A

MAJOR PROJECT-II
REPORT
ON
ELECTROMAGNETIC BRAKING SYSTEM

Submitted in partial fulfilment for the degree of

BACHELOR OF TECHNOLOGY
IN
MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

Session 2015-16

SUBMITTED BY
Avinash Patel (K10504)
Sunil Kumar (K11255)
Ravi Prakash (K10567 )
Vikash kumar (K11092)
B.Tech(ME)-Final Year

Under the Supervision

Of
Mr. Bhupendra Gahlot
(Assistant Professor, M.E Department)

SUBMITTED TO

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

SCHOOL OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY
CAREER POINT UNIVERSITY, KOTA
(RAJASTHAN) -325003

a
 CONTENTS

Certificate i
Acknowledgement ii
Preface iii
Abstract iv
List of figures v
List of table v
List of flow-chart v
List of graph v

1. Introduction 1
2. Materials Required 3
3. Description About Brake 4
4. Types of Brakes 6
5. General Principal Of Brake System 11
6. Conventional Friction Brake 12
7. How Friction Brake Works 13
8. Brake Fading Effect 14
9. Construction Of Electromagnetic Brake 15
10. General Principle & Installation Location 20
11. Working Principle Of Electromagnetic Brake 22
12. Characteristics Of Electromagnetic Brake 27
13. Advantages Of Electromagnetic Brake 36
14. Disadvantages Of Electromagnetic Brake 37
15. Applications Of Electromagnetic Brake 37
16. Future Scope Of Electromagnetic Brake 38
17. Conclusion 39
18. Cost Estimation 40
19. References 41

b
 CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that the Project work entitled ELECTROMAGNETIC

BRAKING SYSTEM which is submitted by AVINASH PATEL(K10504), SUNIL
KUMAR(K11255), VIKASH KUMAR(K11092), RAVI PRAKASH(K10567)
towards the partial fulfillment of requirements for the degree of Bachelor Of
Technology in MECHANICAL ENGINEERING from CAREER POINT
UNIVERSITY, KOTA(RAJ.). This is the bonafide record of work carried out by the
candidates under my supervision during the year 2015-16.

HEAD OF THE DEPARTMENT PROJECT GUIDE

i
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

One of the parts of preparing this project is to thanks those who have helped me through their
valuable participation, comments, and suggestion. We wish to thanks CAREER POINT
UNIVERSITY, KOTA (RAJ.). whose co-operation and attitude toward encouraging a
student is appreciable . We sincerely express our gratitude to the project guide Mr.
Bhupendra Gahlot (Assistant Professor, ME Department) for his guidance in completing
the project titled Electromagnetic Brake. Without his guidance this project would not
have been completed, her kindness and help have been the source of encouragement for us
throughout the project.
We would like to thanks our ME Department faculties for all his
support and help in collecting information about ELECTROMAGNETIC BRAKING
SYSTEM, implementing the same in the project, and using it successfully. Last but not the
least, we express our deep gratitude to Ms. Nikita Jain (HOD of ME Department) for
contribution of his ideas for our project. We would also like to pay our regard to the whole
M.E department for their support and guidance.
Finally a lot of thanks to our friends and family members, who helped
and motivated us to develop such a wonderful solution.

Sincerely Yours
Avinash Patel (K10504)
Sunil Kumar (K11255)
Ravi Prakash (K10567 )
Vikash kumar (K11092)

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 PREFACE

With immense pleasure and deep sense of sincerity, we are making a project. It is an essential
requirement for each student to have some practical exposure towards real world situations. A
systematized practical experience is essential to inculcate self-confidence in a student, so that
they can mentally prepare themselves for this competitive environment.

The purpose of this project is-

1. Developing intellectual ability
2. Bring confidence
3. Developing skills
4. Modify attitude
5. Understand work culture

iii
 ABSTRACT
An electromagnetic brake is a new and revolutionary concept. Electromagnetic braking
system is a modern technology braking system used in light motor & heavy motor vehicles.
This system is a combination of electro-mechanical concepts. The frequency of accidents is
now-a-days increasing due to inefficient braking system. It is apparent that the
electromagnetic brake is an essential complement to the safe braking of heavy vehicles. It
aims to minimize the brake failure to avoid the road accidents. It also reduces the
maintenance of braking system. An advantage of this system is that it can be used on any
vehicle with minor modifications to the transmission and electrical systems. An
Electromagnetic Braking system uses Magnetic force to engage the brake, but the power
required for braking is transmitted manually. The disc is connected to a shaft and the
electromagnet is mounted on the frame .When electricity is applied to the coil a magnetic
field is developed across the armature because of the current flowing across the coil and
causes armature to get attracted towards the coil. As a result, it develops a torque and
eventually the vehicle comes to rest. These brakes can be incorporated in heavy vehicles as
an auxiliary brake. The electromagnetic brakes can be used in commercial vehicles by
controlling the current supplied to produce the magnetic flux. Making some improvements in
the brakes it can be used in automobiles in future.
Electromagnetic brakes are the brakes working on the electric power & magnetic power.
They work on the principle of electromagnetism. The working principle of this system is that
when the magnetic flux passes through and perpendicular to the rotating wheel the eddy
current flows opposite to the rotating wheel/rotor direction. This eddy current trying to stop
the rotating wheel or rotor. This results in the rotating wheel or rotor comes to rest/ neutral.
These are totally friction less. Due to this, they are more durable & have longer life span.
Less maintenance is there. These brakes are an excellent replacement on the convectional
brakes due to their many advantages. The reason for implementing this brake in automobiles
is to reduce wear in brakes as it friction less. Therefore, there will also be no heat loss. The
electromagnetic brakes are much effective than conventional brakes & the time taken for
application of brakes is also smaller. There is very few need of lubrication. Electromagnetic
breaks gives such better performance with less cost, which is todays need.

