Chapter 1: Introduction

1.1 Definition of Structure

Structure is defined as something made up of interdependent parts in a definite
pattern of organization. There is a plan!

Structure is . . .
A way to achieve the most strength from the least material.
A way of arranging the structural elements in the most effective and efficient
way to achieve a form that is suitable for its intended use.

The primary function of a building structure is to support and redirect loads and
forces safely to the ground.
Building structures are constantly withstanding the forces of wind, the effects
of gravity, vibrations, and sometimes earthquakes.

To structure also means to build to make use of solid materials (e.g. timber,
masonry, steel, concrete) in such a way as:
To create space suitable to a particular function(s), and
To protect the internal space from undesirable external elements.

A structure, whether large or small, must

Be stable and durable.
Satisfy the intended function(s) for which it was built.
Achieve an economy or efficiency (i.e. maximum results with minimum means).

1.2 Structural Design

Structural design is a process that
Determines the anticipated forces that act on the structural elements of the
building.
Selects the materials (including the type and size) to resist these forces.

Structural design must effectively address strength and stability.

Strength - A building must never collapse under the action of anticipated loads.
Stability - Deformation of the structure or its elements should not cause
material distress (e.g. popping nails, causing cracks in drywall or plaster,
breaking glass panels or ceramic pieces) or psychological harm (i.e. the feeling
that the building is unsafe).

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 A structure does not need to collapse to be of poor design.
A structure employing inappropriate materials, or an unsuitable size and
proportion of elements, reflects a lack of organization and effectiveness.
A structure that is over-designed reflects a poor use of resources in our
current world situation of rapidly diminishing resources.

The general procedure of designing a structural system (called structural planning)

consists of the following phases.
Conceiving of the basic structural form (e.g. single story, high-rise, split-level).
Devising the gravity and lateral force resisting strategy (e.g. girder, truss, and
arch).
Roughly proportioning the component parts (i.e. preliminary design to size the
elements and establish a budgetary cost).
Developing a foundation scheme (e.g. spread footings, wall footings, mat or raft
foundations, grade beams, pile foundations).
Determining the structural materials to be used (e.g. steel, aluminum, wood,
masonry).
Detailed proportioning of the component parts (i.e. detailed design).
Devising a construction methodology (i.e. construction phasing, construction
bracing, on-site coordination).

The design of any large structure involves a team of professionals working jointly
with the client.
Architect - The architectural firm (or individual) serves as a coordinator (i.e. a
project manager) and maintains a leadership role throughout the project (even
in the initial structural planning stages).
Engineers Structural engineers may be consulted to perform the detailed
design of the structural elements.
Soils engineers/geologists Soils engineers or geologists may be consulted to
provide testing and analysis of the site geology and determine the strength of
soils that will support the foundations of the structure and the corresponding
bearing capacities.

1.3 Parallels in Nature

A concept described as the economy of means leads to efficient and effective
structural design.

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The two economy of means associated with building design include the human
aspect and the nature aspect.
Human aspect - Expediency, availability of materials, cost, and constructability.
Nature aspect - Attention to the laws of nature (e.g. the law of gravity, laws of
physics).

Economy of means - parallels in nature:

Tree a system of cantilevers.
Honeycomb (beehive) a cellular structure (example of optimization).
- This system, an arrangement of hexagonal cells, contains the greatest
amount of honey with the least amount of beeswax and is the structure that
requires the least energy for the bees to construct.

Economy in structure does not just mean cheap.

Without economy of structure, neither a bird nor an airplane could fly, for their
sheer weight would crash them to earth.
Without economy of materials, the dead weight of a bridge could not be
supported.

Support of the dead weight of a structure in nature involves two factors.

Large material strength-to-weight ratios.
- Nature uses materials of fibrous cellular structure (as in most plants and
animals) to create incredible strength-to-weight ratios.
Efficient development of the cross-section.
- Structural forms (e.g. a palm leaf, a nautilus shell, or a human skeleton in
nature and I-beams in buildings) are designed in cross section so that the
minimum of material is used to develop the maximum resistance to forces.

Recent development in the area of structural forms has been slow.

Limited materials and knowledge have hampered the development of new
structural elements or systems.
Discovery of new structural materials for buildings (e.g. steel, reinforced
concrete, pre-stressed concrete, composite wood materials, and aluminum
alloys) has been limited.

The future lies in the development of new materials and the use of known materials
in better ways.

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1.4 Loads on Structures
Structural systems resist forces that result from the following two general
classifications of loads.
Static. This classification refers to gravity-induced forces.
Dynamic. This classification is due to inertia of momentum of the mass of the
structure (like earthquakes, wave action, and vibrations).

The following forces must be considered in the design of a building structure.

