
Variations are found in these soils due to various climatic
and ecological conditions in which they are found.
l These are deficient in potash, phosphoric acid and lime.
Arid Soils
l Arid soils range from red to brown in colour. They are
generally sandy in texture and saline in nature.
l Due to dry climate and high temperature, evaporation is
faster and the soil lacks humus and moisture.
l After proper irrigation these soils become cultivable as
has been the case of western Rajasthan.
Saline and Basic Soils
l Saline soils are also known as Usara soils. These soils are
found in about 1.7lakh km2 area of arid and semi-arid part.
Saline soils contain a larger proportion of sodium,
potassium and magnesium, and thus, they are infertile,
and do not support any vegetative growth.
l They have more salts, largely because of dry climate and
poor drainage. They occur in arid and semi-arid regions,
l 37
 and in waterlogged and swampy areas.
l Saline soils are more widespread in western Gujarat, deltas
of the eastern coast and in Sunderban areas of West Bengal.
l These are locally known as Reh, Kallar, Rankas, Oosar,
Karl, Choppen, etc.
Peaty Soils
l These soils are found in areas of heavy rainfall and high
humidity, where there is a good growth of vegetation.
Forests of India
l According to International conventions, every country
should have about 33% of its area under forests. The
world average of forest cover is 26.6%.
K
l Indias forest cover in 2007 is 6,90,899 km2, which is
21.02% of the geographical area.
l Mangroves in India are about 0.14% of the geographical
area of country and are found in deltaic plains.
l Madhya Pradesh has got the largest forest cover in the
country followed by Aruncahal Pradesh, Chhattisgarh,
Maharashtra and Odisha.
l Arunachal Pradesh has got the largest area of very dense
forest cover and Andhra Pradesh has got the largest area
of scrub.
In terms of percentage forest cover with respect to its
KUNDAN
l
geographical area, Mizoram (91.27%) is at the top followed
by Lakshadweep Islands (82.75%), Nagaland (81.21%),
Andaman and Nicobar Islands (80.76%), Arunachal
Pradesh (80.43%), Manipur (77.40%), Meghalaya (77.23%)
and Tripura (76.95%).
l Indias tree cover has been estimated as 92,769 km2
constituting 2.82% of the geographical area of the
country. Tree cover constitutes the largest area in
Maharashtra (9,466 km2) followed by Gujarat (8,390 km2),
Rajasthan (8,274 km2) and Uttar Pradesh (7,381 km2).
Types of Forest
On the basis of certain common features such as
predominant vegetation type and climatic regions, Indian
forests can be divided into the following groups:
(i) Tropical Evergreen and Semi-Evergreen forests
(ii) Tropical Deciduous forests
(iii) Tropical Thorn forests
(iv) Montane forests
(v) Littoral and Swamp forests
38 l Geography
Thus, a large quantity of dead organic matter accumulates
in these areas, and this gives a rich humus and organic
content to the soil.
l Organic matter in these soils may go even up to 40-50 per
cent. These soils are normally heavy and black in colour.
At many places, they are alkaline also.
l These soils are found widely in the northern part of Bihar,
southern part of Uttaranchal and the coastal areas of West
Bengal, Odisha and Tamil Nadu.
Tropical Evergreen and Semi-Evergreen Forests
These forests are found in the western slope of the Western
Ghats, hills of the northeastern region and the Andaman
and Nicobar Islands. They are found in warm and humid
areas with an annual precipitation of over 200 cm and mean
annual temperature above 22C. In these forests, trees reach
great heights up to 60 m or above. As such these forests
appear green all the year round. Species found in these forests
include rosewood, mahogony, aini, ebony, etc. The semi-
evergreen forests are found in the less rainy parts of these
regions. Such forests have a mixture of evergreen and moist
deciduous trees. Main species are white cedar, hollock and
kail. The oak forests in Garhwal and Kumaon were replaced
by pine (chirs), which was needed to lay railway lines.
Tropical Deciduous Forests
These are the most widespread forests in India. They are also
called the monsoon forests. They spread over regions which
receive rainfall between 70-200 cm. On the basis of the
availability of water, these forests are further divided into
moist and dry deciduous. The moist deciduous forests are
more pronounced in the regions which record rainfall between
100-200 cm. These forests are found in the northeastern states
along the foothills of Himalayas, eastern slopes of the
Western Ghats and Odisha. Teak, sal, shisham, hurra, mahua,
amla, semul, kusum and sandalwood are the main species of
these forests. Dry deciduous forests cover vast areas of the
country, where rainfall ranges between 70-100 cm. These
forests are found in rainier areas of the Peninsula and the
plains of Uttar Pradesh and Bihar. Tendu, palas, amaltas, bel,
khair, axlewood, etc. are the common trees of these forests.
Tropical Thorn Forests
Tropical thorn forests occur in areas which receive rainfall
less than 50 cm. These consist of a variety of grasses and
shrubs. It includes semi-arid areas of southwest Punjab,
Haryana, Rajasthan, Gujarat, Madhya Pradesh and Uttar
Pradesh. In these forests, plants remain leafless for most part
of the year and give an expression of scrub vegetation.
Important species found are babool, ber, wild date palm, khair,
neem, khejri, palas, etc.
Montane Forests
In mountainous areas, the decrease in temperature with
increasing altitude leads to a corresponding change in natural
vegetation. Mountain forests can be classified into two types:
the northern mountain forests and the southern mountain
forests. The Himalayan ranges show a succession of
vegetation from the tropical to the tundra, which change with
the altitude. Deciduous forests are found in the foothills of
the Himalayas. It is succeeded by the wet temperate type of
forests between an altitude of 1,000-2,000 m. In the higher hill
ranges of northeastern India, hilly areas of West Bengal and
Uttaranchal, evergreen broad-leaf trees such as oak and
chestnut are predominant. Between 1,500-1,750 m, pine forests
K
are also well-developed in this zone, with pine as a very useful
commercial tree. Deodar, a highly valued endemic species,
grows mainly in the western part of the Himalayan range.
Deodar is a durable wood mainly used in construction activity.
Similarly, the chinar and the walnut, which sustain the famous
Kashmir handicrafts, belong to this zone.
At many places in this zone, temperate grasslands are
also found. But in the higher reaches, there is a transition to
Alpine forests and pastures. Silver fir, juniper, pine, birch,
rhododendron, etc. occur between 3,000-4,000 m. However,
these pastures are used extensively for transhumance by
KUNDAN
tribes like the Gujjars, the Bakarwals, the Bhotiyas and the
Gaddis. The southern slopes of the Himalayas carry a thicker
vegetation cover because of relatively higher precipitation
than the drier north-facing slopes. At higher altitudes, mosses
and lichens form part of the tundra vegetation. The southern
mountain forests include the forests found in three distinct
areas of Peninsular India, viz the Western Ghats, the Vindhyas
and the Nilgiris. As they are closer to the tropics, and only
1,500 m above the sea level, vegetation is temperate in the
higher regions, and subtropical on the lower regions of the
Biosphere Reserves in India
The programme of Biosphere Reserve was initiated under the
'Man & Biosphere' (MAB) programme by UNESCO in 1971.
The purpose of the formation of the biosphere reserve is to
conserve in situ all forms of life, along with its support system,
in its totality, so that it could serve as a referral system for
monitoring and evaluating changes in natural ecosystems.
Geography
Western Ghats, especially in Kerala, Tamil Nadu and
Karnataka. The temperate forests are called Sholas in the
Nilgiris, Anaimalai and Palani hills. Some of the other trees of
this forest of economic significance include, magnolia, laurel,
cinchona and wattle. Such forests are also found in the Satpura
and the Maikal ranges.
Littoral and Swamp Forests
India has a rich variety of wetland habitats. About 70 per cent
of this comprises areas under paddy cultivation. The total
area of wet land is 3.9 million hectares. The country's wetlands
have been grouped into eight categories, viz. (i) the reservoirs
of the Deccan Plateau in the south together with the lagoons
and other wetlands of the southern west coast; (ii) the vast
saline expanses of Rajasthan, Gujarat and the Gulf of Kutch;
(iii) freshwater lakes and reservoirs from Gujarat eastwards
through Rajasthan (Keoladeo National Park) and Madhya
Pradesh; (iv) the delta wetlands and lagoons of India's east
coast (Chilka Lake); (v) the freshwater marshes of the
Gangetic Plain; (vi) the floodplains of the Brahmaputra; the
marshes and swamps in the hills of northeast India and the
Himalayan foothills; (vii) the lakes and rivers of the mountain
region of Kashmir and Ladakh; and (viii) the mangrove forest
and other wetlands of the island arcs of the Andaman and
Nicobar Islands.
Mangroves grow along the coasts in the salt marshes,
tidal creeks, mud flats and estuaries. They consist of a number
of salt-tolerant species of plants. Crisscrossed by creeks of
stagnant water and tidal flows, these forests give shelter to a
wide variety of birds. In India, the mangrove forests spread
over 6,740 sq km, which is 7 per cent of the world's mangrove
forests. They are highly developed in the Andaman and
Nicobar Islands and the Sunderbans of West Bengal. Other
areas of significance are the Mahanadi, the Godavari and the
Krishna deltas. These forests too, are being encroached upon,
and hence, need conservation.
Note: West Bengal has nearly half of the countrys Mangroves.
Under the promotional measures, the govt has identified
28 mangrove areas for intensive conservation &
management.
The first biosphere reserve of the world was established in
1979. Since then, the network of biosphere reserves has
increased to 564 in 109 countries across the world (MAB,
2010). Presently, there are 17 existing biosphere reserves in
India.
l 39
 Biosphere Reserves in India (as on January 1, 2012)
S. No. Name Date of Notification Area (in km2) Location (State)
1. Achanakamar - 2005 3835.51 (Core 551.55 Covers parts of Anupur and
Amarkantak & Buffer 3283.86) Dindori districts of M.P. and parts of
Bilaspur districts of Chhattisgarh State.
2. Agasthyamalai 12.11.2001 1828 Neyyar, Peppara and Shendurney
Wildlife Sanctuaries and their adjoining
areas in Kerala.
3. Cold Desert 28.08.2009 7770 Pin Valley National Park and
surroundings; Chandratal and Sarchu &
Kibber Wildlife Sanctuary in Himachal
Pradesh
4. Dehang-Dibang 02.09.98 5111.50 (Core 4094.80 Part of Siang and Dibang Valley in
& Buffer 1016.70) Arunachal Pradesh.
5. Dibru-Saikhowa 28.07.97 765 (Core 340 & Part of Dibrugarh and Tinsukia Districts
Buffer 425) (Assam)

