Formal Education and Early Childhood Education: An Essential Difference

Author(s): David Elkind

Source: The Phi Delta Kappan, Vol. 67, No. 9 (May, 1986), pp. 631-636
Published by: Phi Delta Kappa International
Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/20403190
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Formal Education and
Early Childhood
Education: An
Essential Difference
by David Elkind
Educational programs
devised for school-age
children are being applied to
the education of younger
children, as well. Why is
the special character of
learning in early childhood
being ignored by people
who should know better?
y OUNG CHILDREN do not
learn in the same ways as older
children and adults. Because the
world of things, people, and
language is so new to infants and young
children, they learn best through direct
encounters with their world rather than
through formal education involving the
inculcation of symbolic rules. The fact
of this difference is rooted in the obser
vations of such giants of child study as
Froebel, Montessori, and Piaget, and it
is consistently supported by the findings
of research in child development.' This
fact was also recognized by the an
cients, who described the child of 6 or
7 as having attained the "age of reason."
Given the well-established fact that
PIP~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~I young children learn differently, the
conclusion that educators must draw is
a straightforward one: the education of
young children must be in keeping with
their unique modes of learning. If we

DAVID ELKIND is a professor of child

study and resident scholar at the Lincoln
Filene Center for Citizenship and Public Af
fairs, Tufts University, Medford, Mass. He
is the author of The Hurried Child (Read
.~r' ing, Mass.: Addison-Wesley, 1981) and The
Miseducation of Children: Superkids at Risk
(New York: A.A. Knopf, 1986). 01986,
David Elkind.

Illustration by Barbara Roman MAY 1986 631

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accept this conclusion, what is happen areas but also in sports, the arts, and What brought about this change dur
ing in the U.S. today is truly astonish computer science. To oppose these ing the Sixties? In many ways early
ing. In a society that prides itself on its trends is to ignore the social consensus childhood education was the scapegoat
openness to research and on its respect and to run counter to the culture at of the social movements of that turbu
for "expert" opinion, parents, educa large. We live in a democratic society in lent decade. Elementary and secondary
tors, administrators, and legislators are which the majority rules, so what can a education were already under attack on
blatantly ignoring the facts, the re minority do even if it wants to? two different fronts. First, such events
search, and the consensus of experts as the launching of Sputnik I in 1957,
about how young children learn and the demise of progressive education,
how best to teach them. WHY BEGIN SO SOON?
and the publication of such books as
All across -the country, educational In America, educational practice is Why Johnny Can't Read focused the
programs devised for school-age chil determined by economic, political, and spotlight of criticism on American edu
dren are being applied to the education social considerations much more than it cation. One explanation (actually, a ra
of young children, as well. In such is by what we know about what consti tionalization) for the problems that such
states as New York, Connecticut, and tutes good pedagogy for children. Until close scrutiny revealed was that chil
Illinois, administrators are advocating the 1960s, however, early childhood dren were poorly prepared for school
that children enter formal schooling at education was an exception to this gen and that early childhood education
age 4. The length of many kindergarten eral rule. Early childhood education should be more academically rigorous
programs has been extended to a full programs were, for the most part, pri so that children could move more rapid
day, and nursery school programs have vately run and well adapted to the de ly once they entered school.
become prekindergartens. Moreover, velopmental needs of the children they The second front on which education
many of these kindergartens have in served. Even kindergartens in public was trying to fight a rear-guard action
troduced curricula (including work schools had a special status and were was in the arena of the civil rights
books and papers) once reserved for generally free of the social pressures movement. One of the main issues taken
first-graders. And a number of writers, that influenced the rest of elementary up by this movement was the unequal
in books addressed to parents, advocate and secondary education. schooling of minorities. Schools for
the teaching of reading and math to in All of that changed in the 1960s, how black children, for example, were obvi
fants and very young children.2 ever, when early childhood education ously inferior in quality to those for
This transformation of thinking re was abruptly shoved into the economic, white children. Again, one explanation
garding early childhood education political, and social spotlight. At that (rationalization) was that black children
raises at least three questions that I will moment, early childhood education lost were poorly prepared for school. It
attempt to answer here. First, why is its innocence and its special status. Like wasn't the schools, the argument ran,
this happening? As we have seen, both elementary and secondary education, but the preparation that led to the lower
theory and research consistently agree early childhood education became a achievement levels of black children.
that young children learn differently ground on which to fight social battles The Head Start legislation was one re
from older children and adults. And no that had little or nothing to do with what sponse to this claim.
one really questions the principle that was good pedagogy for children. The One major consequence of this in
education should be adapted to the formal symbol of this mainstreaming of stitutionalization of early childhood
learning abilities of the students to be early childhood education came with the education was the introduction of a new
instructed. Why is the special character passage by Congress of the Head Start conception of infants and young chil
of learning in early childhood being ig legislation in 1964. For the first time, dren. Educational practice is not alone
nored by so many people who should early childhood programs were being in being determined by the social, eco
know better? funded by the federal government. nomic, and political tenor of the times.
The second question depends on the
first. Even if young children are being
taught in the manner of older children,
what harm is there in that? After all, it
could be that we have merely been cod
dling young children by not introducing
them to a rigorous academic program at
an early age. Doesn't the new research
on infants and young children substanti
ate their eagerness to learn and the im
portance of the early years for intensive
instruction? We will see below that this
is not quite the case.
The third question follows from the
first two. If it can be demonstrated that
early, formal instruction does more
harm than good, what can we do about
it? After all, that is the direction, how
ever mistaken, in which U.S. society as
a whole is heading. Formal instructional
programs for infants and young children
are expanding not only in academic "I like playing in the sandbox, too. It's just a matter of priorities."