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List Of Figures- Page No.
Figure1. An Eddy Current Brake Of An ICE ......................................................10
Figure2. Photographic View Of An A.C Motor .....................................................16
Figure3. Disc ...................................................16
Figure4. Arrangement Of Disc ....................................................17
Figure5. Magnetic Field Generated In Disc ...................................................17
Figure6. Electromagnetic Brake System ....................................................18
Figure7. Diagramatic Representation Of A Frame ................................................19
Figure8. Diagramatic Representation Of Electromagnet ........................................19
Figure9. Assembled View Of The EM Braking System .........................................21
Figure10. Assembled Components Of EM Brake .................................................21
Figure11. Right Hand Thumb Rule ................................................23
Figure12. Magnetic Field Lines .................................................23
Figure13. Arrangement Of EM Brake ..................................................24
Figure14. Electromagnet ....................................................25
Figure15. EM Power-Off Brake .....................................................31
List Of Flow-Chart
Flowchart1. Working of Electromagnetic Disc Brake ..........................................26
List Of Graph
Graph1. Torque v/s RPM ......................................................................................31
List Of Table
Table1. Cost Estimation ...................................................................................40
List Of Acronyms
RPM- Revolution per minute
EM Brake-Electromagnetic brake
CAD-Computer Aided Design
CAM-Computer Aided Manufacturing
AC-Alternating Current
DC-Direct Current

v
1. Introduction-
A brake is a device, which inhibits motion. Its opposite component is a clutch. Most
commonly, brakes use friction to convert kinetic energy into heat, though other methods of
energy conversion may be employed. There were many objectives to be completed over the
course of this project. This project has undergone many changes since its inception and has
made the assigned tasks change accordingly. This constant upkeep of the schedule was a
difficult task for one individual. I have been through every single aspect of this project, from
concept, to design, to machining, to construction, and to assembly. With the help of only a
select few (whom I shall recognize later), I have personally accomplished every single aspect
of this project. However, setbacks have loomed over my head and hindered my progress
almost like clockwork. I have had to revise timetables and reschedule construction in order
to meet others schedules and properly complete tasks.
Many aspects of projects of this nature go unnoticed because the final products do not
represent the time commitment that has been poured into it. Similarly, there are many
aspects of this project that would typically be overlooked. Planning and construction items
such as creating CAD and CAM models and conceptualizing a new concept can take dozens
of hours. An example of this was after my very first meeting with Professor Emanuel; he
informed me that the force derived from this brake would be directly proportional to the
velocity of the rotor. This made my heart drop because that would mean that this brake alone
would not suit an automotive application the brake would slow but never stop (explanation
later). I spent the rest of that day attempting to regain control of the project. After several
hours of deliberation, I decided that in order to save this project the brake alone concept
would have to be abandoned. I decided to create an integrated motor-eddy current brake
design so that once the brake became ineffective the motor could bring the vehicle to a stop.
Hurdles such as this one were almost a weekly happening. From figuring out how to
machine different parts with many different machines at my disposal to simplifying a
dangerous design, each step I took to accomplish this project had obstacles. Each obstacle
took time to overcome, and time was one of only two depreciating variables in this project,
the other variable was my budget. Due to the time constraints on this project, coupled with
setbacks I will describe later, I have not been able to run my designed tests. However,
Professor Emanuel has had experience with eddy current brakes before and he has described

1
the possible outcomes for the designed tests. This motor-eddy current brake system could
be revolutionary and it could help diminish our dependence on oil. I hope that if anything
comes out of this project it is that a good idea is worth working for. This project may never
leave the confines of WPI, but I hope that at least somewhere down the road someone
decides to improve the design or add to it to make it better. Progress is key and electrical
power is the future, so progress made towards electric vehicles is the largest aspect of this
project.

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2. Materials Required

Magnet
Electric wire
Copper wire
Step Down Transformer
Circuit board
Circuit making component
Electric control system
AC Motor
Shaft
Iron Stand
Alloy Wheel
Disc
Alloy wheels are automobile (car, motorcycle, and truck) wheels, which are made from an
alloy of aluminum or magnesium. They are typically lighter for the same strength and
provide better heat conduction and improved cosmetic appearance over steel wheels. The
earliest light alloy wheels were made of magnesium alloys. Alloy wheels have long been
included as standard equipment on higher-priced luxury or sports cars, with larger-sized or
"exclusive" alloy wheels being options. The high cost of alloy wheels makes them attractive
to thieves; to counter this, automakers and dealers often use locking wheel nuts, which
require a special key to remove. Most alloy wheels are manufactured using casting, but some
are forged.

An electromagnet is a type of magnet in which the magnetic field is produced by the flow of
electric current. An electric current flowing in a wire creates a magnetic field around the
wire. To concentrate the magnetic field, in an electromagnet the wire is wound into a coil
with many turns of wire lying side by side. The magnetic field of all the turns of wire passes
through the center of the coil, creating a strong magnetic field there. The direction of the
magnetic field through a coil of wire can be found from a form of the right-hand rule. The
main advantage of an electromagnet over a permanent magnet is that the magnetic field can
be rapidly manipulated over a wide range by controlling the amount of electric current.

3
3. DESCRIPTION ABOUT BRAKE

A brake is a device, which inhibits motion. Its opposite component is a clutch. Most
commonly, brakes use friction to convert kinetic energy into heat, though other methods of
energy conversion may be employed. For example, regenerative braking converts much of
the energy to electrical energy, which may be stored for later use

The disc brake or disk brake is a device for slowing or stopping the rotation of a wheel. A
brake disc usually made of cast iron or ceramic composites is connected to the wheel and the
axle. To stop the wheel, friction material in the form of brake pads is forced mechanically,
hydraulically, pneumatically or electromagnetically against both sides of the disc. Friction
causes the disc and attached wheel to slow or stop.

The principle of braking in road vehicles involves the conversion of kinetic energy into
thermal energy (heat). When stepping on the brakes, the driver commands a stopping force
several times as powerful as the force that puts the car in motion and dissipates the associated
kinetic energy as heat. Brakes must be able to arrest the speed of a vehicle in short periods
regardless how fast the speed is. As a result, the brakes are required to have the ability to
generating high torque and absorbing energy at extremely high rates for short periods.

Brakes may be broadly described as using friction, pumping, or electromagnetic. One brake
may use several principles: for example, a pump may pass fluid through an orifice to create
friction. The conventional friction brake system is composed of the following basic
components: the master cylinder which is located under the hood is directly connected to
the brake pedal, and converts the drivers foot pressure into hydraulic pressure. Steel brake
hoses connect the master cylinder to the slave cylinders located at each wheel. Brake
fluid, specially designed to work in extreme temperature conditions, fills the system. Shoes
or pads are pushed by the slave cylinders to contact the drums or rotors, thus causing
drag, which slows the car. Two major kinds of friction brakes are disc brakes and drum
brakes.