Dead load. Static, fixed loads include building structure weight, exterior and
interior cladding, flooring, and fixed equipment.
Live loads. Transient and moving loads include occupancy loads, furnishings, and
storage.
- Building codes specify minimum uniform live loads for the design of roof and
floor systems based on a history of similar buildings and types of occupancy.
- Snow load is considered a type of live load because it is so variable.
Wind loads. Wind loading is treated as lateral loading on walls and downward
pressure or uplift forces on roofs.
Earthquake loads (seismic). Inertial forces developed in the structure due to its
weight, configuration, building type, and geographic location.
Snow, wind, and earthquake loads are also known as environmental loads.

1.5 Basic Functional Requirements

The principal functional requirements of a building structure include the following.
Stability and equilibrium (statics).
- The principles governing the stability and equilibrium of buildings form the
basis for all structural design.
Strength and stiffness (strength of materials).
- Strength and stiffness of materials are concerned with the stability of a
buildings component parts (e.g. beams, columns, walls).
Economy.
Functionality.
Aesthetics.

Statics concerns the fundamental concept of equilibrium and is concerned with the
balancing of forces to ensure that a building and its components do not move.
In reality, stable structures have deformations that remain relatively small.

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 Strength of materials relates knowledge about building material properties and
member cross sections to the ability of the material to resist excessive deflection
and deformation.

Statics and strength of materials will be the focus of this course.

The requirements of economy, functionality, and aesthetics are usually not covered
in a structures course.

1.6 Architectural Issues

Buildings provide the architect with an opportunity to make an expression (or
manage the structure) by
The geometry and arrangement of the load-bearing members.
- Conceal vs. celebrate the structure
The use of materials.
The crafting of joints.
The best buildings are not designed by architects who, after resolving the formal
and spatial issues, simply ask the structural engineer to make sure it doesnt fall
down.

An Historical Overview
Note the historical evolution of architectural space and form through
developments in structural engineering and material technology.
Dry stone construction.
Timber joining and dressed stonework.
Stone and brick arches and vaults.
Structural cast iron led to development of long-span trusses.
Steel and reinforced concrete enabled builders to make taller structures,
leading to the development of the modern skyscraper.
Pre-tensioned and post-tensioned concrete, engineered wood products, tensile
fabric, and pneumatic structures continue to expand the architectural and
structural possibilities.

Criteria for the Selection of Structural Systems

Clients needs
Nature and magnitude of loads

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 Building use/function
Site conditions (topography, soil, climate)
Building systems integration (coordination of lighting, HVAC, plumbing,
electrical, fire suppression systems)
Fire resistance (building codes, applicable fire-resistance standards)
Construction variables (cost, construction time, local availability of materials,
skilled construction trades, on-site access)
Architectural form and space (social and cultural factors, expression)

The textbook covers the analysis of statically determinate systems using the
fundamental principles of statics and strength of materials.
Computers are often used to analyze structures; however,
- A classical approach will enable the student to gain a clearer and more
intuitive sense about structures.
- Reliance on the computer for analysis that one does not understand is
irresponsible.

Supplemental Information
Engineers and architects use mathematical equations (models) based on the
physical characteristics of the structures they design and the materials that they
use in the construction of such structures.
The goal of this class is to introduce you to these principles and to teach you
how to use these models.

General Procedure for Analysis

The most effective way to learn the principles of statics and strength of materials
is to solve problems.
To be successful at this, it is important to present the work in a logical and
orderly manner.

The student should approach a problem in this course as he/she would approach an
actual professional assignment.
Identify information that is given and the information that you must determine.
- The statement of a problem should be clear and precise.
- The statement of a problem should contain the following information.
1. Given statement the given data.
2. Find statement the information required.

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 3. Sketch a neat drawing showing all dimensions and quantities involved in
the problem.
Whenever possible, draw diagrams (e.g. free-body diagrams) to help visualize
and solve the problem.
Develop a strategy for solving the problem.
- Identify the principles and equations that apply.
Predict the answer.
- This will help develop your intuition and will often help you recognize an
incorrect answer.
Solve the equations and interpret your results; compare the results with your
predictions.
- This last step is a reality check. Is your answer reasonable?

Developing good habits as a student will help you develop good habits and quality
work as you enter the work place.
In the workplace, colleagues and supervisors will check your calculations (a.k.a.
peer reviews).
Your calculations must be clear, thorough, logical, and presentable.
Your presentation can be effective in impressing a potential client (in a good or
bad way)!

The purpose of learning structures:

To develop the interdisciplinary skills that can make you a more valuable
employee and architect.
To develop insight into the area of structures so that you can take your place at
the table with a project team in a position of knowledge and confidence.
To protect your design goals (related to form) from the influences of the
structural engineer (whose design goals may be strictly related to function).
To develop an understanding and appreciation for the role of the structural
engineer and how you may facilitate that component of the work.
If in your work you are not being mindful of structure giving thought to
safety, economy, and practicality in your building designs then the architect
may be nothing more than an artist.
- Good looking models may be constructed of cardboard, balsa wood and
Styrofoam, but to serve the purpose for which they are intended, they must
be built with real materials.

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