632 PHI DELTA KAPPAN

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The conception of the child changes
with the times as well. For example, a
dominant conception of the child in the
19th century - dictated by the religious The conception of
orthodoxy of the time - was the notion the competent infant
of the "sinful child." Educating the sin
ful child necessarily involved "breaking and young child was
the will" by whatever harsh means were dictated by social and
needed to do so.
The advent of Freudian psychology in political forces rather
the early 20th century, along with the than by any new
continuing secularization and urbaniza
tion of American society, gradually re data or findings.
placed the concept of the sinful child
with the concept of the "sensual child."
Freud's depiction of infantile sexuality
and his theories regarding the central
role of sexuality in the formation of neu "competent infant."5 Finally, James has changed dramatically. The women's
roses focused attention on the develop McV. Hunt's idea of the malleability of movement accentuated women's need
ment of a "healthy personality."3 Pro I.Q. (an idea that had always been ac for choice in the matter of whether to
gressive education had as one of its aims cepted by reputable psychometricians) stay home or to pursue a career. At the
the open, spontaneous expression of was presented as a new idea that was in same time, a postindustrial economy
feelings and emotions (judged to be opposition to the mental testing estab can make use of more women in the
healthy) rather than their suppression or lishment's supposed advocacy of a fixed workforce than an industrial economy.
repression (judged to be unhealthy). I.Q.6 In the past, factory work required the
During the reign of the sensual child, Thus the conception of the competent large muscles of men, but, with the
there was less concern with the child's infant and young child was dictated by miniaturization of modern technology,
intellectual development, which, in an social and political forces rather than the small motor skills and dexterity of
emotionally healthy child, was pre by any new data or findings about the women are in greater demand. Like
sumed to take care of itself. modes of Iearning of young children. wise, now that our economy is becom
The intellectual importance given ear Whatever psychological theory or edu ing primarily a service economy, the so
ly childhood education by the civil cational research that was brought to cial skills of women are also much in
rights movement and the education re bear to reinforce this conception had demand.
form movement of the 1960s was incon been carefully selected and interpreted Another change in the circumstances
sistent with the concept of the sensual to support the notion of early childhood of the middle class has contributed to
child. A new concept of infants and competence. Contrary evidence was the growing number of middle-class
young children was, therefore, re ignored. The facts were made to fit women in the workforce. As divorce
quired. This new concept had to be in the hypothesis rather than the hypothe has become socially acceptable, divorce
keeping with the new significance at sis being changed to accommodate the rates have soared, and it is now expect
tached to academic education during the facts. In short, our conception of the ed that more than half of all marriages
early years. What emerged was the con child at any point in history has been will end in divorce. In more than 90%
cept of the "competent infant." Unwit much more dependent on social, politi of these cases, it is the mother who
tingly, perhaps, social scientists of the cal, and economic considerations than retains custody of the children. And
time, caught up in the emotion of the so on the established facts and theories of because alimony and child support
cial movements, fostered this concep child development. are rarely enough to live on, divorced
tion through unwarranted reinterpreta The concept of the competent infant mothers swell the ranks of working
tions of established facts about the cog was also congruent with the changing women.
nitive development of young children. lifestyles of American middle-class One result of these changes in life
Jerome Bruner, for example, though families. During the reign of the sensual style and values has been that middle
he was not trained in child development child, middle-class values dictated that class women are entering the workforce
or in education, became a guru of the mothers stay at home and rear their chil in ever-increasing numbers. More than
education reform movement of the dren, lend support to their husbands, 50% of U.S. women are now employed
day.4 His totally unsubstantiated claim and run the home. Home economics be outside the home, and it is estimated
that "you can teach any child any subject came a major department for women that by the year 2000 between 80% and
matter at any age in an intellectually in most colleges and universities of the 90% of women will be in the work
honest way" became a touchstone of time and reflected these values. Within force. One consequence of this social
the new conception of the "competent that set of middle-class values, the con movement is that increasing numbers
infant." In the same way, Benjamin cept of a sensual infant who was in need of infants and young children are being
Bloom's ambiguous statement that a of a mother's ministrations fit quite cared for outside the home. Current es
young child attains half of his or her in comfortably. timates place the number of children un
tellectual ability by the age of 4 (based In the past two decades, however, der the age of 6 who are receiving one
on well-known correlations between thanks partly to the women's movement or another form of out-of-home care at
I.Q. scores attained by the same sub and partly to the shift in U.S. society six million.
jects at different ages) was another from an industrial to a postindustrial The conception of the competent in
foundation for the conception of the economy, the middle-class value system fant is clearly more in keeping with