Brakes are often described according to several characteristics including:

Peak force is the maximum decelerating effect that can be obtained. The peak force
is often greater than the traction limit of the tires, in which case the brake can cause a
wheel skid.
Continuous power dissipation Brakes typically get hot in use, and fail when the
temperature gets too high. The greatest amount of power (energy per unit time) that
can be dissipated through the brake without failure is the continuous power
dissipation. Continuous power dissipation often depends on e.g., the temperature and
speed of ambient cooling air.
Fade As a brake heats, it may become less effective, called brake fade. Some designs
are inherently prone to fade, while other designs are relatively immune. Further, use
considerations, such as cooling, often have a big effect on fade.

4
The conventional friction brake can absorb and convert enormous energy values (25h.p.
without self-destruction for a 5-axle truck, Reverdin1974), but only if the temperature rise of
the friction contact materials is controlled. This high-energy conversion therefore demands
an appropriate rate of heat dissipation if a reasonable temperature and performance stability
are to be maintained.

If your vehicle has worn brake pads or brake shoes, the fluid level in your brake fluid
reservoir will be low. However, let us say you have relatively new brake pads and you
recently topped-off your brake reservoir only to notice a few days later that the fluid level has
dropped noticeably. If that is the case, it is a good bet you have a leak somewhere in your
brake system -- which means that you likely have bigger brake issues than something as
simple as worn brake pads. In addition, other problems include the brake fluid vaporization
and brake fluid freezing though vaporization occurs only in Rare cases. Freezing is quite
common in colder places like Scandinavian countries and Russia etc where the temperature
reaches as low as -50C to-65C, in such cases there is a need for some anti-freezing agents
and increases the complexity and cost of the system.

5
4. TYPES OF BRAKING

The brakes for automotive use may be classified according the following considerations.

PURPOSE
LOCATION
CONSTRUCTION
METHOD OF ACTUATION
EXTRA BRAKING EFFORT

Based on the above considerations, brakes are classified with respect to following factors.

4.1. With respect to application,

a. Foot brake

b. Hand brake

4.2. With respect to the number of wheels,

a. Two wheel brakes

b. Four wheel brakes

4.3. With respect to the method of braking contact

a. Internal expanding brakes

b. External contracting brakes

4.4. With respect to the method of applying the braking force.

a. Single acting brake

b. Double acting brakes.

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4.5. With respect to the brake gear,

a. Mechanical brake

b. Power brakes

4.6. With respect to the nature of power employed

a. Vacuum brake

b. Air brake

c. Hydraulic brake

d. Hydrostatic brake

e. Electric brake

4.7. With respect to power transmission,

a. Direct acting brakes

b. Geared brakes

4.8. With respect to power unit,

a. Cylinder brakes

b. Diaphragm brake

The foot brake or service brake is always applied by a pedal, while the parking brake is
applied by a hand lever. The parking brake is intended chiefly to hold the car in position.
The parking brake can be set in the ON position by means of a latch while the service brake
remains on only as long as the driver presses down on the pedal.

The hand brake is normally used only after the driver has stopped the car by using the foot
brake. Its other use is as an emergency brake to stop the car if the foot broken system should
fail. The hand or parking brakes operates on a pair of wheels, frequently the rear wheels.
When drum type rear brakes are used, the same shoes can be used for both hand and foot
control.

7
The drum type of brake may be either a band brake or a shoe brake. Both band brakes and
shoe brakes may be either external or internal. The band brakes generally are external and
shoe brakes internal. In drum brakes, the drum is attached to the wheel and revolves with it.
Friction to slow the drum is applied from inside by the shoes which do not rotate but are
mounted on a stationary metal back plate. There are different types of drum brakes such as a
two leading shoe arrangement which gives an augmented response to pedal effort because
of its self-applying arrangement. A leading-trailing shoe is a cheaper and better alternative as
it is equally effective whether the car is going forward or backwards.

Manufacturers design drum brakes so that rain, snow, ice, or grit cannot get inside and
decrease braking efficiency for moisture greatly reduces the friction between the linings and
the drum.

The dissipate quickly the considerable amount of heat generated when braking a fast moving
heavy car large brake drums would be required. Disc brakes do the job more efficiently, for
the cooling air can get to the rubbing between each piston and the disc, there is a friction pad
held in position by retaining pins, spring plates etc. Passages are drilled in the caliper for the
fluid to enter or leave the each housing. These passages are also connected to another one for
bleeding. Each cylinder contains a rubber-selling ring between the cylinder and the piston.

The brakes are applied, hydraulically actuated piston move the friction pads into contact with
the disc, applying equal and opposite forces on the later. On releasing the brakes, the rubber
sealing rings act as return springs and retract the pistons and the friction pads away from the
disc.

MECHANICAL BRAKE:

In a motor vehicle, the wheel is attached to an auxiliary wheel called drum. The brake shoes
are made to contact this drum. In most designs, two shoes are used with each drum to form a
complete brake mechanism at each wheel. The brake shoes have brake linings on their outer
surfaces. Each brake shoe is hinged at one end by on anchor pin; the other end is operated by
some means so that the brake shoe expands outwards. The brake linings come into contact
with the drum. Retracting spring keeps the brake shoe into position when the brakes are not

8
applied. The drum encloses the entire mechanism to keep out dust and moisture. The wheel
attaching bolts on the drum are used to contact wheel and drum. The braking plate completes
the brake enclosure, holds the assembly to car axle, and acts the base for fastening the brake
shoes and operating mechanism.

HYDRAULIC BRAKES:

The hydraulic brakes are applied by the liquid pressure. The pedal force is transmitted to the
brake shoe by means of a confined liquid through a system of force transmission. The force
applied to the pedal is multiplied and transmitted to brake shoes by a force transmission
system. This system is based upon Pascals principle, which states, The confined liquids
transmit pressure without loss equally in all directions.

It essentially consists of two main components master cylinder and wheel cylinder the
master cylinder is connected by the wheel cylinders at each of the four wheels. The system is
filled with the liquid under light pressure when the brakes are not in operation. The liquid is
known as brake fluid, and is usually a mixture of glycerin and alcohol or caster-oil, denatured
alcohol and some additives Spring pressure, and thus the fluid pressure in the entire system
drops to its original low valve, which allows retracting spring on wheel brakes to pull the
brake shoes out of contact with the brake drums into their original positions. This causes the
wheel cylinder piston also to come back to its original inward position. Thus, the brakes are
released.

