31/05/2016 "Heroic"RapeImagery

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ExcerptsfromDianeWolfthal

ImagesofRape:The"Heroic"TraditionanditsAlternatives

p.7:Tomostarthistorianstheword"rape"bringstomindPoussin'sRapeofthe
Sabines,Titian'sRapeofEuropa,orsomesuchdepictioninwhichtheassailantis
aGreekorRomangodorhero.Thistypeofimage,whichSusanBrownmiller
terms"heroic"rape,hasalwaysreceivedconsiderableattention.HorstJanson's
popularintroductorytextincludesninerapescenesallbutoneareofthe
"heroic"type.FrederickHartt'sHistoryofItalianRenaissanceArtdiscusses
seven,all"heroic."Notonlyundergraduatetextsbutalsoscholarlypublications
havefocusedonthistypeofrepresentation.Evenrevisioniststudiesofthelast
decadesuchasMargaretCarroll'sarticleonRuben'sDaughterofLeucippusand
JamesSaslow'sbookonGanymedecontinuethispractice.Thesubjectof
"heroic"rapeimageryisextremelycomplexandthischapterwillexploreonly
twoaspects.Thefirstsectionwillexaminehowtheseglorify,sanitize,and
aestheticizesexualviolencethesecondsectionwillinvestigatehowart
historianshavereinforcedthisconstruction.

TheImages

Poussin'sRapeoftheSabines

Poussin'sRapeoftheSabines,paintedinthe
1630sandtodayintheNewYork
MetropolitanMuseum,maywellbetherape
imagemostfamiliartoAmericanart
historians.Itillustratesanepisodefromthe
earlyhistoryofancientRome.TheRomans,
unabletoobtainwivespeacefully,stageda
festival,invitedtheneighboringSabines,
and,atasignalfromRomulus,eachviolently
seizedaSabinewoman.Arthistorians/p.8:
generallyfocusonPoussin'sclassicalstyleorhissourcesinancientartand
literature.Thepaintingisoftentermed"heroic"orcitedasanembodimentof
Poussin'sbeliefthatthehighestgoalofartisthedepictionofnoblehuman
action.AvigdorArikha,forexample,findsthework"sublime...heroic...divine"
andarguesthat"Poussinlookedfornobilityinhissubject."

CertainlyinItaly,inthefourteenththroughtheseventeenthcenturies,the
incidentwasviewedasaheroic,patrioticact.TheSabinewomenwererevered
asthemothersofthefirstRomans.Theirstoryadornedweddingbanners,
marriagechests,andtheapartmentsofnoblewomen.ThenameTalassius,that
ofaRomanwhoobtainedanespeciallybeautifulSabine,becameawedding
motto.TheSabinelegendwasconsideredessentialtothefoundingofRoman
familylifeandtothefutureofthenation.Inthelatesixteenthcenturyitwas
includedinpaintingcyclesillustratingheroiceventsfromRomanhistory.
Giambologna'sstatueof1583,christenedtheRapeoftheSabineWomansoon
afteritscompletion,wasdisplayedinthemainpublicsquareinFlorence,the
PiazzadellaSignoria.
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/p.9:PoussinmakesclearthattheRomansareseizingwomen
againsttheirwill.SeveralRomanshavedrawntheirswordssome
chase,grab,orholdthewomen.TheSabines'expressionsare
anguished.Theykick,struggle,trytoescape.Otherfigures
underlinetheterroroftheevent.Infantslifeabandonedonthe
bareearth.Adistraughtoldwomanandanagedfathercomplete
theforegroundfrieze.ClearlyPoussinissuggestingherthat
women,children,andtheelderlypaythepriceforthe"heroic"
foundingofRome.Nevertheless,Poussinjustifiestheincident.

NotonlydoestheartistreflectRomanattitudesbyidealizingthe
crimesoftheirancestors,healsoacceptstheRomanconceptof
raptus,whichwasquitedifferentfromthemoderndefinitionof
rape.InancientRome,raptusmeant"carryingoffbyforce"itwasacrimeof
propertyandincludedtheftsofallkinds.Ifviolencewasanecessarycomponent
ofthiscrime,sexualintercoursewasnot.Similarly,inPoussin'spainting,
althoughthesexualaspectisimplied,intercourseisnotexplicitlydepicted.
Romanlawdidnotviewthecrimefromthewoman'spointofview.Ratherraptus
wasacrimeagainstthewoman'shusbandorguardian.Poussinreflectsthisview
ofrapeinthemajorfiguregroupontheright,whichshowsaSabinefather
strugglingagainstaRomanabductor.

