S2Exp Science

ELECTRICITY

1.1 Electric Current Flow of Electricity

When electrons move, we say an electric current is produced.

Electric current is the rate of flow of electric charge.
It is measured by the amount of electric charge moving per unit time past any point in
the circuit.
SI Unit of current = A (ampere)
Smaller current can be measured by milliampere (mA) and microampere (A), where 1A
= 1000mA and 1mA = 1000A

Current = Charge / Time (I = Qt )

SI unit for charges = C (coulomb)

1A means that in 1sec, there is 1C of charge flowing through the circuit.

Charge of one electron = 1.6 x 10-19 C, where the total charge of 1C is 6.24 x 10 18
electrons
Electric current can exist in conductors because electrons flow through them.
1A is thus equivalent to a drift of 6.24 x 1018 electrons past each point in a conductor
every second.

Ammeter is used to measure current.

It is connected in series with the component or wire.
Current must flow into positive (+) terminal (red) and leave negative ()
terminal (black), connected to the positive terminal of the energy source and
negative terminals respectively.
It must have low resistance to avoid significant alteration of the current.

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1.2 Conventional Current

When the conventions of positive and negative charge were invented two centuries
ago, it was assumed that positive charges flowed in wires.
It was established before it was known that free electrons are the particles that actually
move in a conducting wire.
Current direction in a circuit then is referred to as the direction of conventional current,
which is the opposite of electron flow.

Movement of positive charges Movement of electrons ()

From positive end of battery to From negative end of battery to
negative end of battery positive end of battery

1.3 Electric Circuits

Combination of electrical components to form a complete electric current path.

A typical electric circuit consists of four main components:

Wires
A source of electromotive force (energy) that drives
electric charges around the circuit.

Conductors that connect the components together,

providing a complete path for the current to flow. Dry cell

A load in which moving charges can do a useful job,

resistor and converts electrical energy to light and heat Switch
energy.

A method of opening or closing the circuit, turning the

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current on or off. Bulb
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Circuit Symbols: common ones

Series Circuit
Electrical components are joined after another to form a single loop
Electric current passes through a single path in a series circuit
Current in every point in a series circuit is the same.

Parallel Circuit
Electrical current is divided into branches
Electrical components are connected in each branch
Electrical current passes through all branches of a parallel circuit.

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Closed/Complete circuit: A circuit which has no gap and allows electric current to flow
through.
Open circuit: A circuit which has a gap and does not allow electric current (unable) to
flow through.
Short circuit
Acts as a bypass for the electric current by providing a low resistance path for it
to flow
Very large current flowing through overheating (danger)
Drawing of circuits:
Provide direction of current (arrows)
Label current, bulb (if necessary), battery charge (+/-)
All lines must be connected
Symbols drawn correctly

Bulbs do not light

Series
Advantages Only a single switch is needed
to control all electrical
components in the circuit.
The current increases if the
number of cells connected in
the circuit increases.
Parallel
Each electrical component is
controlled by its own switch
If one bulb is
disconnected/blown, the others
will still be lit and current will still
flow.

The current flowing through all If more bulbs are added in

the electrical components is the
same. If same type, same
brightness.
Disadvantage If one bulb is
s disconnected/blown, the others
will not be lit and current will
not flow.
Each electrical component does
not receive the full voltage from
parallel, each bulb will still
receive the full voltage from the
electrical source.
Many switches are needed.
Too many resistors connected in
parallel will result in the flow of a
large current in the main branch
and may result in a short circuit.

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the electrical source but is
shared equally if same type.

If more bulb are added, the

voltage across each bulb
decreases and the bulbs will
become dimmer.

