Journal of Materials Science and Engineering A 2 (7) (2012) 501-510

D DAVID PUBLISHING

Behaviour of Structural Carbon Steel at High

Temperatures

Juan Antonio Trilleros Villaverde and Irene Huertas Gonzlez

Department of Materials Science and Metallurgical Engineering, Universitas Complutensis of Madrid, Ciudad Universitaria s/n,
Madrid 28040, Spain

Received: May 19, 2011 / Accepted: June 08, 2011 / Published: July 10, 2012.

Abstract: The research develops an experimental study on two carbon steels used for construction of structures on civil works,
S355NL and S460NL, to high temperatures with values ranging between 500 C and 950 C. In order to obtain experimental evidence
of behavior of steels at elevated temperatures, the chemical and structural characterizations and tested steels were made, deducing the
found microstructures and average grain sizes measured. Tensile tests at elevated temperatures were made and steels mechanical
properties were deducted at different temperatures. Also hardness steels tests were made. Creep and plastic deformation phenomena
were observed from micrography and fractography studies.

Key words: Structural steel at high temperature, behavior of steels at elevated temperatures, mechanical properties for steel at high
temperature.

1. Introduction phase transformation and the precipitation. The two

last stages essentially determine the mechanical steel
The weldability of fine grain structural steels
properties, which depend on the character of the
respond to the requirements of the standard EN
transformation products (ferrite and pearlite), and the
10025-3: 2006 [1], defines four levels of mechanical
ferrite grain size [2-7].
properties, S275, S355, S420 and S460, where the
When a component that consists of a multiphase
numbers represent the minimum yield strength in MPa.
structure is subjected to thermal or mechanical loads
Each quality can be delivered with properties of
that cause structural changes due to phase
resilience are guaranteed to -20 C (N grades) or -50 C
transformation, an assumption is made that the
for applications at low temperatures (NL grades).
mechanical and physical properties of the material are a
These structural steels are hot rolled and produce a
combination of the properties of the phases. During
largest class of commercial steels from 0.05 to 0.20
phase transformation, three types of parameters are
weight percent of carbon. Their most typical
dominant: temperature fields, phases of metallic
applications are bridges, electrical towers, other
structures and elastic or inelastic stress strain
architectural structures and buildings.
relationship [8].
The process of hot strip rolling of low carbon steels
The temperature to which the carbon steel is heated
can be subdivided into three stages; reheating, rolling
before cooling has begun determines the phases that are
and cooling; and the metallurgical phenomena which
present at the beginning and the end of the cooling
occur in these processing steps are the recrystallization
process [9]. For simulate the phase transformations
and grain growth in austenite, the austenite-ferrite
Serajzadeh [10], proposed a model for predicting
Corresponding author: Juan Antonio Trilleros Villaverde, temperature history and microstructural changes
Ph.D., professor, research field: behaviour of structural carbon during cooling steel. He took cognisance of the effects
steel at high temperatures. E-mail: trillero@quim.ucm.es.
502 Behaviour of Structural Carbon Steel at High Temperatures