AIR BRAKE:

Air brakes are widely used in heavy vehicle like buses and trucks, which require a heavier
braking effort that can be applied by the drivers foot. Air brakes are applied by the pressure
of compressed air, instead of foot pressure, acting against flexible diaphragms in brake
chamber. The diaphragms are connected to the wheel brakes. These diaphragms are
controlled through a hand or foot operated valve. The brake valve controls brake operation
by directing the flow of air from a reservoir against diaphragms in the brake chamber when
the brakes are applied and from brake chambers to tube atmosphere when the brakes are
released. The air compressor, driven by the engine furnishes compressed air to the reservoir
fall below a set valve.

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ELECTRIC BRAKE:

Electric Brakes are also used in some motor vehicles, although these are not very popular.
Warner electric brake is one of the examples of such brakes. An electric brake essentially
consists of an electromagnet within the brake drum. The current from the battery is utilized
to energize the electromagnet, which actuates the mechanism to expand the brake shoe
against the brake drum, thus applying the brakes. The severity of braking is controlled by
means of a rheostat, which is operated by the driver through the foot pedal.

Electric brakes are simpler. These brakes do not require complicated operating linkage.
Only cable is required to take current from the battery to the electromagnet. In addition,
these are very quick in action as compared to other types of brakes.

Figure-1 an eddy current brake of an ICE

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VACUUM BRAKES / SERVO BRAKES:

A serve mechanism fitted to the braking system reduces the physical effort the driver has to
use on the brake pedal most servomechanisms are of the vacuum assistance type. A pressure
differential can be established by subjecting one side of the piston to atmospheric pressure
and the other side to a pressure below atmospheric pressure by exhausting air from the
corresponding end of the servo cylinder.

5. GENERAL PRINCIPLE OF BRAKE SYSTEM

The principle of braking in road vehicles involves the conversion of kinetic energy into
thermal energy (heat). When stepping on the brakes, the driver commands a stopping force
several times as powerful as the force that puts the car in motion and dissipates the associated
kinetic energy as heat. Brakes must be able to arrest the speed of a vehicle in short periods
regardless how fast the speed is. As a result, the brakes are required to have the ability to
generating high torque and absorbing energy at extremely high rates for short periods.
Brakes may be applied for a prolonged periods in some applications such as a heavy vehicle
descending a long gradient at high speed. Brakes have to have the mechanism to keep the
heat absorption capability for prolonged periods.

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6. CONVENTIONAL FRICTION BRAKE

The conventional friction brake system is composed of the following basic components: the
master cylinder which is located under the hood is directly connected to the brake pedal,
and converts the drivers foot pressure into hydraulic pressure. Steel brake hoses connect
the master cylinder to the slave cylinders located at each wheel. Brake fluid, specially
designed to work in extreme temperature conditions, fills the system. Shoes or pads are
pushed by the slave cylinders to contact the drums or rotors, thus causing drag, which
slows the car. Two major kinds of friction brakes are disc brakes and drum brakes. Disc
brakes use a clamping action to produce friction between the rotor and the pads mount in
the caliper attached to the suspension members Disc brakes work using the same basic
principle as the brakes on a bicycle: as the caliper pinches the wheel with pads on both sides,
it slows the vehicle.

Drum brakes consist of a heavy flat-topped cylinder, which is sandwiched between the wheel
rim and the wheel hub. The inside surface of the drum is acted upon by the linings of the
brake shoes. When the brakes are applied, the brake shoes are forced into contact with the
inside surface of the brake drum to slow the rotation of the wheels.

Air brakes use standard hydraulic brake system components such as braking lines, wheel
cylinders and a slave cylinder similar to a master cylinder to transmit the air-pressure-
produced braking energy to the wheel brakes. Air brakes are used frequently when greater
braking capacity is required.

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7. HOW ORDINARY (FRICTION) BRAKES WORK

Moving things have kinetic energy and, if you want to stop them, you have to get rid of that
energy somehow. If you are on a bicycle going slowly, you can simply put your feet down so
they drag on the ground. The soles of your feet act as brakes. Friction (rubbing) between the
rough ground and the grip on your soles slows you down; converting your kinetic energy into
heat energy (do it long enough and your shoes will get hot). Brakes on vehicles work pretty
much the same way, with "shoes" that press rubber pads (brake blocks) against discs mounted
to the wheels. (Find out more about this in our main article on brakes.) Even if you make
brakes from super-strong, hardwearing materials like Kevlar, they are still going to wear
out eventually. However, there are other problems with friction brakes. The faster you go,
the harder they have to work to get rid of your kinetic energy, and the quicker they will wear
out. Use your brakes too often and you may suffer a problem called brake fade, where heat
builds up too much in the brakes or the hydraulic system that operates them and the brakes
can no longer work as effectively. What if your brakes can't stop you in time?

In Motorcycle brakes, when you pull on the brake handle, a hydraulic cable applies the brake
pads to the brake rotor disc, slowing the machine down by converting your kinetic energy to
heat. The tire does not normally play much part in braking unless you brake hard: then the
wheel will lock completely and friction between the tire and the road will bring you to a
sudden halt, leaving a rubber skid mark on the road. That is not a good way to brake: it will
wear out your tires very quickly.

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8. BRAKE FADING EFFECT

The conventional friction brake can absorb and convert enormous energy values (25h.p.
without self-destruction for a 5-axle truck, Reverdin1974), but only if the temperature rise of
the friction contact materials is controlled. This high-energy conversion therefore demands
an appropriate rate of heat dissipation if a reasonable temperature and performance stability
are to be maintained. Unfortunately, design, construction, and location features all severely
limit the heat dissipation function of the friction brake to short and intermittent periods of
application. This could lead to a brake fade problem (reduction of the coefficient of
friction, less friction force generated) due to the high temperature caused by heavy brake
demands.

The main reasons why conventional friction brakes fail to dissipate heat rapidly are as
follows:

poor ventilation due to encapsulation in the road wheels,

diameter restriction due to tire dimensions,
width restrictions imposed by the vehicle spring designer,
Problems of drum distortion at widely varying temperatures.

It is common for friction-brake drums to exceed 500 C surface temperatures when subject to
heavy braking demands, and at temperatures of this order, a reduction in the coefficient of
friction (break fade) suddenly occurs. The potential hazard of tire deterioration and bursts
is perhaps also serious due to the close proximity of overheated brake drums to the inner
diameter of the tire.