K
6. Great Nicobar 06.01.89 885 (Core 705 & Southernmost islands of Andaman And
Buffer 180) Nicobar (A&N Islands).
7. Gulf of Mannar 18.02.89 10,500 km2 Indian part of Gulf of Mannar between
Total Gulf area India and Sri Lanka (Tamil Nadu).
(area of Islands 5.55 km2)
8. Kachchh 29.01.2008 12,454 km2 Part of Kachchh, Rajkot, Surendra Nagar
and Patan Civil Districts of Gujarat State
9. Khangchendzonga 07.02.2000 2619.92 (Core 1819.34 & Parts of Khangchendzonga hills and
Buffer 835.92) Sikkim.

KUNDAN
10. Manas 14.03.89 2837 Part of Kokrajhar, Bongaigaon, Barpeta,
(Core 391 & Buffer 2,446) Nalbari, Kamprup and Darang districts
(Assam)
11. Nanda Devi 18.01.88 5860.69 (Core 712.12, Part of Chamoli, Pithoragarh, and
Buffer 5,148.570) & Bageshwar districts (Uttarakhand).
T. 546.34)
12. Nilgiri 01.09.86 5520 (Core 1240 & Part of Wayanad, Nagarhole, Bandipur
Buffer 4280) and Madumalai, Nilambur, Silent Valley
and Siruvani hills (Tamil Nadu, Kerala and
Karnataka).
13. Nokrek 01.09.88 820 (Core 47.48 & Part of Garo hills (Meghalaya).
Buffer 227.92, Transition
Zone 544.60)
14. Pachmarhi 03.03.99 4926 Parts of Betul, Hoshangabad and
Chindwara districts of Madhya Pradesh.
15. Seshachalam Hills 20.09.2010 4755.997 Seshachalam Hill Ranges covering parts
of Chittoor and Kadapa districts of
Andhra Pradesh
16. Simlipal 21.06.94 4374 (Core 845, Buffer Part of Mayurbhanj district (Odisha).
2129 & Transition 1400
17 Sunderbans 29.03.89 9630 (Core 1700 & Part of delta of Ganges and Brahmaputra
Buffer 7900) river system (West Bengal).

40 l Geography
 Agriculture of India
l Agriculture is the mainstay of the Indian economy.
l Agriculture & allied sectors contribute nearly 14.4% of
GDP of India. While about 58.2% of the population is
dependent on agriculture for their livelhiood.
l Total area coverage under foodgrains in 2010-11 has been
reported at 125.73 million hect areas.
l The area coverage under wheat during 2010-11 was
estimated at 29.25 million hectares. While rice is estimated
at 42.56 million hectare.
l India is the largest producer of mango, banana, turmeric,
spices, cashew nut and ginger.
l India is the third largest producer of coconut.
l India is the largest producer of pulse.
l Kerala is known as spice state of India.
l MP being the leading producing state of India contributes
to around 75% of the total Indian production and is also
called the Soyabean bowl of India.
l India is the second largest consumer and second largest
producer of tobacco in the world, second only to China.

Food Crops of India

Crop Temperature Rainfall Major Producer States

K
Rice Early growing stage 150-300 cm W. Bengal, Punjab, UP
16C-20C (heavy)
Ripening stage
18C-32C
Wheat Growing stage 50 cm-100 cm Uttar Pradesh, Punjab, Haryana
10C-15 C
Ripening stage
25C-28C
Maize 21C-27C; 50 cm-100 cm Madhya Pradesh
cannot stand frost Sunshine promotes growth. Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka
at any stage Cool, dry conditions necessary

KUNDAN
at ripening stage
Jowar, High Temperature Known as dry crops; Maharashtra, Karnataka, M.P.
Pulses 20C-30C 50-75 cm Rajasthan, Maharashtra
Note: India is the largest producer, consumer and importer of pulses. It produces 25% of pulses in the World.

Cash Crops of India

Crops Area and State Crops Area and State
Sugarcane Uttar Pradesh, Maharashtra, Karnataka, Tobacco AP, Gujarat, Karnataka, UP
Andhra Pradesh Black Pepper Kerala, Karnataka and Tamil Nadu
Cotton Gujarat, Maharashtra, Punjab Bajra Rajasthan, Gujarat, UP
Turmeric Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu Ginger Kerala and Meghalaya
Jute West Bengal, Bihar, Odisha and Assam Cardamom Kerala, Tamil Nadu and Karnataka
Tobacco Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Soyabean M.P. (Soyabean State), Rajasthan, Tamil
Maharashtra and Bihar Nadu
Tea Assam Hills, W. Bengal (Darjeeling), Groundnut Gujarat, Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh
H.P. and U.P. Mustard Rajasthan, Uttar Pradesh, Haryana
Coffee Karnataka, T.N. and Kerala
Rubber Kerala (75%), Tamil Nadu (20%),
Karnataka (3%), Andaman and Nicobar
islands (2%)