of a number of factors including initial austenite grain
size and its role on the kinetics of pearlite and ferrite
transformation, the amount of residual strain within the
cooling material and heat of transformation. Also, it
was observed that non-uniform cooling can cause
inhomogeneous distribution of ferrite grain size in the
final product. Slow cooling of steel to below the
eutectoid temperature results in the formation of ferrite
and cementite; this might appear as proeutectoid ferrite
and a lamellar ferrite-cementite structure called pearlite,
depending on the carbon content of the steel and the
cooling rate. Slower cooling rates produce coarser
microstructures.
Grain size has a market influence on the mechanical
properties of steel. Tensile strength, yield strength,
toughness and hardenability can be altered by varying
the grain size of steel [11]. Yield strength is the amount
of stress at which plastic deformation becomes
significant, besides grain size, yield strength is also
influenced by other factors such as chemical
composition, forming process and heat process [12].
Yield strength varies proportionately with the square
root of grain size.
Hardness can be roughly defined as a measure of
metals resistance to plastic deformation usually by
penetration. Hardness can also be used as an indicator
of a metals strength. The correlation of hardness with
tensile strength is generally good. Sleboda [13] report
that polycrystalline materials often show an increase in
hardness and strength with decreasing grain size.
Schiotz [14] showed that hardness of steel increases
sharply for decreasing grain size, reaches a peak at a
critical grain size and decreases inversely to the square
root of grain size.
The current work presents an experimental study of
the behaviour of two structural carbon steels, both at
room temperature as elevated temperature, from 500 C
to 950 C at four different temperature levels. In the
study have been available with sufficient material from
hot strip rolling steels by Arcelor Mittal and perform
the chemical and structural characterizations of steels
(grain size and phases). Also have obtained mechanical
properties of steels (tensile and hardness tests), and
fractographic studies of steels tested. All this, whereas
tests at room temperature and at four levels of high
temperature, in order to have accurate information to
enable further study the behavior of steels when they
were being subjected under a fire test.
2. Experiments
2.1 Material Tested
The work was carried out using two types of
common structural steels, the steel grades in
EUROCEDE 3, are based on the standard, [1]. The
selection of tested material was S355NL and S460NL.
The chemical composition is given on Table 1 and the
mechanical properties on Table 2.
2.2 Testing Program
2.2.1 Samples Preparation for Microstructural
Analysis
Initially the steel samples, S355NL and S460NL, were
200 100 20 mm. These specimens were cut to do

Table 1 Chemical composition of steels tested.

STEEL C% Si% Mn% P% S% Cr% Ni% Mo% Al% Cu% Co%
S460NL 0.127 0.286 1.40 0.019 0.006 0.029 0.510 0.008 0.028 0.013 0.018
S355NL 0.169 0.310 1.14 0.018 0.006 0.046 0.244 0.008 0.040 0.216 0.019

Table 2 Mechanical properties of steel at room temperature.

Effective yield Elastic modulus Proportional limit Rockwell B
STEEL Area reduction (%) Elongation (%)
strength (MPa) (GPa) 0.2%(MPa) hardness
S355NL 555.8 203 353 75 12 82
S460NL 560.9 218 407 77 13 86
 Behaviour of Structural Carbon Steel at High Temperatures
slice of 200 100 20 mm and it was taken different
part of this slices to do the microstructural analysis
along three directions (rolling, cross and longitudinal
section according rolling sections).
All samples were grinded with different sandpapers
(320, 600, 1,200) and polished with diamond paste
(3m and 1m). Then, Nital 2% was used (60%-62%
nitric acid and ethyl alcohol 99.5%) to attack the
samples. This solution was chosen because the
material to be investigated was a plain carbon steel
and the effect of Nital is darkens pearlite and give
contrast between pearlite colonies, reveals ferrite
boundaries and differentiates ferrite from martensite.
2.2.2 Microstructural Analysis
The steels samples of 200 100 20 mm were
heated at constant temperatures, 620 C, 820 C and
920 C (firstly the furnace was programmed at
required temperature, secondly the furnace reach the
temperature and finally the specimens were introduced
and it were stayed the optimal time was remained to
reach the temperature, 30 min/pulgada) and
subsequent cooling in air. Then, a microstructural
study was done with the steels tested by light optical
microscope (LOM). This is one of the most commonly
used techniques for microstructure characterization in
steels. It was carried out using Nikon EPIPHOT 300
light optical microscope equipped with software for
image analysis. The S355NL and S460NL steels were
characterized at room temperature and post-heating at
elevated temperature.
The grain size was calculated using the main linear
intercept method (Heyn procedure) as described in
UNE-EN C ISO 643 [15]. This technique is one of the
numerous procedures within the field of stereology that
have been developed to estimate average grain size,
grain shape, grain distribution, grain orientation etc.
Metallographic measurements are usually made in a
2-D planar section of a volume and in this specific case,
the average grain size calculations were based on
measurements made on LOM micrographs.
After tensile test with the samples tested a
503
micrographic and fractographic study was done too. It
was used a Nikon EPIPHOT 300 light optical
microscope equipped with software for image analysis
to see the microstructure and a scanning electron
microscopy (SEM) JEOL 6400 JSM at the CNME
which is a 35 kW machine offering resolution of up to
10 nm to see the fracture area.
2.2.3 Mechanical Analysis
It was done the small-scale tensile test of S355NL
and S460NL steels at room temperature and high
temperature. In the tests, the samples studied,
according UNE EN ISO 6892-1: 2009 [16], were
heated up to a specified temperature (500 C, 650 C,
800 C and 950 C) in electric furnace. After reaching
the preselected temperature, around 21 C/min,
approximately 10 min was required for the temperature
to stabilize and after the tensile test was carried out.
The loading rate was kept constant of 0.025 mm/sec.
Stress and stain values were first recorded and from the
stress-strain curves the mechanical material properties
could be determined. The testing device is illustrated in
Fig. 1.
Finally, hardness Rockwell B was used for tested
steels to know the resistance to plastic deformation by
penetration. To do the hardness measurements it was
used a hard steel indenter of 1/16 inch, 100 kg load,
a pattern of HRB hardness 76.1 1 and a preload of
10 kg.
3. Test Results
3.1 Structural Analysis and Average Grain Size
The micrographs shows that in the reception state
and in the roll, longitudinal and cross section, both
steels have a one-way striping of fine pearlite (dark
bands), consisting of ferrite and cementite (Fe3C) and
ferrite (light bands). The average grain size of S460NL
steel was about 8-9 m and the S355NL steel had a
slightly higher grain size, about 9-10 microns. Both
steels have an equiaxied shaped grains (Fig. 2).
When steel is maintained during some time and at
High temperatures, the austenite crystals tend to grow
504 Behaviour of Structural Carbon Steel at High Temperatures