1.4 Electromotive Force (emf)

Mechanical energy Kinetic/Potential

The source of emf is a device in which non-electrical energy (chemical, mechanical or
some other forms of energy) is changed into electrical energy.
Battery (CPE EE), Generator, Solar Cells
The emf from the a cell (source) is the amount of energy transferred from non-electrical
from to electrical form when one coulomb of positive charge passes through the cell
(source).
SI Unit for emf = V (volt)

1.5 Potential Difference

Also known as voltage in V (volt)

kilovolt (kV), millivolt (mV) where 1kV = 1000V and 1mV = 1/1000V
The potential difference (p.d) between any two points is the amount of energy
converted from electrical forms to other forms when one coulomb of positive charge
passes between the points.
To measure the potential difference between any two points in a circuit, a voltmeter is
needed
A voltmeter is to measure the potential difference/emf in V.
Connected across the two points in parallel to the electrical component (eg. bulb)
The positive(red) and negative(black) terminals of a voltmeter should be
connected to the positive and negative terminals respectively of the electrical
source.
Very large resistance so that no current flows through it and not affect the total
voltage.

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1.6 Resistance

A property of a conductor that restricts or hinders the movement of the free

electrons/opposes the flow of electric charges in the conductor to control the flow of
(current and voltage in an) electric circuit.
Determines the size of current which can pass through the material
Resistance of component is the ratio of the potential difference across the conductor to
the current flowing through it.
SI Unit = (ohm)
1 k = 1000 and 1m = 1000 k
Higher resistance lower current flowing through
Factors affecting resistance:
Type of material/conductor: poor conductor has higher resistance (eg. nichrome)
copper lower
Diameter of cross sectional area: larger the diameter, the lower the resistance
Length of wire: longer the wire, higher the resistance
Copper is used to carry current in households, Theses wire have low resistance and are
enclosed in electrical insulators or materials with high electrical resistance, usually a
flexible plastic.
Fixed resistors cannot change their resistance, where coloured bands indicate the
resistance of the resistor. (Change resistor to change resistance)
Variable resistors like rheostats can adjust their resistance to adjust the amount of
current flowing through.

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Slider

Can adjust slider.

Move right (>
resistance)

Sockets/Terminals

The greater the current in the circuit, the brighter the bulb.
Adding another resistor in parallel decreases the resistance in the circuit. Hence,
the current flowing through the light bulb increases, making it brighter.
Adding another resistor in series increases the resistance in the circuit. Hence,
the current flowing through the light bulb decreases, making it dimmer.

1.6 Ohms Law

V=IR , where I (current), V(voltage) and R (resistance)

Current is directly proportional to voltage but inversely proportional to resistance.

Series Parallel
I (current) I1 = I2 = I3 = I = I1 + I2 + I3 +
V (voltage) emf = V1 + V2 + emf = V1 = V2 =
R Rtotal = R1 + R2 + Decreases
(resistance) 1 1 1
= + +
R total R1 R2

1.7 Effects of Electrical Current

Effect Explanantion
Causes compounds to break down and produces new substances.

(A) Extraction of metals

Aluminium can be extracted from bauxite by passing electricity
through the molten from of bauxite.

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Chemical Also aluminium oxide aluminium + oxygen

(B) Electroplating

(C) Acidified Water

Bubbles can be seen at the two electrodes when electric current
passes through due to liberation of gases.

Also copper chloride/sodium chloride. See Chapter 4

(A) The needle in the compass deflects when more current passes
through.

(B) Electromagnet when iron rod is placed inside a solenoid and

current passes through it.
Made stronger by: Increasing the current in the coil, increase the
Magnetic number of turns of wire in the coil and winding the coil around a
soft iron core than a hard one.

(C) Telephones
The diaphragm is attached to springs that are fixed to the earpiece.
When current flows through the wires, the soft-iron bar becomes an
electromagnet. The diaphragm becomes attracted to the
electromagnet. As the person on the other end of the line speaks,
his voice causes the current in the circuit to change and causes the
diaphragm in the ear piece to vibrate and produces sound.
High resistance more heat
Heating Nichrome is covered with a layer of electrical insulation. The
insulated element is then placed in a looped tube made of a good
conductor of thermal energy.
Current flows in the highly-coiled filament. (Tungsten)
Light Current causes the filament to heat up and therefore glows and
gives out light. High resistance more heat

1.8 Electrical Consumption

Energy = Power x Time (kWh = kW x h)

Power is the amount of energy converted to other forms of energy per unit time by the
component.
If SI Unit = W x S (Joules) do not use due to big numbers
SI Unit of Power = W (watt)
1kW = 1000W and 1MW = 1000kW, 1GW = 1,000,000,000W

1.9 Hazards of Electricity

Electricity can cause electrical fires or electrocution.