Geography l 41
Cropping Seasons in India Green Revolution
Different cropping seasons are: l During the 1960s wheat and rice production increased
(i) Kharif: Crops are sown at the beginning of the South- drastically. American scientist Dr William Gaude termed
West Monsoon (June) and harvested at the end of the it as Green Revolution. A number of new hybrid seeds
South-West Monsoon (October). Important kharif crops were imported from Mexico.
are jowar, bajra, rice, maize, cotton, jute, groundnut, l In India credit for it goes to Dr MS Swaminathan. He is called
tobacco etc. the Father of Green Revolution. Besides him, American
(ii) Rabi: Crops need relatively cool climate during the period Professor Norman Borlaug also played an important role in
of growth but warm climate during the germination of their it.
seeds and maturation. Sowing season is October-
November and harvesting season is March-April. Major Agriculture Revolutions
Important rabi crops are wheat, barley, gram, linseed,
mustard, masoor, peas and potatoes. Green Revolution Food grains
(iii) Zaid: Crops which may be raised throughout the year White Revolution Milk
with the help of artificial irrigation, especially in summer. Yellow Revolution Oil seeds
Important zaid crops are watermelon, tori, cucumber, leafy Golden Revolution Fruits (Apple)
and other vegetables. Pink Revolution Prawn
Grey Revolution Fertilizers

K
Fruits and Vegetables Brown Revolution Non-conventional energy
Silver Revolution Chicken/Egg
l India is the worlds second largest producer of fruits and Food chain Revoluion Saving food, vegetables & fruits
vegetables and is next to China in fruit production from decaying
excluding melons. Rainbow Revolution Amalgamation of all the above
l Indias share in world fruits and vegetables production is revolutions
10 per cent and 13.28 per cent respectively. Black Revolution Production of crude (petroleum)
l India is the largest producer of mango, banana, bapota Blue Revolution Fish production
and acid lime.
l India occupies first position in the production of
cauliflower, second in onion and third in cabbage in the

KUNDAN
world.

Irrigation in India
Sources of Irrigation Top three states using tank irrigation
l Mainly three types of sources are used for irrigation l Tamil Nadu
purposes in India. These are wells (including tubewells), l Andhra Pradesh
tanks and canals. l Odisha
l 55.68% of the total irrigated area is irrigated by wells Top three states using canal irrigation
(including tubewell and pumping sets).
l Canals irrigate about 32.04% of the total irrigated land. l J&K
l Tanks contribute 5.8%, and 6.47% is countributed by other l Haryana
sources. l Karnataka
l Uttar Pradesh has the largest number of tubewells in the Top three states using well irrigation
country. l Gujarat
l Uttar Pradesh
l Rajasthan

42 l Geography
 Important Irrigation and Power Projects
Name of the Project Location State Purpose
Nagarjuna Sagar River Krishna AP Irrigation
Multipurpose Project Hydroelectricity
Pochampad Project River Godavari AP Irrigation
Lower Sileru Project River Sileru (Godavari) AP Hydroelectricity
Kakarpara Project River Tapti Gujarat Irrigation
Kothagudam Project Singareni Coalfields AP Thermal Power
Kosi Project River Kosi Bihar Flood control, Irrigation
Gandak Project River Gandak UP, Bihar Irrigation, Hydroelectricity
Dhuvaran Power Station Kheda District Gujarat Thermal Power
Sabarigiri (Pambakakki) Project River Pamba-Kakki Kerala Hydroelectricity
Idukki Project Rivers Periyar, Kerala Hydroelectricity
Cherutheni, Idukki
Chambal Project River Chambal Rajasthan, MP Irrigation, Hydroelectricity
Tawa Project River Tawa (Narmada) MP Irrigation
Korba Project Near Korba Coalfields Chhattisgarh Thermal Power
Koyna Project River Koyna Maharashtra Hydroelectricity
Nagpur Power Station Koradi, Near Nagpur City Maharashtra Thermal Power

K
Tungabhadra River Tungabhadra Karnataka, AP Irrigation,
Multipurpose Project Hydroelectricity
Upper Krishna Project River Krishna Karnataka Irrigation
Sharavati Project River Sharavati Karnataka (near Hydroelectricity
Jog falls)
Hirakud River Mahanadi Odisha Irrigation
Multipurpose Project Hydroelectricity
Mahanadi Delta Project River Mahanadi Odisha Irrigation
Talcher Power Station Near Talcher Odisha Thermal power
Bhakra-Nangal River Sutlej HP, Punjab, Irrigation,

KUNDAN
Multipurpose Project Haryana Hydroelectricity
Indira Gandhi Canal River Sutlej in Punjab Rajasthan, Haryana, Irrigation
Project Punjab
Kundah Project River Kundah Tamil Nadu Hydroelectricity
Neyveli Power Station Neyveli Tamil Nadu Hydroelectricity
Ramganga Chuisot stream near Uttarakhand Irrigation,
Multipurpose Project Kalagarh Hydroelectricity
Rihand scheme River Rihand UP Hydroelectricity
Obra Power Station Obra UP Thermal Power
Damodar Valley Project River Damodar Jharkhand shared Flood control,
with West Bengal Hydroelectricity
Ukai Project River Tapti Gujarat Irrigation
Mahi Project River Mahi Gujarat Irrigation
Ghataprabha Project River Ghataprabha AP and Karnataka Irrigation
Bhima Project River Bhima Maharashtra Irrigation
Sardar Sarovar Project River Narmada Gujarat and MP Irrigation and Hydroelectricity
Bana Sagar Project River Sone Chhattisgarh, MP, Irrigation
UP and Jharkhand
Dulhasti Project River Chenab J&K Hydroelectricity
Salal Project River Chenab J&K Hydroelectricity
Thein Dam Project River Ravi Punjab Irrigation, Hydroelectricity
Malaprabha Project River Malaprabha Karnataka Irrigation
Jaykwadi Project River Godavari Maharashtra Irrigation

Geography l 43
 Beas Project River Beas Punjab and Haryana Hydroelectricity
Sharda Shayak River Ghaghra UP Irrigation
Mayurakshi Project River Mayurakshi West Bengal Irrigation, Hydroelectricity
Rana Pratap Sagar River Chambal Rajasthan Hydroelectricity
Suratgarh Super Suratgarh Rajasthan Thermal Power
Thermal Project
Mettur River Cauvery Tamil Nadu Hydroelectricity
Pallivasal River Mudirapuzha Kerala Hydroelectricity
Papanasam Project River Thamiraparani Tamil Nadu Hydroelectricity
Tehri Project River Bhilangana (Ganga) Uttarakhand Hydroelectricity
Farakka Project Ganga West Bengal Irrigation
Note: Damodar Valley Project was the first multi-purpose project of India. This project has been successful in controlling
disastrous floods, has turned the River of Sorrow (Damodar River) into river of plenty and brought agricultural
prosperity.

Industry in India

K
Textile industry
The textile sector is the second largest provider of
employment after agriculture in India.

Cotton textile industry

l Its origin dates back to 1818 when the first cotton textile
Silk textile industry
l India is the second largest producer of natural silk, after
China, and is the only country producing all four varieties
or natural silk, viz. mulberry, Tasar (Tropical Tasar & Oak
Tasar), Eri and Moonga. Of these, Golden Yellow Moonga
Silk is unique in India.
Note: The famous Silk Route passed through India, and
mill was started at Fort Glaster near Calcutta. Indian silk found markets worldwide.