MAY 1986 633

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 these contemporary family styles than is innovations as television and comput
the conception of the sensual infant. A ers, children today are brighter and
competent infant can cope with the more sophisticated than children in the
separation from parents at an early age. past. This intuition has reinforced and
He or she is able to adjust with minimal supported the conception of the compe
W e miseducate
difficulty to baby sitters, day-care cen tent infant and has been used to rational children whenever
ters, full-day nursery schools, and so ize the formal instruction of preschool we put them at
on. If some parents feel residual pangs children.
of guilt about leaving their young off Technology, however, neither changes risk for no purpose.
spring in out-of-home care, they can human potential nor accelerates human -Formal instruction
place their youngster in a high-pressure development. Technology extends and
academic program. If the child were not amplifies our human potentials, but it puts excessive demands
in such a program, the parents tell them does not alter them. The telephone ex
selves, he or she would fall behind peers tends our hearing; television extends
on young children.
and would not be able to compete aca our vision; computers extend our mem
demically when it is time to enter kin ories. But neither our capacity for hear
dergarten. From this perspective, high ing, nor our capacity for seeing, nor
pressure academic preschool programs our capacity for remembering have
are for the young child's "own good." been changed by the technology. Mod "attentional deficits" have become the
The social dynamics behind the pres em weaponry may have amplified our leading form of learning disability. Yet
sure to place young children in edu ability to express our aggression, but it most people continue to believe that
cational programs appropriate for has neither heightened nor lessened our these programs have improved chil
school-age children now become pain tendency to be aggressive. There is sim dren's reading abilities. Such intuitive
fully clear. The truth is that the many ply no truth in the intuitive belief that belief that children today are brighter
changes in our society have not been ac technology alters human potential. and more sophisticated than previous
companied by adequate provisions for Exactly the same holds true with re generations tops off the list of common
the out-of-home care of all the young spect to children. Computers have not ly accepted reasons for the formal in
children who require it. Consequently, improved children's intellectual capaci struction of young children.
parents are putting pressure on elected ties; they have only amplified the limita
officials to provide more early child tions of young children's thinking. Con
THE HIARM OF EARLY INSTRUCTION
hood care. This has been the primary sider "turtle geometry," an application
motivation for full-day kindergartens, of the computer language Logo, created What harm is there in exposing young
starting school at age 4, and so on. Al by Seymour Papert for use with pre children to formal instruction involving
though the avowed reasons for these school and school-age children.7 Chil the inculcation of symbolic rules? The
proposals are to be found in "new" re dren learn to write programs that move harm comes from what I have called
search showing the need for early childthe cursor in different directions to draw "miseducation."8 We miseducate chil
hood education, the "new" data consist figures on a video screen. The sequence dren whenever we put them at risk for
of nothing more than the "old" (and al of directions then becomes an elemen no purpose. The risks of miseducating
ways dubious) data from the 1960s. The tary program for drawing the figure. young children are both short- and long
real reason for these programs is that One instruction, however, gives young term. The short-term risks derive from
elected officials are feeling pressure children a great deal of trouble. This is the stress, with all its attendant symp
from voters to offer out-of-home care the instruction to rotate the cursor in toms, that formal instruction places on
for young children. different directions without moving it. children; the long-term risks are of at
There is another motive for introduc Young children do not easily understand least three kinds: motivational, intellec
ing formal instruction in early child that you can change direction while tual, and social. In each case, the poten
hood programs. This comes from our standing still, and they have difficulty tial psychological risks of early inter
intuitive psychology regarding technol grasping this command. Thus the use of vention far outweigh any potential edu
ogy and human behavior. Much intui the technology only amplifies the limita cational gain.
tive psychology derives from emotions tions of young children's thinking. Short-term risks. Stress is a demand
and feelings rather than from reason and Television provides another exam for adaptation. In this broad sense, of
balanced judgment. Nonetheless, such ple. Programs such as "Sesame Street" course, stress is coincident with life it
intuitions seem so obviously correct that and "The Electric Company" were sup self. In a narrower, clinical sense, how
one thinks it foolish even to question posed to make learning to read easier ever, stress refers to any excessive de
them. (The so-called "gambler's fallacy" for young children. However, the rapid mand for adaptation. What is excessive,
is a case in point: the gambler believes presentation of material on these pro in turn, depends on both the individual
that the number of previous losses in grams is much too fast for the informa and the demands made.
creases his or her probability of win tion-processing abilities of young chil Elsewhere I have suggested that each
ning, while, in fact, there is no relation dren. It could be that these programs, individual has two sources of energy
ship between the two.) geared to the information-processing with which to cope with stress.9 One of
The intuition regarding human be speeds of adults and older children, these is what I call "clock energy." This
havior and technology is equally falla have amplified the attentional limita is the energy that we use up in pursu
cious. The intuition is that human poten tions of young children, with negative ing the tasks of daily living, and it is
tials are altered by technology. With re consequences for their reading abilities. replenished by food and rest. By con
spect to children, this intuition is often These programs have been on the air for trast, what I call "calendar energy" is the
expressed by saying that, thanks to such almost 20 years, and during that time energy involved in growth and develop