Effects of current on human health:
o < 0.010A tingling or imperceptible
o 0.020A painful and cannot let go; involuntary muscle contraction

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o 0.030A breathing disturbed; involuntary muscle contraction
o 0.070A loss of muscle control; breathing becomes difficult
o 0.100A death due to fibrillation of the heart
o > 0.200A -

Dangers of Electricity

All circuits require 2 wires to form a complete circuit. (live and neutral
wires)

Live wires are dangerous as they are at a higher potential of 240V

(SG)

When live wire accidentally touches the neutral wire short circuit
Damaged high current overheating of wire electric fire
Insulation
The wires are insulated with rubber and they are housed together in a
circular PVC sheathed cable.

Sometimes, insulation may wear off:

Touching the exposed live wire may give us a bad shock
Unintentional short circuit when live and neutral wire touches
each other

Current will flow when there is a potential difference.

Occurs when there is a short circuit or overloading (too many plugs)

Usually large current will flow through and large amount electrical
energy will convert to large amount of heat energy.

Melt insulation and start a fire.

The more plugs you fit into the socket, the more branches of parallel
Overheating of circuits introduced. The current will also increase.
cables
An electric socket should carry only one plug.

When more plugs fitted to various electrical appliances are connected,

a larger current will flow in the circuit.

Cables are related according to the current they can carry without
overheating. Cables that carry more than a safe amount of current are
said to be overloaded.
Resistance of the human body (skin and internal)

Dry skin has a high resistance of 100 000 while we skin only has a
resistance of a few hundreds
Damp Conditions
In the event of a damaged insulation that the live wire is exposed, the person
will be in the risk of electrocution.

Water being a good conductor of electricity, if the wire is touching the water, the
current will flow through it and to the person (in the bath tub)
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Safety Devices

A safety device that is inserted into an electrical circuit.

Makes used of the heating effect of an electric current to switch off a

large current

A thin piece of wire that becomes hot (heated up) and melt when
excessive current flows through it, breaking the circuit, opening the
Fuse circuit.

Prevents excessive current from flowing through.

Placed on live wire.

When the wire in the fuse melts, we say that the fuse is blown.

A blown fuse should be replaced after an electrical fault has been

rectified.

Rating of fuse: Current (I) = Power (W) / Voltage (V)

Designed to break or complete an electrical circuit
Switch
Should be fitted to the live wire of the appliance/in the circuit.
Can also cut off an electrical current.

Unlike a fuse, it does not need to be replaced.

Circuit Breaker In home, it is found in the consumers unit.

Each circuit breaker is a switch-like lever connected to a different part

of the household circuit.

Main switch turns on or off all electricity in the household.

After fixing the damaged appliance or damaged part in the circuit, the
circuit can be switched on again using the circuit breaker. (push up the
lever)

Earth wire Earth yellow-green

Live Brown (240V)
Neutral Blue
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***Gathered in a single electric cable, three metal pins connect the
three wires to the household circuit.

Connected to the metal casing of an electrical applicance. Provides a

path of low electrical resistance. The large current flows directly from
the live wire into the ground or earth, instead of the person, in the
event that the live wire is in contact with the metal casing of the
electrical component, preventing him from electric shock.

Double insulation
some household appliances use 2-pin plugs
no earth wire
use double insulation to protect themselves
2 Levels insulated from the internal components (electric
cables)
- internal components insulated from the external
casing.
usually have non-metallic casings such as plastics.

symbol of double insulation

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