Resistor Elements

Test Piece

Thermocoples

Fig. 1 High-temperature tensile testing device.

S355NL S460NL
Fig. 2 LOM micrographs at room temperature of S355NL and S460NL steels (longitudinal section), 100 and 500.

and increase its size. The growth is proportional to the
temperature achieved and the time of heating. The size
of the steel crystals after cooling, depend on the size
of the austenite crystals reached during the heating
time.
For S460NL steel at 620 C, according to the
equilibrium diagram Fe-C, hasnt a significant
difference respect to the initial state. This was due it
did not pass the austenitizing temperature around of
723 C where the pearlite transforms to austenite.
Therefore the band structure remains and the grain size
was still the order of 8 m (Fig. 3a). In the case of steel
S355NL shows the same trend and keep the grain size
in 10 m (Fig. 4a).
At 820 C the ferritic-pearlitic bands start to
disappear. For this temperature the equilibrium
diagram Fe-C shows a biphasic region where there is
ferrite and some of pearlite has transformed in
austenite. After cooling, the pearlite is redistributed.
The ferrite grains and ferrite conglomerates start to

(a) (b) (c)

Fig. 3 LOM micrographs at (a) 620 C, (b) 820 C and (c) 920 C of S355NL steel (longitudinal section), 500.
 Behaviour of Structural Carbon Steel at High Temperatures 505

(a) (b) (c)

Fig. 4 LOM micrographs at (a) 620 C, (b) 820 C and (c) 920 C of S460NL steel (longitudinal section), 500.
appear like a small nucleation. The grain size was still
the order of 8 m to S460NL steel, Fig. 3b and 10 m
to S355NL steel, Fig. 4b. There are some parts of
manganese segregations in the steels according
chemical composition.
Reaching 920 C, the steel is in a monophasic field
by the complete transformation to austenite. Cooled on
air, the austenite is transformed to ferrite and pearlite.
The ferritic-pearlite bands begin to disappear. In some
areas an acicular Widmansttten structures appear, this
structure is formed after cooling and it appears when
they are exceeded 850 C in the heating process [17]. It
was observed in both steels there was a slight grain
growth, the steel S460NL had a grain size of the order
of 9 m (Fig. 4c), and S355NL of the order of 11 m
(Fig. 5c).
The variation of the grain size and Rockwell B
hardness are presented in Table 3. It is observed that
the grain size decreases slightly. For steel S355NL is
more significant than for the S460NL. The hardness
test values almost no change. The variation does not
exceed 5%, therefore the steels maintain the hardness
values at high temperatures.
3.2 Tensile Tests
The results of tensile test as stress-strain curves were
shown in Fig. 5. The values of the mechanical
properties for steels tested at 22, 500, 650, 800 and

Ti [C] Ti [C]

(a) (b)
Fig. 5 Stress-strain curve of (a) S355NL, (b) S460NL steels at differet temperatures obtained from steady-state test results.