634 PHI DELTA KAPPAN

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ment that is given us in a more or less of learning of the young child. From vation to learn. In addition to being
fixed quantity and that determines our the viewpoint of formal instruction, the permeable, the spontaneous learning of
total life span. multiple learning potential of the young young children is self-directed. Chil
The early symptoms of stress are child is seen as evidence of distractabil dren learn their native language not be
those associated with clock energy: fa ity or the currently more fashionable cause anyone "teaches" them that lan
tigue, loss of appetite, and decreased ef phrase, attentional deficit. The pressure guage in a formal way but because they
ficiency. When the excessive demands to focus on one avenue of learning, such have both the need and the capacity to
continue without adequate time for re as letter or word identification, is very learn language. They use the language
plenishment, an individual must draw stressful for young children. Pediatri models and verbal interactions provided
on his or her calendar energy. When cians around the country report an in by their environment to acquire this
this happens, such psychosomatic stress crease in stress-related symptoms in most complicated skill. Young children
symptoms as headaches and stomach young children.10 A pediatrician I met have their own set of learning priorities.
aches that can injure the organism and at a meeting of the National Academy of Certainly some things need to be
shorten the life span begin to appear. In Pediatrics told me that he is treating a 4 taught to very young children. For ex
young children exposed to formal in year-old who has peptic ulcers. ample, they need to learn what might be
struction, both types of stress symptoms To be sure, formal instruction is but called the "healthy" fears: for example,
are frequently seen. one of the many demands made on a not to touch fire, not to insert fingers
The reason for this is not difficult to young child in a formal program of edu in electrical sockets, and not to cross
understand. Formal instruction puts ex cation. The child is also separated from streets without looking both ways. Such
cessive demands on young children. A his or her parents, a second stress; is in learning is not self-directed, but it is
concrete example may help make this a new and unfamiliar place with strange necessary for survival. On the intellec
point. The learning of young children is children and adults, a third stress; and is tual plane, however, children's natural
"permeable" in the sense that they do not required to learn new rules of conduct, curiosity about the world around them is
learn in the narrow categories defined still another stress. Although the de a strong directive for learning the basic
by adults, such as reading, math, sci mands of formal instruction may not be categories and concepts of the physical
ence, and so on. At the level at which sufficient in themselves to overstrain the world. Sound early childhood education
young children learn, there are no sharp young child's reservoir of clock energy, encourages children's self-directed learn
boundaries. When young children make the combination of stresses associated ing by providing an environment that is
soup, for example, they learn the names with formal schooling can be sufficient rich in materials to explore, manipulate,
of vegetables (language), how to meas to produce symptoms. and talk about.
ure ingredients (math), the effects of By contrast, young children in a When adults intrude in this self-di
heat on the hardness and softness of the sound program of early childhood edu rected learning and insist on their own
vegetables (science), and the cross cation have the support of activities learning priorities, such as reading or
sectional shapes of the vegetables (ge nicely suited to their learning styles. math, they interfere with the self-di
ometry). It would be nonsense, how This eliminates the stresses occasioned rected impulse. Children can learn
ever, to single out any one of these by the curriculum and the stilted teach something from this instruction, but it
learnings as a separate lesson in any of er/student interactions inherent in for may be something other than what the
the subjects listed in parentheses. mal instruction. adults intended. A child may learn to
The focus on a specific learning task, Long-term effects. One long-term become dependent on adult direction
as demanded by formal instruction, is danger of early instruction is the poten and not to trust his or her own initiative.
thus at variance with the natural mode tial harm it can do to the child's moti Erik Erikson has described early child
hood as the period when the balance is
310116 aet struck between the sense of initiative