14
9. CONSTRUCTION OF EM BRAKE

The construction of the electromagnetic braking system is very simple. The parts needed for
the construction are electro magnets, rheostat, sensors, and magnetic insulator. A cylindrical
ring shaped electro magnet with winding is placed parallel to rotating wheel disc/ rotor. The
electro magnet is fixed, like as stator and coils are wounded along the electromagnet. These
coils are connected with electrical circuit containing one rheostat, which is connected
with brake pedal. In addition, the rheostat is used to control the electric current flowing in
the coils, which are wounded on the electro magnet, and a magnetic insulator is used to focus
and control the magnetic flux. In addition, it is used to prevent the magnetization of other
parts like those that axle and it act as a support frame for the electromagnet. The sensors
used to indicate the disconnection in the whole circuit. If there is any error, it gives an alert,
so we can avoid accident.

The parts of Electromagnetic Disc Brake are:

AC Motor
Disc
Frame
Electromagnet
Circuit Board
Pulleys & Belt
Shaft

A. AC Motor
An AC motor is an electric motor driven by an alternating current. It commonly
consists of two basic parts, an outside stationary stator having coils supplied with
alternating current to produce a rotating magnetic field, and an inside rotor attached to
the output shaft that is given a torque by the rotating field. Where speed stability is
important, some AC motors (such as some past motors) have the stator on the inside
and the rotor on the outside to optimize inertia and cooling.

15
 Figure-2 Photographic View of an AC Motor

B. Disc

Figure-3 Diagrammatic Representation of the DISC

16
 Figure-4 Arrangement of Disc

Figure-5 Magnetic field generated in disc

17
 Figure6
Figure6-Electromagnetic brake System

C. Frame

Figure-7.Diagrammatic
7.Diagrammatic Representation of the Frame

18
 D. Electromagnet
An electromagnet is a type of magnet in which the magnetic field is produced by the flow of
electric current. An electric current flowing in a wire creates a magnetic field around the
wire. To concentrate the magnetic field, in an electromagnet the wire is wound into a coil
with many turns of wire lying side by side. The magnetic field of all the turns of wire passes
through the center of the coil, creating a strong magnetic field
there. The direction of the magnetic field through a coil of wire can be found from a form of
the right-hand rule.
The main advantage of an electromagnet over a permanent magnet is that the magnetic field
can be rapidly manipulated over a wide range by controlling the amount of electric current.

Figure8-Diagrammatic Representation of the Electro Magnet

ASSEMBLED 3 DIMENSIONAL MODEL

Figure-9.Assembled View of the Electro Magnetic Braking System

19
10. GENERAL PRINCIPLE & INSTALLATION LOCATION

Electromagnetic brakes work in a relatively cool condition and satisfy all the energy
requirements of braking at high speeds, completely without the use of friction. Due to its
specific installation location (transmission line of rigid vehicles), electromagnetic brakes
have better heat dissipation capability to avoid problems that friction brakes face as we
mentioned before. Typically, electromagnetic brakes have been mounted in the transmission
line of vehicles, the propeller shaft is divided and fitted with a sliding universal joint and is
connected to the coupling flange on the brake. The brake is fitted into the chassis of the
vehicle by means of anti-vibration mounting.

The practical location of the retarder within the vehicle prevents the direct impingement of air
on the retarder caused by the motion of the vehicle. Any airflow movement within the
chassis of the vehicle is found to have a relatively insignificant effect on the airflow around
tire areas and hence on the temperature of both front and rear discs. Therefore, the
application of the retarder does not affect the temperature of the regular brakes. In that way,
the retarders help to extend the life span of the regular brakes and keep the regular brakes
cool for emergency.

Electromagnetic brakes work in a relatively cool condition and satisfy all

the energy requirements of braking at high speeds, completely without the use
of friction. Due to its specific installation location (transmission line of rigid
vehicles).There are in existence several types of electromagnetic retarder. In particular, there
are electromagnetic retarders of the axial type and electromagnetic retarders of the Focal
type.

20
An electromagnetic retarder of the axial type is designed to be placed on a transmission shaft
between a rear axle and a gearbox of the vehicle. In that
that case, the transmission shaft is in two
parts, for mounting between those of the retarder. An electromagnetic retarder of the Focal
type is designed to be placed directly on a transmission shaft on the output side of the
gearbox or on the axle of the vehicle.
vehicle. The axle of a vehicle drives at least one road wheel,
which road wheel drives at least one wheel of the same vehicle.

Figure-10.
10. EM Brake assembled component

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11. WORKING PRINCIPLE

If a piece of copper wire was wound, around the nail and then connected to a battery, it would
create an electro magnet. The magnetic field that is generated in the wire, from the current, is
known as the right hand thumb rule. The strength of the magnetic field can be changed
by changing both wire size and the amount of wire (turns). The fields of EM brakes can be
made to operate at almost any DC voltage and the torque produced by the brake will be the
same as long as the correct operating voltage and current is used with the correct brake.

A constant current power supply is ideal for accurate and maximum torque from a brake. If a
non-regulated power supply is used the magnetic flux will degrade as the resistance of the
coil goes up. The hotter the coil gets the lower the torque will be produced by about an
average of 8% for every 20C. If the temperature is constant, and there is a question of
enough service factor in the design for minor temperature fluctuation, by slightly over sizing
the brake can compensate for degradation. This will allow the use of a rectified power
supply, which is far less expensive than a constant current supply.
Based on V = I R, as resistance increases available current falls. An increase in resistance,
often results from rising temperature as the coil heats up, according to:
Rf = Ri [1 + aCu (Tf - T)]
Where Rf = final resistance, Ri = initial resistance, aCu = copper wires temperature
coefficient of resistance, 0.0039 C-1, Tf = final temperature, and Ti = initial temperature.

The working principle of the electric retarder is based on the creation of eddy currents within
a metal disc rotating between two electromagnets, which set up a force opposing the rotation
of the disc. If the electromagnet is not energized, the rotation of the disc is free and
accelerates uniformly under the action of the weight to which its shaft is connected. When
the electromagnet is energized, the rotation of the disc is retarded and the energy absorbed
appears as heating of the disc. If a rheostat varies the current exciting the electromagnet, the
braking torque varies in direct proportion to the value of the current.

The basic operation of magnetic field that is generated in the wire, from the current, is known
as the right hand thumb rule. This rule is known as faraday's law.