KUNDAN
l The first modern cotton textile mill was established in
Bombay in 1854 by a local Parsi entrepreneur.
l India is the second largest producer of cotton in the world
after China.
l Maharashtra is the largest producer of cotton textiles
followed by Gujarat.
Leather industry
l Leather industry is known for its consistency in high
export earnings.
l The leather Industry is bestowed with an affluence of raw
materials as India is endowed with 21% of worlds cattle
and buffaloes and 11% of world goat and sheep population.
l India is the second largest producer of footwear and leather
garments in the world.
l Agra and Kanpur are major centres of footwear industry
in India.
Woollen textile industry
l The first woollen textiles mill was set up in 1876 at Kanpur.
l Indis is the 6th largest producer of wool and contributes
3% of total world production.
l Karnataka is the largest silk producer state of country,
accounting for about 70 per cent of the total production.
Major silk producing centres in the state are Tumkur,
Dodballapur, Bangalore and Mysore.
Jute textile industry
l Jute manufacturing existed in Bengal as handloom industry
but the large-scale industry started in 1859 at Rishra near
Calcutta.
l India accounts for 85% of the worlds jute production.
l Jute is also known as the Golden Fibre of Bengal.
l India is the largest producer and second largest exporter
of jute goods.
l There are 79 composite jute mills in the country. Out of the
total 79 jute mills, 62 jute mills are located in West Bengal.
Tea industry
l Tea cultivation in India was first started in the mid-19th
century in Darjeeling, Assam and Nilgiris.
l Nearly 98% of the tea production comes from Assam, West
Bengal, Tamil Nadu and Kerala while the rest of it comes

44 l Geography
 from Karnataka, terai region of Uttar Pradesh, Himachal
Pradesh, Arunachal Pradesh, Manipur and Tripura.
l India is the second biggest producer of tea after China.
l India is the largest producer and consumer of black tea in
the world.
Paper industry
l The first paper mill in the country was set up at Serampore
(Bengal) in 1832, which failed. In 1870, a fresh venture was
started at Ballygunge near Calcutta. The planned
development of paper industry began after independence.
l The paper industry in India is ranked among 15 top global
paper industries.
l Andhra Pradesh, with 18% of the countrys output, is the
leading producer of paper in India followed by
Maharashtra and West Bengal.
Major Paper Mills in India
l The National Newsprint and Paper Mills Ltd is located in
K
Nepanagar (Madhya Pradesh).
l Hindustan Paper Corp, Vellore.
l Mysore Paper Mill, Bhadravati.
Note: Ballarpur (Maharashtra) is the largest paper mill of the
country with annual capacity of 85,000 tones.
l Andhra Pradesh: Rajahmundry and Sirpur.
l Maharashtra: Mumbai, Pune, Ballarpur and Kamptee.
l West Bengal: Titagarh, Raniganj, Naihati, Baranagar,
Kolkata.
Raw material for paper industry
KUNDAN
Bamboo 70%
Salai Wood 12%
Sabai Grass 9%
Bagasses 4%
Waste Paper & Rags 5%
Rubber industry
l The most important segment of rubber industry is
constituted by tyres and tubes.
l Kerala has almost monopoly in rubber production,
accounting for more than 90% of the countrys output
and the rest comes from Tamil Nadu and Karnataka.
l India is the fourth largest producer of natural rubber with
a share of 8.2% in world production 2010.
Aluminium industry
l The availability of bauxite ore and electricity plays the
most significant role in localisation of this industry.
l In 1937, the first aluminum industry was set up in India at
J K Nagar, which was mainly a coal region. Further, in
1938, the second industry was established at Muri, which
is a bauxite mining region.
Geography
l Presently aluminium industries are located at Muri
(Jharkhand), Alwaye (Kerala), Renukoot (UP), Mettur
(Tamil Nadu), Korba (Chhattisgarh), Koyana (Maharastra)
and Belgaum (Karnataka).
Iron and steel industry
l The first iron and steel unit on modern lines was
established in 1830 at Porto Novo in Tamil Nadu. It could
not succeed.
l The real beginning of modern iron & steel industry was
made in 1907 only when Tata Iron & Steel Company
(TISCO) was set up at Jamshedpur (Sakchi at that time).
l During the Second Five Year Plan, three public sector units
were established at Bhilai (Chhattisgarh), Durgapur (West
Bengal) and Rourkela (Odisha).
l Bokaro Steel Plant was established during the Third Five
Year Plan with the help of Soviet Union.
l Rourkela and Bhilai steel plants were set up with
collaboration of Germany and USSR respectively and
Durgapur with the collaboration of Britain.
l Steel Authority of India Limited (SAIL): Established in
1973, SAIL is a govt undertaking and is responsible for
the managment of steel plants at Bhilai, Durgapur, Rourkela
and Bokaro.
l Three more steel plants were planned during the Fourth
Five Year Plan in order to meet the requirements of steel.
These plans are located at Salem (Tamil Nadu),
Vishakhapatnam (Andhra Pradesh) and Vijaynagar.
Major Steel Plants in India
1. Rashtriya Ispat Nigam Ltd.
2. Essar Steels Ltd.
3. Jindal Steels Ltd.
4. KVS Ispat
5. Daitari Steel Plant
6. Dolvi Steel plant
7. Monnet Ispat & Energy Ltd.
8. POSCO (Pohang Steel Co.)
of Korea
9. Bhushan Steel Ltd.
10. Neyveli Plant
Note: POSCO of Korea has entered into a Memorandum of
Understanding (MoU) with Odisha Govt. for setting up a
steel plant at Paradip with a total investment of Rs 51,000
crore. The project with a capacity of 12 million tonnes per
annum will be completed by 2016. It is billed as the biggest
FDI in Indian history.
l 45
Fertilizers industry
l The Indian fertilizers industry had a very humble beginning
in 1906, when the first manufacturing unit of single super
phosphate was set up in Ranipet near Chennai.
l Fertilizers Corporation of India (FCI) in Sindri (Jharkhand)
was the first large-sized fertilizer plant set up with a view
to establishing an industrial base to achive self-sufficiency
in food grains.
l India today is the third largest producer of nitrogenous
fertilizers in the world, only behind China and USA.
l National Fertilizers Limited (NFL)
l Fertilizer Corporation of India Ltd. (FCI)
l Brahmaputra Valley Fertilizer Corporation Ltd. (BVFCI)
l The Fertilizers and Chemicals Travancore Ltd. (FACT)
l Pyrites, Phosphates and Chemicals Ltd. (PPCL)
l KRIBHCO (Krishak Bharti Cooperative Ltd.)
Note: India is largely import-dependent for meeting the
requirements of potassic (K) and Phosphatic (P)
K
fertilizers.
Cement industry
l The first successful plant was set up in Porbandar in 1914,
although production of cement was started in 1904 in
Chennai.
Transport in India
l
l
KUNDAN
Rail Transport
The first train in India was started by Lord Dalhousie on
April 16, 1853 between Bombay and Thane (34 km).
In 1924-25 the Railway Budget was separated from the
General Budget.
Indian Railway Board was established in 1905.
Indian Railways was nationalised in the year 1950.
l At present Indian Railways consists of 1,13,617 total track
km.
l Indian Railways is the second largest of Asia (after China)
and fourth largest of the world after USA, Russia and
China.
l About 43% of the total routes of Indian Railways is
electrified.
l Total number of Railway Zones is 17 and the largest
Railway Zone is North Zone. Kolkata Metro was declared
as the 17th zone of the Indian Railways in early 2011.
l The oldest steam engine Fairy Queen still runs on rails.
l Longest run in terms of distance and time: Vivek Express
between Dibrugarh (Assam) and Kanyakumari covering
46 l Geography
l Madhya Pradesh: Katni, Jarnul, Satna, Durg, Maihar,
Neemach.
l Andhra Pradesh: Vijayawada, Karimnagar, Cementnagar,
Krishna, Adilabad.
l Rajasthan: Chittorgarh, Udaipur.
Glass industry
l UP: Firozabad (bangles), Bahjoi, Hathras, Naini,
Shikohabad.
l Maharashtra: Mumbai, Talegaon, Pune, Sitarampur.
l Tamil Nadu: Tiruvottiyar.
Sugar industry
l Uttar Pradesh is the leading producer of sugar.
l The districts of Darbhanga, Saran, Champaran and
Muzaffarpur are the leading producers of sugar in Bihar.
Salt industry
l India holds third position in the production of salt in the
world after China and US with an average annual
production of about 200 lakh tones and second largest
producer of iodised salt (60 lakh tones) next to China.
l
l
4278 km in about 82 hours, 40 minutes (3 days 10 hours 40
minutes).
Note: The train was rechristened Vivek Express after the
name of the great Indian saint Swami Vivekananda.
The oldest steam engine Fairy Queen still runs on rails.
Longest run in terms of distance and time: Vivek Express
between Dibrugarh (Assam) and Kanyakumari covering
4278 km in about 82 hours, 40 minutes (3 days 10 hours 40
minutes).
Note: The train was rechristened Vivek Express after the
name of the great Indian saint Swami Vivekananda.
l Fastest train in India: Bhopal Shatabdi Express (having
maximum speed of 140 km/h on Faridabad-Agra section)
l The Palace on Wheels is a specially designed train,
frequently hauled by a steam locomtive, for promoting
tourism in Rajasthan.
l Worlds longest railway platform: Kharagpur Station
l The worlds longest railway, the Trans-Siberian Railway
in Russia, is 9.438 km long. It runs from St Petersburg to
Vladivostok.
 Indian Railway Zones & Headquarters Roadways
Railway Zones Headquarters
l Indian road network of 41 lakh km (approx) is the second
Central Chhatrapati Shivaji Terminus
largest in the world and consists of National Highways,
Eastern Kolkata
State Highways, major/other district roads and village/
Northern New Delhi
rural roads.
North-Eastern Gorakhpur
l National Highways [NHs]: Though the NHs, which are
North-East Frontier Maligaon-Guwahati
the responsibility of the Central Govt, have about 70,934
Southern Chennai
km length and comprise only 1.7% of the total length of
South-Central Secunderabad
roads, it caries over 40% of the total traffic across the
South-Eastern Kolkata
length and breadth of the country.
Western Mumbai Churchgate
l The National Highways Development Project (NHDP) is
East Coast Bhubaneswar
the largest highway project ever undertaken in the country.
East-Central Hajipur
The NHDP is being implemented mainly by the National
North-Central Allahabad
Highways Authority of India (NHAI) in Phases I to VII.
North-Western Jaipur
l The Golden Quadrilateral consists of 5846 km and
South-Western Bengaluru (Hubli)
connects four major cities, viz., Delhi, Mumbai, Chennai
West-Central Jabalpur
and Kolkata. [Under NHDP Phase I; Chennai to Kolkata is
South-East Central Bilaspur
the largest side, which is 1684 km long.]