3mWODL il and the sense of guilt.1I And this bal

ance has consequences for a lifetime.
A child whose self-directed learning
is encouraged will develop a sense of in
itiative that will far outweigh a sense of
guilt about getting things started. On
tgsac eI4FW41' the other hand, a child whose self-di
rected learning is interfered with, who
is forced to follow adult learning priori
ties, may acquire a strong sense of guilt
about any self-initiated activities. One
risk of early formal instruction, then, is
that it may encourage a sense of guilt at
the expense of a sense of initiative.
Let me recount an anecdote to make
this risk concrete. Several years ago I
met a renowned psychiatrist who told
me the following story. In the 1930s,
psychologist Myrtle McGraw carried
out what has become a classic study of
the contributions of nature and nurture
"What a day! Accelerated math, accelerated science, and fast food."to motor development. 12 McGraw's

MAY 1986 635

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 study involved twin boys, Johnny and ample of presenting the child with an as ignores the well-founded and noncon
Jimmy. In her study, McGraw trained sociation that he or she must learn with troversial differences between early
one of the twins, Johnny, in a variety of out much active intervention or explora childhood education and formal educa
motor tasks, such as riding a tricycle tion. Rote learning and memorization, tion. As educators, our first task is to
and climbing. Jimmy was not trained. the stuff of much formal education, pro reassert this difference and insist on its
Johnny soon surpassed Jimmy in the vide little opportunity for reflective ab importance. We have to reeducate par
skills in which he had been trained. On straction. Such reflective abstraction, ents, administrators, and legislators re
the other hand, after the training was however, is essential for the full realiza garding what is sound education for
discontinued, Jimmy quickly caught up tion of a child's cognitive abilities. young children. And we must make it
with his brother, so that, by the end of Introducing formal instruction too clear that it is not out-of-home care for
the year in which the training was in early also puts the child at social risk. young children that is potentially harm
itiated, there was no difference in the One aspect of formal instruction - ful - only the wrong kind of out-of
motor skills of the twins. In motor thankfully absent in sound early child home care. Sound early childhood edu
learning, maturation appeared to be at hood education - is the introduction of cation is an extension of the home, not
least as important as training. the notions of "correct" and "incorrect." of the school.
What the psychiatrist told me, how These notions not only orient the child's As a profession, we have no choice
ever, was that he had seen the twins thinking but also introduce social com but to go public. Those who are making
several years after the investigation had parison. One child gets an answer right, money from the miseducation of young
been completed. When he examined the and another gets it wrong. Therefore, children are the ones about whom par
boys, he found a striking difference in one child is smarter, somehow better ents hear and read the most. We need to
their personalities and, particularly, in than the other. Such social comparisons write for popular magazines, speak out
their approach to learning. Johnny, the are harmful enough among school-age on television forums, and encourage
twin who had been trained, was diffi children, but they are truly damaging newspaper articles about the difference
dent and insecure. He seemed always to among preschoolers. between good early childhood education
be looking for adult direction and ap This damage can occur because the and miseducation. We are in a war for
proval of his activities. Jimmy, the un focus on right and wrong turns the child the well-being of our children, and in
trained twin, was quite the opposite. away from self-directed and self-re this war the media are our most power
Self-confident and self-assured, he un inforcing sources of self-esteem. In ful weapon. It is a war we can never ab
dertook activities on his own without stead, it directs children to look primar solutely win, no matter how hard we