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 A. Electromagnetism
agnetism is one of the four fundamental interactions in nature. The other
three are the strong interaction, the weak interaction, and gravitation.
Electromagnetism is the force that causes the interaction between electrically charged
particles; the areas in
n which this happens are called electromagnetic fields

Figure
Figure-11.Right Hand Thumb Rule

A typical retarder consists of stator and rotor. The stator holds 16 induction coils, energized
separately in groups of four. The coils are made up of varnished aluminum wire mounded in
epoxy resin. . The rotor is made up of two discs, which provide the braking force. When
subject to the electromagnetic influence when the coils are excited. Careful designs of the
fins, which are integral to the disc, permit independent
independent cooling of the arrangement.

Figure
Figure-12.Magnetic Field Lines

At the initial stage, the brake pedal and rheostat are in rest. When we apply the brake through
the brake pedal, the rheostat allows the current to flow through the circuit and this current
cu
energizes the electromagnet. The rheostat controls the amount of current flow. Depending
on the current flow, different amount of magnetic flux can be obtained. By this varying

23
magnetic flux, different mode of brakes can be obtained. For example, if we want to
suddenly stop the vehicle then press the brake pedal fully, then the rheostat allows maximum
current, which is enough to stop the vehicle. Similarly, we can reduce the speed of the
vehicle by applying the brake gradually.

Figure-13. Arrangement of EM Brake

B. Magnetic Effect of Current

The term Magnetic effect of current" means that "a current flowing in a wire
produces a magnetic field around it". The magnetic effect of current was discovered
by Oersted in 1820. Oersted found that a wire carrying a current was able to deflect a
magnetic needle

C. Electromagnet
An electric current can be used for making temporary magnets known as
electromagnets. An electromagnet works on the magnetic effect of current. It has been
found that if a soft iron rod called core is placed inside a solenoid, then the strength of
the magnetic field becomes very large because the iron ore is magnetized by
induction.

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 Figure-14. Electromagnet

D. Factors affecting strength of an Electromagnet

The strength of an electromagnet is:
Directly proportional to the number of turns in the coil.
Directly proportional to the current flowing in the coil.
Inversely proportional to the length of air gap between the poles.
In general, an electromagnet is often considered better than a permanent magnet
because it can produce very strong magnetic fields and its strength can be controlled
by varying the number of turns in its coil or by changing the current flowing through
the coil.

Working Of Electromagnetic Disc Brake

The electromagnet is energized by the AC supply where the magnetic field produced is used
to provide the braking mechanism. When the electromagnet is not energized, the rotation of
the disc is free and accelerates uniformly under the action of weight to which the shaft is
connected. When the electromagnet is energized, magnetic field is produced thereby
applying brake by retarding the rotation of the disc and the energy absorbed is appeared as
heating of the disc. Therefore, when the armature is attracted to the field the stopping torque
is transferred into the field housing and into the machine frame decelerating the load. The

25
AC motor makes the disc to rotate through the shaft by means of pulleys connected to the
shaft.

Flowchart of Working of Electro Magnetic Disc Brake

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12. CHARACTERISTIC OF ELECTROMAGNETIC BRAKES

It was found that electromagnetic brakes could develop a negative power, which represents
nearly twice the maximum power output of a typical engine, and at least three times the
braking power of an exhaust brake. These performances of electromagnetic brakes make
them much more competitive candidate for alternative retardation equipments compared with
other retarders. By using the electro-magnetic brake as supplementary, retardation
equipment, the frictions brakes can be used less frequently and therefore practically never
reach high temperatures. The brake linings would last considerably longer before requiring
maintenance, and the potentially brake fade problem could be avoided. It therefore can
exceed the requirements of continuous uninterrupted braking, leaving the friction brakes cool
and ready for emergency braking in total safety. The installation of an electromagnetic brake
is not very difficult if there is enough space between the gearbox and the rear axle. It does
not need a subsidiary cooling system. It does not rely on the efficiency of engine components
for its use, as do exhaust and hydrokinetic brakes. The electromagnetic brake also has better
controllability. The exhaust brake is an on/off device and hydrokinetic brakes have very
complex control system. The electro- magnetic brake control system is an electric switching
system, which gives it superior controllability. It is apparent that the electro-magnetic brake
is an attractive complement to the safe braking of heavy vehicles.

Electromagnetic brakes operate electrically, but transmit torque mechanically. This is why
they used to be referred to as electro-mechanical brakes. Over the years, EM brakes became
known as electromagnetic, referring to their actuation method. The variety of applications
and brake designs has increased dramatically, but the basic operation remains the same.
Single face electromagnetic brakes make up approximately 80% of all of the power applied
brake applications

A. Characteristics of Electromagnetic Brakes- It was found that electromagnetic brakes

can develop a negative power which represents nearly twice the maximum power
output of a typical engine, and at least three times the braking power of an exhaust
brake. These performances of electromagnetic brakes make them much more
competitive candidate for alternative retardation equipment is compared with other
retarders. The brake linings would last considerably longer before requiring

27
 maintenance, and the potentially brake fade problem could be avoided. In research
conducted by a truck manufacturer, it was proved that the electromagnetic brake
assumed 80 percentage of the duty, which would otherwise have been demanded of
the regular service brake. Furthermore, the electromagnetic brake prevents the
dangers that can arise from the prolonged use of brakes beyond their capability to
dissipate heat. This is most likely to occur while a vehicle descending a long gradient
at high speed.

I. ENGAGEMENT TIME

There are actually two engagement times to consider in an electromagnetic brake. The first
one is the time it takes for a coil to develop a magnetic field, strong enough to pull in an
armature. Within this, there are two factors to consider. The first one is the amount of
ampere-turns in a coil, which will determine the strength of a magnetic field. The second one
is air gap, which is the space between the armature and the coil shell. Magnetic lines of flux
diminish quickly in the air. The further away the attractive piece is from the coil, the longer
it will take that piece to actually develop enough magnetic force to be attracted and pull in to

Overcome the air gap. For very high cycle applications, floating armatures can be used that
rest lightly against the coil shell. In this case, the air gap is zero; but more importantly, the
response time is very consistent since there is no air gap to overcome. Air gap is an
important consideration especially with a fixed armature design because as the unit wears
over many cycles of engagement the armature and the coil shell will create a larger air gap,
which will change the engagement time of the brakes. In high cycle applications, where
registration is important, even the difference of 10 to 15 milliseconds can make a difference,
in registration of a machine. Even in a normal cycle application, this is important because a
new machine that has accurate timing can eventually see a drift in its accuracy as the
machine gets older.

