FLUID DYNAMICS

Fluid is a term that includes both gases and liquids which are able
to flow.
The gases are compressible and liquids are incompressible.

Considering the fluids that flow, there should encounter some

resistance and some flow freely when attempting to flow. Hence
the word viscosity was introduced, where high viscosity liquids do
not flow while gas generally has low viscosity.

DENSITY
mass m
Density of liquid, gas or solid defined as = volume p= V

Because the density of solids and liquids varies with the

temperature, a standard temperature of 4oC is used when
measuring the density of each. Although the temperature do not
change the mass of the substance, the do change the volume
through thermal expansion and contraction. This volume change,
means that there is a change in density of the substance.

Standard conditions for the measurement of gas density is

established at 0oC and a pressure of 101.25mb.

A large mass in a small volume means a high density, and a vice

versa. The unit of density depends on the units of mass and
volume; eg. Density = kg/m3 in SI units.

SPECIFIC GRAVITY (Relative Density)

Specific Gravity - SG - is a dimensionless unit defined as the ratio
of the density of a substance to the density of water - at a
specified temperature, and can be expressed as

SG = substance / H2O (3)

where

SG = Specific Gravity of the substance

 substance = density of the fluid or substance (kg/m3)

H2O = density of water - normally at temperature 4 oC (kg/m3)

It is common to use the density of water at 4 oC (39oF) as a

reference since water at this point has its highest density of 1000
kg/m3 or 62.4 lb/ft3.

Specific Gravity - SG - is dimensionless and has the same value in

the SI system and the imperial English system (BG). Water is
normally also used as reference when calculating the specific
gravity for solids.

The relative density for both water and air is 1.

density of substance
So, Relative Density = density of water

And

mass of substance
RD = density of water (for liquids)

A hydrometer is an instrument used to measure the specific

gravity (relative density) of liquids; that is, the ratio of the density
of the liquid to the density of water. A hydrometer is usually made
of glass and consists of a cylindrical stem and a bulb weighted with
mercury or lead shot to make it float upright.
VISCOSITY
Viscosity is the quantity that describes a fluid's resistance to flow.
Fluids resist the relative motion of immersed objects through them
as well as to the motion of layers with differing velocities within
them.

The more usual form of this relationship, called Newton's equation,

states that the resulting shear of a fluid is directly proportional to
the force applied and inversely proportional to its viscosity.

Viscosity is first and foremost a function of material. The viscosity

of water at 20 is 1.0020 millipascal seconds (which is
conveniently close to one by coincidence alone). Most ordinary
liquids have viscosities on the order of 1 to 1000 mPa s, while
gases have viscosities on the order of 1 to 10 Pa s. Pastes, gels,
emulsions, and other complex liquids are harder to summarize.
Some fats like butter or margarine are so viscous that they seem
more like soft solids than like flowing liquids. Molten glass is
extremely viscous and approaches infinite viscosity as it solidifies.
Since this process is not as well defined as true freezing, some
believe (incorrectly) that glass may still flow even after it has
completely cooled, but this is not the case. At ordinary
temperatures, glasses are as solid as true solids.
From everyday experience, it should be common knowledge that
viscosity varies with temperature. Honey and syrups can be made
to flow more readily when heated. Engine oil and hydraulic fluids
thicken appreciably on cold days and significantly affect the
performance of cars and other machinery during the winter
months. In general, the viscosity of a simple liquid decreases with
increasing temperature (and vice versa). As temperature
increases, the average speed of the molecules in a liquid increases
and the amount of time they spend "in contact" with their nearest
neighbours decreases. Thus, as temperature increases, the
average intermolecular forces decrease. The exact manner in
which the two quantities vary is nonlinear and changes abruptly
when the liquid changes phase.

Viscosity is normally independent of pressure, but liquids under

extreme pressure often experience an increase in viscosity. Since
liquids are normally incompressible, an increase in pressure
doesn't really bring the molecules significantly closer together.
Simple models of molecular interactions won't work to explain this
behavior, there is no generally accepted more complex model that
does. The liquid phase is probably the least well understood of all
the phases of matter.