looking to adults for guidance and direc ily to adults for approval and to social fight. But, unless we fight as hard as we
tion. Though this example is anecdotal, comparison for self-appraisal. This can, it is a war we will certainly lose.
it does illustrate the potential risk of too works against the formation of self
1. Sheldon H. White, "Some General Outlines of
much adult intervention in the self esteem that a child attains from success the Matrix of Developmental Changes Between 5
directed learning of young children. fully completing a self-initiated and and 7 Years," Bulletin of the Orton Society, vol.
Early formal instruction also puts the self-directed task. From the point of 20, 1970, pp. 41-57.
child at intellectual risk. Jean Piaget view of socialization, the danger of ear 2. See, for example, Glen Doman, Teach Your
Baby to Read (London: Jonathan Cape, 1965);
emphasized the importance of what he ly instruction is that it can make chil Peggy Eastman and John L. Barr, Your Child Is
called "reflective abstraction" for the dren too dependent on others for their Smarter Than You Think (New York: Morrow,
mental ability of the child.'3 A child sense of self-worth. Sound early child 1985); and Sidney Ledson, Teach Your Child to
who is engaging in self-directed learn hood education encourages children to Read in 60 Days (Toronto: Publishing Company,
Ltd., 1975).
ing can reflectively abstract from those feel good about themselves as a conse
3. Sigmund Freud, "Infantile Sexuality," in A. A.
activities. That reflective abstraction quence of their own achievements. Brill, ed., The Basic Writings of Sigmund Freud
encourages the growth of new mental To be sure, the foregoing descriptions (New York: Random House, 1938).
abilities. Piaget cited the example of a of damage to motivation, intellectual 4. Jerome Bruner, The Process of Education
child who is rearranging 10 pebbles. growth, and self-esteem are potential (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press,
First, the child makes them into a risks that are not always realized in 1960).
5. Benjamin S. Bloom, Stability and Change
square, then into a circle, and next into every child who is miseducated. But in Human Characteristics (New York: Wiley,
a triangle. What the child discovers, as why put a child at risk in the first place? 1964).
There is really no evidence that early
a result of that activity, is that no matter 6. James McV. Hunt, Intelligence and Experi
how he or she arranges the pebbles they formal instruction has any lasting or ence (New York: Ronald Press, 1961).
still remain 10 in number. In effect, thepermanent benefits for children. By 7. Seymour Papert, Mindstorms (New York: Ba
sic Books, 1980).
child has learned the difference between contrast, the risks to the child's moti
8. David Elkind, The Miseducation of Children:
perception and reason. Perceptually, it vation, intellectual growth, and self Superkids at Risk (New York: A.A. Knopf,
appears as if there are more pebbles in esteem could well do serious damage to 1986).
one configuration than in another. Rea the child's emerging personality. It is 9. David Elkind, All Grown Up and No Place
son tells the child that they are the same. reasonable to conclude that the early in to Go: Teenagers in Crisis (Reading, Mass.:
When adults intrude on a child's struction of young children derives Addison-Wesley, 1984).
10. T. Berry Brazelton, quoted in E.J. Kahn,
learning, they also interfere with the more from the needs and priorities of "Stressed for Success," Boston Magazine, Decem
process of reflective abstraction. For adults than from what we know of good ber 1985, pp. 178-82, 255-57.
mal instruction presents the child with pedagogy for young children. 11. Erik H. Erikson, Childhood and Society
some content to be learned. Flash cards (New York: Norton, 1950).
present the child with a visual configu 12. Myrtle B. McGraw, A Study of Johnny and
ration that the child must first dis WVHAT CAN WE DO? Jimmy (New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts,
1935).
criminate and then memorize. Teaching The miseducation of young children, 13. Jean Piaget, The Psychology of Intelligence
young children phonics is another ex so prevalent in the United States today, (London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1950). IB

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