The second factor in figuring out response time of a brake is actually much more important

28
than the magnet wire or the air gap. It involves calculating the amount of inertia that the
brake needs to decelerate. This is referred to as time to stop. In reality, this is what the
end-user is most concerned with. Once it is known how much inertia is present for the brake
to stop then the torque can be calculated and the appropriate size of brake can be chosen.

Most CAD systems can automatically calculate component inertia, but the key to sizing a
brake is calculating how much inertia is reflected back to the brake. To do this, engineers use
the formula: T = (WK2 N) / (308 t) Where T = required torque in lb-ft, WK2 = total
inertia in lb-ft2, N = change in the rotational speed in rpm, and t = time during which the
acceleration or deceleration must take place.

Inertia Calculator There are also online sites that can help confirm how much torque is
required to decelerate a given amount of inertia over a specific time. Remember to make sure
that the torque chosen, for the brake, should be after the brake has been burnished.

II. BURNISHING

Burnishing is the wearing or mating of opposing surfaces. When the armature and brake
faces are produced, the faces are machined as flat as possible. (Some manufacturers also
lightly grind the faces to get them smoother.) However, even with that the machining process
leaves peaks and valleys on the surface of the steel. When a new out of the box brake is
initially engaged most peaks on both mating surfaces touch which means that the potential
contact area can be significantly reduced. In some cases, an out of box brake may have only
50% of its torque rating.

Burnishing is the process of cycling the brake to wear down those initial peaks, so that there
is more surface contact between the mating faces.

Even though burnishing is required to get full torque out of the brake, it may not be required
in all applications. Simply put, if the application torque is lower than the initial out of box
torque of the brake, burnishing would not be required; however, if the torque required is
higher, then burnishing needs to be done. In general, this tends to be required more on higher
torque brakes than on smaller lower torque brakes.

The process involves cycling the brake a number of times at a lower inertia, lower speed, or a
combination of both. Burnishing can require from 20 to over 100 cycles depending upon the
size of a brake and the amount of initial torque required. For bearing mounted brakes where

29
the rotor and armature is connected and held in place via a bearing, burnishing does not have
to take place on the machine. It can be done individually on a bench or as a group at a
burnishing station. Two-piece brakes that have separate armatures should try to have the
burnishing done on the machine verses a bench. The reason for this is if burnishing on a two
piece brake is done on a bench and there is a shift in the mounting tolerance when that brake
is mounted to the machine the alignment could be shifted so the burnishing lines on the
armature, rotor or brake face may be off slightly preventing that brake from achieving full
torque. Again, the difference is only slight so this would only be required in a very torque
sensitive application.

III. TORQUE

Burnishing can affect initial torque of a brake but there are also factors that affect the torque
performance of a brake in an application. The main one is voltage /current. In the
voltage/current section, we showed why a constant current supply is important to get full
torque out of the brake. When considering torque, the question of using dynamic or static
torque for the application is key. For example, if running a machine at relatively low rpm (5
50 depending upon size) there is minimal concern with dynamic torque since the static
torque rating of the brake will come closest to where it is running. However, when running a
machine at 3,000rpm and applying the brake at its catalog torque, at that rpm, is misleading.
Almost all manufacturers put the static rated torque for their brakes in their catalog. So,
when trying to determine a specific response rate for a particular brake, the dynamic torque
rating is needed. In many cases, this can be significantly lower. It can be less than half of the
static torque rating. Most manufacturers publish torque curves showing the relationship
between dynamic and static torque for a given series of brake.

30
 Graph-1. Torque v/s RPM

IV. OVER EXCITATION

Figure-15.
15. Electromagnetic
Electromagnetic-Power-Off-Brake

31
Over-excitation is used to achieve a faster response time. It is when a coil shortly receives a
higher voltage then its nominal rating. To be effective, the over-excitation voltage must be
significantly, but not to the point of diminishing returns, higher than the normal coil voltage.
Three times the voltage typically gives around 1/3 faster response. Fifteen times the normal
coil voltage will produce a three times faster response time.

With over-excitation, the in-rush voltage is momentary. Although it would depend upon the
size of the coil, the actual time is usually only a few milliseconds. The theory is, for the coil
to generate as much of a magnetic field as quickly as possible to attract the armature and start
the process of deceleration. Once the over-excitation is no longer required, the power supply
to the brake would return to its normal operating voltage. This process can be repeated a
number of times as long as the high voltage does not stay in the coil long enough to cause the
coil wire to overheat.

V. WEAR

It is very rare that a coil would just stop working in an electromagnetic brake. Typically, if a
coil fails it is usually due to heat, which has caused the insulation of the coil wire to break
down. That heat can be caused by high ambient temperature, high cycle rates, slipping or
applying too high of a voltage. Most brakes are flanged mounted and have bearings but some
brakes are bearing mounted and like the coils, unless bearings are stressed beyond their
physical limitations or become contaminated, they tend to have a long life and they are
usually the second item to wear out.

The main wear in electromagnetic brakes occurs on the faces of the mating surfaces. Every
time a brake is engaged during rotation, a certain amount of energy is transferred as heat.
The transfer, who occurs during rotation, wears both the armature and the opposing contact
surface. Based upon the size of the brake, the speed, and the inertia, wear rates will differ.
With a fixed armature design, a brake will eventually simply cease to engage. This is
because the air gap will eventually become too large for the magnetic field to overcome.
Zero gap or auto wear armatures can wear to the point of less than one-half of its original
thickness, which will eventually cause missed engagements.

Thermal Dynamics-

32
Thermal stability of the electromagnetic brakes is achieved by means of the convection and
radiation of the heat energy at high temperature. The major part of the heat energy is
imparted to the ventilation air, which is circulating vigorously through the fan of the heated
disc. The value of the energy dissipated by the fan can be calculated by the following
expression:
Q =MCpD
Where:
M = Mass of air circulated;
Cp = Calorific value of air;
D= Difference in temperature between the air entering and the air leaving the fan;

The electromagnetic brakes has excellent heat dissipation efficiency owing to the high
temperature of the surface of the disc which is being cooled and because the flow of air
through the centrifugal fan is very rapid. Therefore, the curie temperature of the disc material
could never been reached .The practical location of the electromagnetic brakes prevents the
direct impingement of air on the brakes caused by the motion of the vehicle. Any airflow
movement within the chassis of the vehicle is found to have a relatively 12 insignificant
effect on the airflow and hence temperature of both front and rear discs. Due to its special
mounting location and heat dissipation mechanism, electromagnetic brakes have better
thermal dynamic performance than regular friction brakes.