K
l Konkan Railway: Konkan railway has the administrative
status of a zone of the Indian Railways, but is not normally
considered a zone for operational purpose.
l The Konkan Railway was the missing link between Indias
commercial capital, Mumbai, and Mangalore. The 760-km
line connects Maharashtra, Goa and Karnataka states.
l The first electric train in India was Deccan Queen. It was
introduced in 1929 between Bombay and Pune.
l The 10.96-km-long Pir Panjal railway tunnel is Indias
longest and Asias second longest, aimed at reducing the
travel distance between Qazigund and Banihal to only 11
l The North-South and East-West [NSEW] corridor
comprise a length of 7,142 km. It connects Srinagar in the
north to Kanyakumari in the south, and Silchar in the
east to Porbandar in the west [under NHDP Phase-II].
l Grand Trunk (GT) Road, which was contructed by Sher
Shah Suri, connected Peshawar to Kolkata. It joined
Amritsar to Kolkata after the Partition of India.
l Maharashtra has the maximum length of surfaced road in
India.
l UP has the maximum length (7818 km) of National
Highways in India.

KUNDAN
km and providing a hassle-free travel up to Baramulla. The National Highways/Expressways 70,934 km
tunnel is part of the ambitious Udhampur Srinagar State Highways/Expressways 1,54,522 km
Baramulla rail link project of Northern Railways. Other Road Highways/Expressways 38,84,136 km
l The worlds highest railway bridge, five times the height l Road transport carries about 80% of total transport.
of Qutub Minar and 35 metres taller than the Eiffel Tower, l NH1 and NH2 are collectively called as the Grand Trunk
will come up over the Chenab river on the under- Road.
construction rail link to the Kashmir Valley. The bridge will l The Jawahar Tunnel (at Banihal Pass) is situated on NH
rise 359 metres over the Chenab, 65 km from Katra, on the 1A. This highway connects Jalandhar with Uri via Jammu
73 km Katra-Dharam section, of the ambitious Udhampur- and Srinagar.
Srinagar-Baramulla Rail Link Project. l The smallest National Highway of India is NH 47A.
l Most of the tunnels are located in the Western Ghats. l The highest roadway of the world is the Manali-Leh
l Indian Railways has the second biggest electrified system Highway.
in the world after Russia.
l Kolkata Metro Rail: The Metro Railway Kolkata was
Some important national highways
constructed progressively from 1972 to 1995. It extends National Highway Route
from Dum Dum near Netaji Subhas Chandra Bose airport, NH 1 Delhi-Amritsar
Kolkata, to Tollygunj over a length of 16.45 km. NH 2 Delhi-Kolkata
NH 3 Agra-Mumbai
Delhi Metro Rail Corporation Limited NH 4 Thane-Chennai
l It is a joint venture of the Government of India and the NH 5 Bahragora-Chennai (with the eastern
Delhi Government with equal equity. coast)
l Construction started in 1998, and the first section, on the NH 6 Dhule-Kolkata
Red line, opened in 2002 [Rithala to Dilshad Garden].