While liquids get runnier as they get hotter, gases get thicker. (If
one can imagine a "thick" gas.) The viscosity of gases increases as
temperature increases and is approximately proportional to the
square root of temperature. This is due to the increase in the
frequency of intermolecular collisions at higher temperatures.
Since most of the time the molecules in a gas are flying freely
through the void, anything that increases the number of times one
molecule is in contact with another will decrease the ability of the
molecules as a whole to engage in the coordinated movement. The
more these molecules collide with one another, the more
disorganized their motion becomes.
STREAMLINE FLOW
An important concept in the study of aerodynamics concerns the
idea of streamlines. A streamline is a path traced out by a
massless particle as it moves with the flow. It is easiest to visualize
a streamline if we move along with the body (as opposed to
moving with the flow). The figure above shows the computed
streamlines around an airfoil and around a cylinder. In both cases,
we move with the object and the flow proceeds from left to right.
Since the streamline is traced out by a moving particle, at every
point along the path the velocity is tangent to the path. Since there
is no normal component of the velocity along the path, mass
cannot cross a streamline. The mass contained between any two
streamlines remains the same throughout the flowfield. We can
use Bernoulli's equation to relate the pressure and velocity along
the streamline. Since no mass passes through the surface of the
airfoil (or cylinder), the surface of the object is a streamline.

Airplanes fly by moving through almost still air, yet we design and
test them using wind tunnels, where the airplane model is fixed
and the air is made to move past the model. This idea of keeping
the airfoil fixed and having the air stream past the airfoil can be a
bit confusing. Yet you experience the same kind of thing every
day! When you stand on the corner and watch a car go by, the air
around you is relatively still. As the car moves through the air
there are aerodynamic forces present. Now if you were in the car
and put your hand out the window, you could feel the aerodynamic
force pushing on your hand. It feels like the air is moving past your
hand as fast as the car is moving. The forces on the car are the
same, whether you are standing on the corner or riding in the car.
Well this same thing is true of airplanes. Whether the airplane
moves through the air, or the air is pushed past the airplane, the
forces are exactly the same. It's usually easier, less expensive, and
(in some cases) less dangerous to test airplanes in a wind tunnel
before trying to fly them.

TURBULENCE
Turbulent flow, type of fluid (gas or liquid) flow in which the fluid
undergoes irregular fluctuations, or mixing, in contrast to laminar
flow, in which the fluid moves in smooth paths or layers. In
turbulent flow the speed of the fluid at a point is continuously
undergoing changes in both magnitude and direction. The flow of
wind and rivers is generally turbulent in this sense, even if the
currents are gentle. The air or water swirls and eddies while its
overall bulk moves along a specific direction.

STREAMLINE FLOW APPLICATIONS

Engineers often use dyes in water or smoke in air in order to see
streaklines, from which pathlines can be calculated. Streaklines are
identical to streamlines for steady flow. Further, dye can be used to
create timelines.[5] The patterns guide their design modifications,
aiming to reduce the drag. This task is known as streamlining, and
the resulting design is referred to as being streamlined.
Streamlined objects and organisms, like steam locomotives,
streamliners, cars and dolphins are often aesthetically pleasing to
the eye. The Streamline Moderne style, an 1930s and 1940s
offshoot of Art Deco, brought flowing lines to architecture and
design of the era.

BERNOULLIS THEOREM
Bernoulli's principle, physical principle that states that as the
speed of a moving fluid (liquid or gas) increases, the pressure
within the fluid decreases.

An increase in the velocity of a fluid that is accompanied by a

decrease of pressure. In most cases, the pressure in a liquid or gas
decreases as the liquid or gas moves faster. This explains in part
why a wing lifts an airplane.

The Lift of a Wing

The curved top of a wing creates a longer distance from front to

back than the straight bottom. This causes the air on top to travel
farther, and thus faster, to reach the back than the air underneath,
creating a difference in pressure between the two surfaces.
Applications
1. Bernoulli's principle can be used to calculate the lift force on
an airfoil, if the behaviour of the fluid flow in the vicinity of
the foil is known. For example, if the air flowing past the top
surface of an aircraft wing is moving faster than the air
flowing past the bottom surface, then Bernoulli's principle
implies that the pressure on the surfaces of the wing will be
lower above than below. This pressure difference results in an
upwards lifting force. Whenever the distribution of speed past
the top and bottom surfaces of a wing is known, the lift forces
can be calculated (to a good approximation) using Bernoulli's
equations established by Bernoulli over a century before the
first man-made wings were used for the purpose of flight.
Bernoulli's principle does not explain why the air flows faster
past the top of the wing and slower past the underside.

2. The carburetor used in many reciprocating engines contains a

venturi to create a region of low pressure to draw fuel into the
carburetor and mix it thoroughly with the incoming air. The
low pressure in the throat of a venturi can be explained by
Bernoulli's principle; in the narrow throat, the air is moving at
its fastest speed and therefore it is at its lowest pressure.

3. The pitot tube and static port on an aircraft are used to

determine the airspeed of the aircraft. These two devices are
connected to the airspeed indicator, which determines the
dynamic pressure of the airflow past the aircraft. Dynamic
pressure is the difference between stagnation pressure and
static pressure. Bernoulli's principle is used to calibrate the
airspeed indicator so that it displays the indicated airspeed
appropriate to the dynamic pressure.