33
PRACTICAL USE

Eddy currents brakes (magnetic brakes)

To slow vehicles down, we can use eddy current brakes (magnetic brakes). Eddy current
brakes are a relatively new technology that is beginning to gain popularity due to their high
degree of safety. Rather than slowing a train via friction, which can often be affected by
various elements such as rain, eddy current brakes rely completely on certain magnetic
properties and resistance.

The linear eddy current brake consists of an electromagnet, which is fixed on a train
(vehicle). This electromagnet is held at a definite small distance from the rail (approximately
7 millimeters). When electric current is passed through the electromagnet and the
electromagnet is moved along the rail, eddy currents are generated in the rail. These eddy
currents generate an opposing magnetic field, providing braking force. The first train in
commercial circulation to use such a braking is the ICE 3.

The eddy current brake does not have any mechanical contact with the rail, and thus no wear
and tear of it, and creates no noise. Because the braking force is directly proportional to the
speed, the eddy current brake itself can never completely stop a train. It is then often
necessary to bring the train to a complete stop with an additional set of fin brakes (friction
brakes) or "kicker wheels" which are simple rubber tires that make contact with the train and
effectively park it.

34
Maglev Vehicles Magnetic levitation (maglev) is a relatively new transportation technology
in which no contacting vehicles travel safely at speeds of 250 to 300 miles-per-hour or higher
while suspended, guided, and propelled above a guide way by magnetic fields. The guide
way is the physical structure along which maglev vehicles are levitated. Figure depicts the
three primary functions basic to maglev technology: levitation or suspension, propulsion and
guidance. In most current designs, magnetic forces are used to perform all three functions.

Three primary functions basic to maglev technology

35
13. ADVANTAGES

Electromagnetic brakes can develop a negative power, which represents nearly twice
the maximum power output of a typical engine.
Electromagnetic brakes work in a relatively cool condition and satisfy all
The energy requirements of braking at high speeds, completely without the use of
friction. Due to its specific installation location (transmission line of rigid vehicles),
electromagnetic brakes have better heat dissipation capability to avoid problems that
friction brakes face times the braking power of an exhaust brake.
Electromagnetic brakes have been used as supplementary retardation equipment in
addition to the regular friction brakes on heavy vehicles.
Electromagnetic brakes have great braking efficiency and have the potential to regain
energy lost in braking.
Its component cost is less.
Quick operation & more accuracy.
It reduces the manual effort.
In electromagnetic braking system, maintenance is very less.
Electromagnetic braking system work is done very fast, because of electronic
component and flowing of current is very fast.
Very less effort is required to apply the brake.
It is reasonable as compare with other brakes.
Due to its special mounting location and heat dissipation mechanism, electromagnetic
brakes have better thermal dynamic performance than regular friction brakes.

36
 14. DISADVANTAGES

The installation of an electromagnetic brake is very difficult if there is not enough

space between the gearbox and the rear axle.
Maintenance of the equipment components such as hoses, valves has to done
periodically.
Dependence on battery power to energize the brake system drains down the battery
much faster.
Due to residual magnetism present in electromagnets, the brake shoe takes time to
come back to its original position.
A special spring mechanism needs to be provided for the quick return of the brake
shoe.

15. APPLICATION

Used in crane control system

Used in winch controlling
Used in lift controlling Used in automobile purpose
In locomotives, a mechanical linkage transmits torque to an electromagnetic braking
component.
Trams and trains use electromagnetic track brakes where the braking element is
pressed by magnetic force to the rail. They are distinguished from mechanical track
brakes, where the braking element is mechanically pressed on the rail.
Electric motors in industrial and robotic applications also employ electromagnetic
brakes.

37
16. FUTURE SCOPE

The lots of new technologies are arriving in world. They create a lot of effect. Most
industries got their new faces due to this arrival of technologies. Automobile industry is also
one of them. There is a boom in Worlds automobile industry. Therefore, lots of research is
also going here. As an important part of automobile, there are also innovations in brakes.
Electromagnetic brake is one of them. This enhanced braking system not only helps in
effective braking but also helps in avoiding the accidents and reducing the frequency of
accidents to a minimum. Furthermore, the electromagnetic brakes prevent the danger that
can arise from the prolonged use of brake beyond their capability to dissipate heat.

38
17. CONCLUSION

An electromagnetic braking for automobiles like bike, car has an effective braking system. In
addition, by using these electromagnetic brakes, we can increase the life of the braking unit.
The working principle of this system is that when the electromagnetic flux passes through
and perpendicular to the rotating wheel the eddy current is induced in the rotating wheel or
rotor. This eddy current flows opposite to the rotating wheel. This eddy current tries to stop
the rotating wheel or rotor. This results in the rotating wheel or rotor comes to rest.
Electromagnetic braking system is found to be more reliable as compared to other braking
systems. In oil braking system or air braking system, even a small leakage may lead to
complete failure of brakes. While in electromagnetic braking system as four disc plates, coils
and firing circuits are attached individually on each wheel, even any coil fails the brake does
not completely fails remaining three coil works properly. In addition, this system needs very
little of maintenance. In addition, it is found that electromagnetic brakes make up
approximately 80% of all of the power applied brake applications. Electromagnetic brakes
have been used as supplementary retardation equipment in addition to the regular friction
brakes on heavy vehicles. The frictions brakes can be used less frequently and therefore
practically never reach high temperatures. The brake linings would last considerably longer
before requiring maintenance and the potentially brake fade problem could be avoided.

39
18.COST ESTIMATION

1. Electromagnetic coil unit ..1000.00

2. brake unit with wheel 300.00

3. Flywheel & Chain . 500.00

3. M.s. fabricated stand . 600.00

4. DC power supply 12VDC 400.00

5. A.C.Motor 500.00

6. Step Down Transformer .. 500.00

7. Wires, Screws and switch 200.00

8. Miscellaneous charges . 400.00

9. Circuit 600.00
---------------
Total- 5000.00

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19. REFERENCES

www.wikipedia.com/electromagnetic brake

www.howstuffworks.com

www.iosrjournals.org

www.ijirset.com

www.iijser.com

www.carsdirect.com/features/safetyflatures

www.hwysafety.org
www.Crazyengineers.com

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