Geography l 47
 NH 7 Varanasi-Kanyakumari (the longest in
the country)
NH 8 Delhi-Mumbai (via Rajasthan-Gujarat)
NH 15 Pathankot-Samakhiali (along the Indo-
Pak border)
NH 17 Panvel-Edapalli (along the Western
Coast)
NH 28 Delhi-Lucknow
Air Transport
l Air transportation in India made a humble beginning in
1911 when air mail operation commenced over a little
distance of 10 km between Allahabad and Naini.
l The Indian National Airways was formed in 1933 and it
introduced air service between Karachi and Lahore.
l In 1953, the air transport was nationalised and two
corporations were formed: Air India International and the
Indian Airlines.
K
l In 2007, the Government of India announced that Air India
would be merged with Indian Airlines. As a part of the
merger process, a new company called the National
Aviation Company of India Ltd. (NACIL) was formed.
l The Maharaja is Air Indias official mascot.
l Pawan Hans Helicopters Ltd., the national helicopter
company of India, was incorporated in 1985. It was
incorporated with the primary objective of providing
helicopter support services to the oil sector for its off-
shore exploration operations, services in remote and hilly
areas and charter services for promotion of tourism.
KUNDAN
l Apart from Air India and its subsidiaries, there are at present
six private scheduled operators, viz Jet Airways (India)
Ltd., Jetline Airlines, Go Airlines (India) Pvt. Ltd.,
Kingfisher Airlines, Spice Jet Ltd. and Inter Globe Aviation
Ltd. (IndiGo).
l The Indira Gandhi Rashtriya Uran Akademi was set up
at Fursatganj, Rae Baraeli (UP) to bring about a quantum
improvement in the standards of flying and ground training
of commercial pilots in the country.
l Airport Authority of India (AAI) came into existence on 1
April, 1995 with the merger of the then two authorities
(National Airports Authority and International Airports
Authority of India.)
l AAI manages 115 airports, including 23 civil enclaves.
Important International Airports of India
1. Jawaharlal Nehru Airport (Santacruz Airport, Mumbai)
2. Subhas Chandra Bose Airport (Dum Dum Airport,
Kolkata)
3. Indira Gandhi International Airport (Delhi)
4. Rajiv Gandhi International Airport (Hyderabad)
5. Meenambakkam International Airport (Chennai)
6. Thiruvananthapuram International Airport
7. Bangalore International Airport
48 l Geography
8. Ahmedabad International Airport
9. Kochi International Airport
10. Srinagar International Airport
Water Transport
l The water transport is the cheapest mode of transport.
Water transport can be broadly divided into two groups:
inland water transportation and shipping. Shipping, in
turn, can again be divided into two categories: coastal
shipping and overseas shipping.
l Inland water transport includes natural modes like
navigable rivers and artificial modes like canals.
National Waterways:
The govt. has declared the following waterways as national
waterways:
l Allahabad - Haldia stretch (1620 km) of the Ganga-
Bhagirathi-Hooghly river system (NW-1) in 1986.
l Sadiya - Dhubri stretch (891 km) of Brahmaputra river
(NW-2) in 1988.
l Kottapuram - Kollam stretch of West Coast Canal along
with Champakara Canal and Udyogmandal Canal (205 km)
(NW-3) in 1993.
l Kakinada - Puducherry stretch of canals and the Kaluvelly
Tank, Bhadrachalam - Rajahmundry stretch of River
Godavari and Wazirabad - Vijayawada stretch of River
Krishna (1028 km) in 2008.
l Talcher - Dhamra stretch of river Brahmani, Geonkhali -
Charbatia stretch of the East Coast Canal, Charbatia-
Dhamra stretch of Matai river and the Mangalgadi -
Paradip stretch of the Mahanadi River Delta (585 km) in
2008.
The major ports are controlled by the central Government
while the medium and minor ports are included in the
Concurrent List of the Constitution and are managed and
administered by the respective states.
Major ports are:
1. Kandla (Gujarat): Kandla is tidal port. It is in Kuchchh
and was the first port developed soon after Independence
to ease the volume of trade on the Mumbai port, in the
wake of loss of Karachi port to Pakistan after the Partition.
2. Mumbai: Mumbai is the biggest port with a spacious
natural and well-sheltered harbour.
3. Nhava Sheva (Mumbai): The Nhava Sheva or Jawaharlal
Nehru port was planned with a view to decongest the
Mumbai port and serve as a hub port for this region.
This is the most modern and the largest artificial port of
the country.
4. Marmagao (Goa): Marmagao port is the premier iron-ore
exporting port of the country. This port accounts for
about fifty per cent of Indias iron ore export. From here,
the iron-ore is exported to Iran.
5. New Mangalore (Karnataka): It caters to the export of 12. Haldia (Kolkata): Haldia port was developed as a
iron ore . subsidiary port in order to relieve growing pressure on
6. Kochi (Kerala): It is known as the Best port in the East. the Kolkata port.
7. Tuticorin: The extreme south-eastern port Tuticorin is The important minor and medium ports of India are:
in Tamil Nadu. This port has a natural harbour and rich State/UT Ports
hinterland. Gujarat Okha, Dwaraka, Porbandar, Veraval,
8. Chennai: Chennai is one of the oldest artificial ports of Bharoch, Surat, Piprav
the country. It is ranked next to Mumbai in terms of the Maharashtra Ratnagiri
volume of trade and cargo. Karnataka Karwar (Navy port)
9. Visakhapatnam (Andhra Pradesh): Visakhapatnam is the Tamil Nadu Ennore, Mahabalipuram
deepest landlocked and well-protected port. Andhra Pradesh Muchhlipattanam, Kakinada
10. Paradip (Odisha): It specialises in the export of iron ore. Puducherry Yaman (Andhra Prdesh region),
11. Kolkata: Kolkata is an inland riverine port. Being a tidal Karaikal (Tamil Nadu region), Mahe
port, it requires constant dredging of Hoogly. (Kerala region)

Population of India
l

l
K
The study of population is called demography. Karl Marx
is the Father of Demographic Studies.
First census was held in 1872, but it was not a
synchronised census. First synchronised census was
held in 1881. Since then, census is conducted every ten
years. The last census was conducted in 2011, which
was the 15th census in this continuous series recorded
from 1872 and the seventh census since independence.
The Census schedules for the Census 2011 were printed
1.
2.
3.

1.
2.
Highest Growth Rates (2011)
States/Union Territories
Meghalaya.................................................
Arunachal Pradesh...................................
Bihar..........................................................
Union Territories
Dadra & Nagar Haveli..............................
Daman & Diu............................................
Percentage
27.82%
25.92%
25.07%
Percentage
55.5%
53.45%
3. Puducherry................................................ 27.72%

KUNDAN
in sixteen languages and the manual instructions for filling
up the schedules, in eighteen different languages.
l Census 2011 was the 15th National census of the country.
Lowest Growth Rates (2011)
l Dr C. Chandramouli was the sole in-charge of the Census States/Union Territories Percentage
2011. He is the current Registrar General and Census 1. Nagaland 0.47%
Commissioner of India. 2. Kerala 4.86%
3. Goa 8.17%
Growth Rate Union Territories Percentage
1. Andaman & Nicobar 6.68%
l 2001-2011 is the first decade (with the exception of 1911- 2. Lakshadweep 6.23%
1921) which has actually added lesser population l UP constitutes 16.49% population of India and India
compared to the previous decade. constitutes 17.5% population of world.
l The percentage decadal growth during 2001-2011 has
registered the sharpest decline since independence a The biggest countries in the world
decrease of 3.90 percentage points from 21.59 to 17.64
Population % of World Area-
per cent.
wise Population wise
l Uttar Pradesh is the most populous state in the country.
1. China 19.4% Russia
Its population is more than the population of Brazil.
2. India 17.5% Canada
l Longleng and Kiphire districts of Nagaland registered
3. USA 4.5% China
the lowest growth rate of population as -58.39% and
4. Indonesia 3.4% USA
-30.54% respectively.
5. Brazil 2.8% Brazil
l The growth rate was negative in Census 1921. The year
6. Paskistan 2.7% Australia
1921 is known as the year of demographic divide.
7. Bangladesh 2.4% India
l The growth rate was maximum in Census 1971.

Geography l 49
 Population % of World Area- Literacy
wise Population wise
8. Nigeria 2.3% Argentina l Serchhip (Mizoram) and Aizawl (Mizoram) are the most
9. Russia 2.0 Kazakhstan literate districts of India with percentages of 98.76 and
10. Japan 1.9 Algeria 98.50 as per census 2011 respectively.
l Alirajpur (Madhya Pradesh) and Bijapur (Chhattisgarh)
The Largest States (2011) are the least literate districts of India with percentages of
Population wise Area-wise 37.22 and 41.58 as per census 2011 respectively.
1. Uttar Pradesh Rajasthan Literacy 2001 2011
2. Maharashtra Madhya Pradesh National Aveerage Literacy 65.83% 74.04%
3. Bihar Maharashtra Male 75.85% 82.14%
4. West Bengal Andhra Pradesh Female 54.16 65.46%
5. Andhra Pradesh Uttar Pradesh Highest literate states: 2011
1. Kerala......................................................... 93.91%
The Smallest States (2011) 2. Mizoram..................................................... 91.58%
3. Tripura....................................................... 87.75%
Population wise Area-wise 4. Goa............................................................ 87.40%
1. Sikkim Goa 5. Himachal Pradesh.................................... 83.78%
2. Mizoram Sikkim Least literate states: 2011

K
3. Arunachal Pradesh Tripura 1. Bihar.......................................................... 63.82%
2. Arunachal Pradesh................................... 66.95%
Sex Ratio 3. Rajasthan................................................... 67.06%
l World average sex ratio is 984 (2011), whereas Indias Highest literate UTs: 2011
average in census 2011 is 940. 1. Lakshadweep............................................ 92.28%
l Mahe (Puducherry) and Almora (Utarakhand) are the 2. Daman & Diu............................................ 87.07%
two districts having maximum sex ratio of 1176 and 1142 3. Puducherry................................................ 86.55%
as per census 2011 respectively. Least literate UTs: 2011
1. Dadra & Nagar Haveli.............................. 77.65%
Highest sex ratio in states : 2011 2. Andaman & Nicobar................................. 86.27%

KUNDAN
3. NCT of Delhi ........................................... 86.34%
Kerala 1084
Most densely populated states: 2011
Tamil Nadu 995
1. Bihar ............................................................ 1102
Andhra Pradesh 992
2. West Bengal ............................................... 1029
Haryana 877
3. Kerala .......................................................... 859
J&K 883
Sikkim 889