WhilemostofthewomenresisttheRomansandstraintowardtheright,thereis
one,inthemiddleground,whodoesnot.Rather,sheturnstohercompanion,
apparentlylisteningtohim,astheystrollofftogethertowardtheleft.Several
factorsdrawoureyetoher:herposition,justleftofcenterthearcofempty
spacetoherrightandthecolorofherrobe,thesamebluewornbythelarge
Sabinewomenintheforeground.WiththiscouplePoussinremindstheviewer
that,asPlutarchhadrelated,theSabinessoonacceptedtheirhusbands.This
coupleservestodownplaytheuglinessoftheevent.Infact,Poussin'sstylehis
frozenaction,controlledemotionalexpression,andcarefullyordered
compositionservestodistancetheviewerfromthehorroroftheevent.This
workechoestheRomanattitude,typifiedbyOvid'sremarkconcerningtherape
oftheSabines:"Grantmerewardssuchasthese,[and]Iwouldenlistforthe
wars."

MarriageasRapeinRenaissanceItaly

ThesefeaturesofPoussin'sRapeoftheSabineWomenaestheticizationof
rapethesanitizationoftheviolentandsexualaspectsofthethemethefocus
onthepointofviewoftherapistandthemalerelativesofthevictimthe
suggestionofahappyendingaretypicalofearlymodern"heroic"rape
imagery.Butthecontextinwhichsuchimagesarefound/p.10:varies.The
threeprimaryfunctionsof"heroic"rapeimageryproducedduringthefifteenth
throughseventeenthcenturiesweretoelucidatemaritaldoctrine,toserveas
eroticstimulation,andtoassertthepoliticalauthorityofaristocraticpatrons.

Theearliestofthesecontextstoemergewasthemarital.Fromabout1465to
1520,"heroic"rapethemesadornedtwotypesofartthatwerecommissionedby
leadingTuscanfamiliesontheoccasionofason'swedding:panelsoncassoni
(i.e.woodenchests)andspalliera(i.e.shoulderhighwalldecorationsmadefora
domesticsetting).ThemostfamousexampleofthistypemaywellbeBotticelli's
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Primavera,commissionedtocommemoratethemarriageofLorenzodi
Pierfrancescode'MedicitoSemeramided'AppianiinMay1482.

Atthefarrightofthiscomposition,the
westwindZephyrustriestoseizethe
nymphChloris.Ovid'sFastirelates
thatZephyrusrapedChloris,married
her,andthentransformedherinto
Flora,whomBotticellidepictstothe
leftofChloris.Typicalof"heroic"rape
imagery,itdepictsneitherovert
violencenorsexualintercourse.
Indeed,Chlorisseemstosufferno
greatharm....

/p.12:Maritalpaintingsweredecoratedwitharangeof"heroic"rapesubjects,
notonlytheRapeoftheSabines,butalsothoseofEuropa,Io,Leda,Proserpina,
andtheattemptedrapeofDaphne.Whatwasthemessageofsuchpaintings?In
part,asseveralscholarshaveshown,theyfunctionedaslessonsforthebride:
theyservedtovisualizetheidealtraitsthatwereexpectedofanewwife.Chief
amongthesewaschastity,butimagessuchastheRapeandReconciliationofthe
Sabinesalsoidealizedsubmissivenesstohusband,sacrificeforfamilyand
country,andwoman'sroleaspeacemakerwithinthefamily.

Onemotifthatappearsinmost"heroic"rapescenesmadeforamaritalcontext,
includingBotticelli'sPrimavera...,hasneverbeenfullyexplored:thatofthe
womanrunningfranticallyawayfromherpursuer.Whatwasthemeaningofthis
motif?Certainly,ononelevel,itindicatesthewoman'sdesireforchastity,since
shefleesamanwhopursuesherforsexualreasons.Onanotherlevel,it
suggeststhereluctancethatmanyRenaissancebridesmusthavefelt,sincethey
hadlittlesayinwhomtheywouldmarry.Butthemotifalsoreinforcestheideaof
sexualrelationsasakingofhunt....

/p.15:Romanculturecontinuedtolinkmarriageand"heroic"rape.A
sarcophagus,datedshortlybeforethesecondcenturyB.C.E.andwellknown/p.
16:inRenaissanceFlorence,showstherapeofthedaughtersofLeucippusby
theDioscoridesonthefrontandtheirmarriageonthesides.Onthemainreliefa
frightenedcompanionofthevictimsmarksthecenteroftherelief.Theseizureof
thewomenisshownintwogroups,toeitherside.Typicalof"heroic"rape
imagery,theDiocoridesarenotshownintheactofsexualintercourse,nordo
theyuseweapons.Butthevictims'thrashingheadsandflailingarmsmakeclear
theirlackofconsent....