Mineral resources of India

Coal
l Power sector is the largest consumer of coal in India
followed by steel industry, cement industry, etc.
Coal Gradations:
1. Anthracite (more than 80% carbon content)
2. Bituminous (60 to 80% carbon content)
3. Lignite (40 to 60% carbon content)
4. Peat (less than 40% carbon content)
l Major coalfields:West Bengal (Raniganj, Burdwan,
Bankura, Purulia, Birbhum, Jalpaigudi, Darjeeling),
Jharkhand (Jharia, Giridih, Hazaribagh and Palamau), Odisha
(Rampur, Hindgir, Talcher), Madhya Pradesh and
Chhattisgarh (Rewa, Korba, Betul).
Note: Coal is also known as black gold.
Manganese
l India has worlds second largest reserves of manganese ore.
l India is the sixth largest producer of manganese ore.
l Manganese ore is an important ingredient in the
manufacture of iron and steel.
l Found in: Odisha, Jharkhand (Singhbhum), Maharashtra
(Nagpur, Bhandara, Ratnagiri), Karnataka (Shimoga, Bellary)

50 l Geography
Copper
l Madhya Pradesh (Balaghat), Rajasthan (Khetri: oldest
copper mine of India), Jharkhand (Singhbhum, Masobani,
Surda), Karnataka (Chitradurg, Hassan)
Note: Singhbhum district of Jharkhand has the largest copper
ore resource in Asia.
Mica
l Jharkhand (Hazaribagh, Giridih, Kodarma), Bihar (Gaya,
Bhagalpur), Andhra Pradesh (Guntur, Vizag, Kurnool),
Rajasthan (Bhilwara, Udaipur, Jaipur)
l India has worlds largest reserves of mica. 4. Barauni
Note: The Gaya-Hazaribagh belt, with Koderma forest area,
contributes a large part of the countrys mica production. 6. Mathura
Petroleum
l Assam (Digboi: oldest field in India, Naharkatiya, Badarpur,
K
Masinpur and Pallharia), Gujarat (Ankleshwar : fountain of 11. Trombay
prosperity, Khambat, Kalol), Mumbai, Krishna-Godavari 12. Jamnagar (Reliance, largest refinery of India)
basin, Kharmbat basin, Bombay High, Bassein (South of
Bombay High), Rajasthan (Bhagyam, Mangla).
Iron
Iron ores are of four types:
1. Magnetite (Black ore): Iron content is 72%.
2. Haematite (Red ore): Iron content is 70%.
3. Limonite (Brown ore): Iron content is 60%.
KUNDAN
4. Siderite (Grey ore): Iron content is 45%.
l India possesses haematite, a very high-grade iron ore.
l Jharkhand (Singhbhum, Dhanbad), Odisha (Badampahar
group of mines in the Mayurbhanj district and in Keonjhar).
Bauxite
l Bauxite is an ore of Aluminium metal.
l Odisha (Kalahandi, Koraput), Jharkhand (Hazaribagh),
Andhra Pradesh (Nellore), Bihar (Gaya), Rajasthan (Ajmer).
Gold
l Karnataka (Kolar, Hutti, Raichur), Andhra Pradesh (Ramgiri
and Yeppamanna goldfields in Chittoor and Anantapur
districts respectively).
Silver, Zinc and Lead
l Rajasthan (Zawar mines near Udaipur), Andhra Pradesh
(Mysore, Chitradurg), Karnataka (Kolar mines).
Uranium
l The Tummalapalle mine is a uranium mine in Tumalapalli
Geography
village located in Kadapa of the Indian state of Andhra
Pradesh. Results from a research conducted by Atomic
Energy Commission of India in 2011 made the analysts
conclude that this mine might have one of the largest
reserves of uranium in the world.
l Uranium is also found in Jaduguda mine of Jharkhand.
Oil Refining
Important oil refineries in India:
1. Digboi (oldest refinery of India)
2. Koyali
3. Mumbai (two refineries)
5. Haldia
7. Visakhapatnam
8. Chennai
9. Kochi
10. Bongaigaon
13. Panipat
14. Bina
Natural Gas
l Over 3/4th of the production of natural gas comes from
Mumbai High. Gujarat accounts roughly for 10% of gas
production.
l Distribution of free gas resources: Natural gas in free form is
derived from the following regions:
1. The largest reserves come from the offshore Mumbai
High.
2. Cambay basin in Gujarat
3. Tripura
4. Kaveri offshore basin in Tamil Nadu
5. Krishna-Godavari Basin (K-G Basin, Reliance Petroleum)
Note: The gas discovered by Reliance Industries in deep waters
of the Krishna-Godavari off-shore basin has brought the
sector into sharp focus. It is reported to be the largest
discovery of natural gas in the world in the year 2002.
Atomic power plants
1. Tarapur (Maharashtra): Atomic power plant in India based
on US design.
2. Rawatbhata (Rajasthan): Based on Canadian design.
3. Kalpakkam (Tamil Nadu): The only atomic power plant
located in a coal-rich region.
4. Narora (Uttar Pradesh): The only atomic power plant used
for agricultural purpose.
5. Kakrapara (Gujarat)
6. Kaiga (Karnataka)
7. Kudankulam (Tamil Nadu): Fuel supplied by Russia
l 51
 The breakup of electricity generation through different l But, in terms of present production, Tamil Nadu comes first
sources is as follows: among the Indian states.
Thermal 82.0% l The largest wind energycentre in Asia is at Mandvi in Kutch
Hydroelectric 14.9% district of Gujarat.
Nuclear Power 3.4% l The largest wind farm group ofAsia is at Muppandal in Tamil
l The estimated potential of wind energy in India is the highest Nadu.
in Gujarat followed byAndhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Madhya
Pradesh, Rajasthan and Maharashtra.

Wildlife sanctuaries and national parks in India

l Corbett National Park was the first national park of India.
l Madhya Pradesh and Andhra Pradesh have the maximum number of national of parks in India.
Name Location Important Species
1. Bandipur National Park Mysore, Karnataka Elephant, Tiger, Bear, Sambhar, Panther

K
2. Balpakram Sanctuary Garo Hills, Meghalaya Tiger, Elephant, Bison
3. Chandraprabha Sanctuary Varanasi, UP Asiatic Lion, Tiger, Panther, Indian Gazelle, Sloth bear
4. Corbett National Park Nainital, Uttarakhand Elephant, Tiger, Sloth bear, Nilgai, Panther, Sambhar
5. Dachigam Sanctuary Jammu and Kashmir Kashmir stag (Hangul)
6. Dudhwa National Park Lakhimpur Kheri, UP Tiger, Panther, Sambhar, Nilgai
7. Ghana Bird Sanctuary Bharatpur, Rajasthan Siberian Crane, Spoonbill, Heron teal, Stork
8. Gir National Park Junagarh, Gujarat Asiatic Lion, Panther, Sambhar, Nilgai, Crocodile,
Rhinoceros
9. Hazaribagh National Park Hazaribagh, Jharkhand Tiger, Leopard, Sambhar, Chital
10. Jaldapara Sanctuary West Bengal Tiger, Leopard, Sambhar, Chital

KUNDAN
11. Kanha National Park Mandla and Balaghat, MP Tiger, Panther, Antelope, Barking Deer, Nilgai
12. Kaziranga National Park Jorhat, Assam Great Indian One-horned Rhinoceros, Wild Buffalo,
Sambhar, Tiger
13. Keoladeo Ghana Bharatpur, Rajasthan Birds
14. Manas Barpeta, Assam Tiger, Elephant, Panther, Wild Buffalo, One-horned
Rhinoceros
15. Mudumalai Sanctuary Nilgiri Hills, Tamil Nadu Elephant, Dear, Pigs
16. Namdapha National Park Arunachal Pradesh Tiger and Elephant
17. Palamau Daltonganj, Jharkhand Tiger, Elephant, Panther, Leopard
18. Parkal Warangal, AP Tiger, Panther, Chital, Nilgai
19. Periyar Idukki, Kerala Elephant, Tiger, Panther, Wild boar, Gaur, Sambhar
20. Pench Maharashtra Leopard
21. Ranganthitoo Bird Sanctuary Karnataka Birds
22. Rohila National Park Himachal Pradesh Royal Stag
23. Shivpuri National Park Shivpuri, MP Tiger, Birds
24. Sunderbans West Bengal Tiger, Wild boar, Crocodile, Deer
25. Silent Valley National Park Kerala, Tamil Nadu
26. Sariska Rajasthan Tigers
27. Simlipal Odisha Elephants, Tigers
28. Vendanthangal Bird Sanctuary Tamil Nadu Birds
29. Sultanpur Birds Santuary Hariyana Aquatic Birds
30. Wild Ass Sanctuary Little Rann of Kutch, Gujarat Wild Ass, Wolf, Nilgai, Chinkara
31. Salim Ali Bird Sanctuary Goa Birds

52 l Geography
l Project Tiger is the most famous wildlife conservation Old and New names of countries and cities
project of India. It was launched on 1 April, 1973 to protect
New Name Old Name
the diminishing population of Indian tigers.
Japan Nippon
l Project Elephant was launched in 1992. It was aimed at
Ho Chi Minh City Saigon
ensuring long-term survival of identified viable population
Surinam Dutch Guyana
of elephants in their natural habitat.
Hawaii Island Sandwich Island
Sobriquets of Places (India) Iran Persia
Iraq Mesopotamia
Sobriquet Place Malawi Nyasaland
The City of Golden Temple Amritsar Lesotho Vasutoland
The Land of Five Rivers Punjab Ghana Gold Coast
The Blue Mountains Nilgiri hills Ethiopia Abyssinia
The Sorrow of Bengal R. Damodar Thailand Siam
The Gateway of India Mumbai Taiwan Formosa
The Garden City of India Bangalore Kozhikode Calicut
The Queen of Arabian Sea Kochi St Petersburg Leningrad
The Venice of East Kochi Chennai Madras
The Pink City Jaipur Cambodia Campuchia, Khamer
The Spice Garden of India Kerala Djibouti French Somaliland

K
The Switzerland of India Kashmir Zambia North Rhodesia
The Diamond Harbour Kolkata Zimbabwe South Rhodesia
The City of Seven Islands Mumbai Istanbul Constantinople
The Twin Cities Hyderabad-Secunderabad Varanasi Benares, Kashi
The City of Lakes Srinagar Allahabad Prayagraj (Prayag)
The City of Temples and Zaire Republic of Congo
Banks (Ghats) Varanasi Madagascar Malagasy
The City of Nawabs Lucknow Myanmar Burma
The Backbone of the Economy Java Suvarnadweep and Yavodweep
of Northern India Ganga Patna Pataliputra
The Sorrow of Bihar Kosi

KUNDAN
Bangladesh East Pakistan
The Scotland of East Meghalaya Malaysia Malaya
The Hollywood of India Mumbai Harare Salisbury
The Steel City Jamshedpur
The Queen of Chhotanagpur Netarhat (Jharkhand) Tribes of India
The Queen of Mountains Mussoorie
States Tribes
The Child of Sea Lakshadweep
Andhra Pradesh Chenchus, Gonda, Kolam
The Kashmir of South Kerala
Arunachal Pradesh Apatanis, Mishmi
The Manchester of India Ahmedabad
Assam Naga, Mikir, Kuki
The Paris of India Jaipur
Gujarat Bhil, Banjara, Kali
The Pittsburgh of India Jamshedpur
Himachal Pradesh Gaddi, Gujjar
The Abode of God Allahabad
Maharasha Varli, Kol, Banjara
The Manchester of North India Kanpur
Jammu & Kashmir Gaddi, Gujjar, Bakkarwal
The Heart of India Delhi
Kerala Bhil, Mopla [Muslims of
The Southern Ganga Godavari
the Malabar district in
The City of Festivals Madurai
Kerala], Urali, Kadar
The Pearl of Karnataka Mysore
Madhya Pradesh Bhura, Baigar, Birhor,
The Basket of Fruits Himachal Pradesh
Muria, Gonda, Kathari,
The Thermopile of Rajasthan Haldighati
Kharia, Khond, Bhotia, Bhil,
The Paris of East Jaipur
Kol
The Pride of Rajasthan Chittorgarh
Manipur Naga, Kuki, Angami
The Gateway of Rajasthan Bharatpur
Meghalaya Garo, Khasi, Jaintia, Mihir
The Mini-Switzerland of India Khojjiyar (Chamba valley,
Mizoram Mizo, Lushai, Kulri
Himachal Pradesh)

Geography l 53
Nagaland Naga, Mihir, Sema, Ao Lines in Maps
Odisha Santhal, Khond
l Isohypse: The lines joining the points of both equal height
Rajasthan Mina, Bhil
and equal barometric pressure.
Sikkim Lepcha
l Isobath: The lines joining the points of equal depth of
Tamil Nadu Toda (Miligin), Badaga,
sea-water.
Kota, Kanikar, Irula
l Isobar: The lines joining the points of equal atmospheric
Tripura Kuki, Tripuri
pressure.
Uttarakhand Tharu, Khas, Bhotia
l Isobathytherm: The lines joining the ocean regions having
West Bengal Santhal, Bhomi
equal temperature.
Jharkhand Santhal, Munda, Ho, Korba,
l Isodopane: Lines of equal transportation costs.
Gonda, Bhumisi, Birhor
l Isogeotherm: The isotherms under the surface of the
Andaman & Nicobar Islands Sentinelese, Shompen,
Earth.
Onges
l Isolialine: The lines joining the ocean regions of equal
Important Indian towns on rivers salinity.
l Isohel: The lines joining the points of equal period of
Town River insolation.
Allahabad At the confluence of the Ganga l Isohyets: The lines joining the regions receiving equal
and Yamuna precipitation.
Patna Ganga

K
l Isonif: The lines joining the regions of equal snow.
Varanasi Ganga l Isoneph: The lines joining the regions of equal average
Kanpur Ganga cloud overcast.
Haridwar Ganga l Isophyte: The lines joining the points of equal height
Badrinath Alaknanda vegetation.
Agra Yamuna l Iso-seismal: The lines joining the points of equal
Delhi Yamuna earthquake intensity.
Mathura Yamuna l Isotherm: The lines joining the points of equal temperature
Ferozpur Satluj reduced to sea level.
Ludhiana Satluj l Isonomal: The lines showing equal thermal anomaly.
Srinagar Jhelum l Isocline: The lines of equal magnetic dip.

KUNDAN
Lucknow Gomti l Isogloss: The lines separating linguistic areas of a region.
Jaunpur Gomti l Isopract: A specialised chart prepared for population
Ayodhya Saryu study purposes.
Bareilly Ramganga l Isoganic Line: The lines of similar magnetic dip.
Ahmedabad Sabarmati l Agonic Line: The lines of zero magnetic dip.
Kota Chambal l Loxodrome or Rhumb Line: The line crossing all
Jabalpur Narmada meridians of longitude at the same angle.
Panaji Mandavi l Plumb Line: The line joining the surface and the centre of
Ujjain Kshipra the Earth.
Surat Tapti l Iso-stasy: Equilibrium state or balance on Earths surface
Jamshedpur Subarnarekha which is found between the light rock materials on the
Dibrugarh Brahmaputra Earth and the heavy rock materials inside the Earth.
Guwahati Brahmaputra l Isotach: The line in the weather maps, showing points of
Kolkata Hooghly equal wind velocity.
Sambalpur Mahanadi l Isobront: The line joining the regions of equal thunder-
Cuttack Mahanadi storms.
Serirangapatnam Cauvery l Isogonals: The lines joining the points of equal magnetic
Hyderabad Musi depression.
Nasik Godavari
Vijaywada Krishna
Kurnool Tungabhadra

54 l Geography