/p.17:Thesidesofthesarcophagusrevealthe"happyending"ofthestory:the
marriageoftheDiocoridestothedaughtersofLeucippus.Thewomen,now
dressedinbridalveils,calmlyaccepttheirfate.Asinsomanyimagesof"heroic"
rape,theyhaveapparentlysufferednogreatharm.Allevidenceofsexualityis
eradicatedintheweddingscenes.Althoughonthefront,thewomen'sdrapery
hadslippeddown,revealingtheirbreasts,onthesidesofthesarcophagus,their
bodiesandhairaredecorouslycovered....

"Heroic"RapeasErotica
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GuidoRuggierohasconcludedthatbeginningintheHighRenaissance,there
arosean"aversiontomarriageandacommoncelebrationofsexualfreedomfor
malesbeyondthemoralityofsocietyandreligion.Per/p.18:hapsitisno
coincidencethenthatafter1500asecondtypeof"heroic"rapeimage
developed,whichfunctionedaseroticaforthemaleviewer.

PoemspublishedontheoccasionoftheunveilingofGiambologna's
RapeoftheSabineWomanimagineyoungmenluredtothestatue
bytheSabinewoman.Onepoet,BernardoDavanzati,writes:"This,
myGiambologna,isyourSabinefromwhomyouburnedwith
desire...."

Thereweretwoprimarywaysinwhich"heroic"rapeimageswere
constructedtoappealtotheerotictastesofthemaleviewer.Some
artistssimplydisregardedthestandardliteraryversionsofthe
mythanddepictedtherapeasifitwereaseduction.Forexample,
Correggio'sJupiterandIo,paintedintheearly1530s
forFrederigoIIGonzaga,thenmarquisofMantua,falls
intothiscategory.Bestknownforitssensualqualities,
thecanvasshowsJupiter,disguisedasadarkcloud,embracingIo.
Commissionedasoneofaseriesofcanvasesdepictingtheerotic
pursuitsoftheRomangods,itsrichtones,hazyatmosphere,and
thesoftwarmfleshofabeautifulwomancontributetoitssensual
mood.

SusanBrownmillerobservedthatgoddessesandmortalwomen
rapedbyancientGreekorRomangodsorheroes"rarelysuffered
seriousconsequences."Indeed,whenwelookatCorreggio's
painting,wefeelno/p.19:pain,terror,orrevulsion.Althoughcontemporary
maritalpaintingsshowJupiterchasingaterrifiedIo,Correggioshowsno
violence.ThiscontradictsOvid,whorelatedthatJupiter"caughtthefleeing
maidenandravishedher."CorreggioinsteaddepictsJupiterasatenderlover
whomIowelcomes.Herheadrollsbackinaswoonherlipspartinecstasyher
/p.20:armsembracethegod.Correggio'simage,likesomany"heroic"rape
depictions,servestoblurthedistinctionbetweenaneroticinterludeandrape.
Typicalof"heroic"rapeimagery,theartistavoidsanyexplicitdepictionofsexual
intercourse.Rather,CorreggioreinforcesancientRomanattitudesbyidealizing
therape.Thepainter,insearchofaneroticsubject,chosea"heroic"rapemyth
andthensubverteditsnarrativesothatthevictimisconstructedasawilling
lover.

Othereroticized"heroic"rapeimagesrevealanundercurrentofviolence.For
exampleinGiambologna'sstatue,theSabinewomanpullsawayfromherRoman
assailant,attemptingtofreeherselffromhisgrasp.Herarmsflailinprotesther
browisfurrowedherdownturnedmouthisopenedasiftocryout.UnlikeIo,
sheisclearlynotawillinglover.Cinquecentoviewerswouldhaveinterpretedthis
sculptureasarapescene.Rapevictimswererequiredtoproveincourtthatthey
hadresistedandcriedoutpreciselytheactionsoftheSabinewoman.
Furthermore,apoemwrittenontheoccasionoftheunveilingofthestatuenotes
thatitsRomanviolatorwouldhavebeenarrestedforacriminaloffensehadhis
actionoccurredinsixteenthcenturyFlorence....

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/p.22:ThePoliticalContextofEroticized"Heroic"RapeImagery

"Heroic"rapeimagerywasoftenmultivalent.Maritalimagesattimesservedan
eroticfunction,asaglanceatthePrimaverasuggests,anderotic
representationsoftenoperatedonapoliticallevelaswell.Recentscholarshiphas
establishedthatclasswasadeterminantfactorinpatronagepatternsforerotic
imagesof"heroic"rape.Inparticular,princesthroughoutEuropeassertedtheir
politicalauthoritythroughsuchworks.

CharlesHopehasnotedthatTitianproducedtwotypesoferotica.Some,suchas
hisRapeofEuropa,paintedforPhilipIIovertheyears
155962,showedmythologicalsubjects.Thesewere
viewedas"high"artandcommissionedbyaristocratic
patronswholivedoutsideVenice.Othereroticpaintings,
lackingaclassicalveneer,wereproducedforless
patrons,generallyVenetian.AllacrossEurope,from
FlorencetoPrague,courtlypatronscommissioned
"heroic"rapeimagerythiswasanactivitythatwas
expectedofaprince....

/p.23:Whydidthistypeoferoticaappealtotheupperclasses?Contemporary
sourcesmakeclearthat"heroic"rapeimageryarousednotonlysexualdesire
butalsofeelingsofomnipotence.Ginzburgtracesonerootofthisideafrom
ancientRometosixteenthcenturyItaly.InTerence'sTheEunuch,ayoungman,
uponviewingapaintingofJupiterandDanainthehomeofawomanheloves,
becomessexuallyaroused.Asavoyeurobservinganeroticimage,heimagines
himselfinJupiter'splace.Merelyanordinaryman("ameremanikan,"ashe
describeshimself),throughhisgazeheisabletoidentifywiththemostpowerful
ofgods.Thisidentificationisnotpurelysexualtheyoungmanremarksonthe
god'stremendouspower,he"whosethundershakesthehighestrealmsof
heavens."ThroughsexualintercoursetheyoungmanfeelsclosertoJupiter's
immensepower....Throughthemaleviewer'sidentificationwithadivineor
heroicassailant,eroticizedpaintingsof"heroic"rapeimageryservedtoarouse
feelingsofmothsexualexcitementandomnipotentpower....

Similarly,intheearlymodernperiod,asMargaretCarrollhasshown,forcinga
womantosubmitsexuallywasviewedasparalleltodominatingone'ssubjects
politically.Citingawiderangeofsources,Carrollhasconvincinglyshownthat
aristocraticrulersidentifiedwithRomangodsandheroeswhopossessed
absolutepowerandoperatedabovethelaw.Relyingonaction,notthoughtful
reflection,theseclassicalfigureswereabletoviolentlysubjugateothers.
Although"heroic"rapeimageryattimessuggeststhedestructiveresultsofthis
subjugation,itneverthelessconstructstheheroasanadmirablefigure,virile,
strong,andcourageous,whosefamerestsinpartonhisactsofsexualviolence.
WalterFriedlaenderremarkedthatGiambologna'sstatue"servedtoexemplify
themuchadmiredpatriotismandresolutionsofearlyRomethatpermittedany
act,evenaruthlessorbarbarousone,whichwouldassurethefutureofthe
nation."

/p.24:Whilemost"heroic"rapepaintingsbelongedtoprinces'private
collections,atleastone,Giambologna'sRapeoftheSabineWoman,was
displayedpublicly.GrandDukeFrancescode'Mediciordereditinstalledinthe
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LoggiadeiLanzi,whichissituatedonthe
southsideofthemainsquareinFlorence,
thePiazzadellaSignoria,andatright
anglestothePalazzoVecchio,theseatof
politicalpower.Herethesculpturepublicly
proclaimedthepoweroftheMedici
dynasty.ButCarrollhasalsoproposedthat
thestatuesuggested"thedominion"all
menenjoyed"overthewomenintheirownhomes."Inthisway,
thesculpture"helpedcreateanempatheticbondbetweenrulerand
ruledthatspan[ned]classdivisions."Clearlyfeelingsof
omnipotencewerenotconfinedtoaristocraticcircles.Rather,
"heroic"rapeimagerycouldarousesimilarfeelingsintheordinary
malecitizenofFlorence.Indeed,thisthirteenfoothighsculptureshowingaman
seizingawomanagainstherwillwasgreetedwithtremendousenthusiasmin
sixteenthcenturyFlorence,asthenumerouscopiesandpoemsinitshonor
demonstrate....

/p.25:Itisstrikingthatnowomanartist,tomyknowledge,produceda"heroic"
rapeimageduringtheRenaissanceorBaroqueperiods.ButArtemisiaGentileschi
didpaintimagesofsexualviolence,suchsthoseofSusannah,which,Mary
Garrardhasdemonstrated,constructedSusannahquite
differentlyfromthosebycontemporarymaleartists.
Expressingasubversivevoice,theartistsympathized
withthevictim,andmovinglydepictedhervulnerability
andtheanguishofsexualviolence.Invertingtheusual
readingofsuchlegends,sherefusedtoshowSusannah
asaseductressoranobjectofsexualdesire....

[A]glanceatthecanonical"heroic"rapeimagesby
Poussin,Titian,Correggio,andGiambolognasupports
HelenHazen'sassertionthat"rapeisasignificantand
oftenevenagrandactinmythandliterature[although]
itisgenerallyaverysordidandterribleoneinlife."
Imageshavepowertheydon'tsimplyreflectreality,but
caninfluenceattitudesandthiswayaffectactualevents.
Tocitebutoneexample,theblurringofseductionandrape,whichweexplored
inCorreggio'sIo,wasnotconfinedtotheculturaldomainbutspilledoverinto
thelegalarena.
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