Table 3 Variation of the grain size and Rockwell B hardness values of S355NL and S460NL steels at high temperatures.
Average grain size (m) Hardness (Rockwel B)
Temperature (C)
S355NL S460NL S355NL S460NL
22 9-10 8-9 82 87
620 10 8 78 83
820 10 8 81 84
920 11 9 82 90
506 Behaviour of Structural Carbon Steel at High Temperatures

950 C, were determined from the stress-strain curves
and are presented on Table 4.
For both steels were observed that the strength,
modulus and the limit elastic decrease with the
temperature. At 500 C and 650 C, the mechanical
behavior of S460NL steel is greater than S355NL steel.
The elongation and reduction area present a uniform
trend due to thermal creep phenomenon that develops
during the test.
The plastic deformation areas decrease very
strongly with the temperatures tested. For temperature
800 C or above there is not plastic deformation and
necking. For the temperature interval of 500 C and
650 C, a plastic deformation occurs with formation of
neck and reduction of maximum load resistance. For
temperatures of 800 C and 950 C a plastic
deformation develops along the total length of the
sample and therefore also the necking. The
deformation occurs at constant load and it matches
with the maximum strength, (it will be seen later, in
micrographic and fractographic studies in Fig. 9).
The comparison between steels indicates that the
S460NL steel tensile properties are greater than
S355NL ones. Therefore S460NL will be a more
resistant steel with the temperature but its elongation is
the same order that S355NL steel.
In both steels, the grain size decreased slightly with
temperature tested but its variation was not significant.
The measures hardness just presented variation with
temperatures tested. The hardness decreases slightly,
the variation does not exceed 5%, this means that steels
recover the property during the cooling process, by
natural convection and almost in equilibrium.
In the fracture zone from tensile test, specific values
have been measured for hardness RB, taking account
that the measurement surface was very small due to
the size and shape of the samples broken. For S355NL
hardness values were 70, 63, 46, 31 and 25 RB for
(20 C, 500 C, 650 C, 800 C and 950 C) and for
S460NL were 61, 63, 68, 66 and 45 RB at same
temperatures. For the first steel, thoses hardness
decrease significantly. While on the second steel,
variation of hardness with the temperature remained
almost constant in the tested interval except at 950 C
which declined. However, measures hardness
decreases were lower with relationship to the first
tested steel.
Finally on the first graph of Fig. 6 is shown the
experimental reduction factor of yield strength for
both steel tested and the standard values of EN 1993-1.
It can see that for temperatures of 450 C and 650 C,
experimental reduction factors were lower than those
who predicted the standard. This fact is of interest and
must be taken into account above all in the initial
moments of fire propagation where the resistance of
steels would be lower which predicts the standard. On

Tables 4 Mechanical properties for S355NL and S460NL steels at different temperatures obtained from steady-state test.
Effective yield
Elastic modulus Reduction Average
Steel/ strength Proportional limit Elongation Hardness
(GPa)/Reduction area grain size
Temperature (C) (MPa)/Reductio 0.2% (MPa) (%) Rockwell B
factor (%) (m)
n factor
S-355NL (22) 535/1 908/1 372 70 14 10 82
S-355NL (500) 283/0.53 668/0.74 265 85 18 10 82
S-355NL (650) 119/0.22 420/0.46 118 86 18 10 81
S-355NL (800) 71/0.13 257/0.28 64 46 16 11 80
S-355NL (950) 38/0.07 154/0.17 35 41 18 11 80
S-460NL (22) 580/1 1003/1 416 60 11 8 87
S-460NL (500) 339/0.58 794/0.79 310 85 16 8 86
S-460NL (650) 203/0.35 575/0.57 198 85 19 8 86
S-460NL (800) 69/0.12 251/0.24 66 67 42 9 81
S-460NL (950) 40/0.07 291/0.29 35 45 17 9 81
 Behaviour of Structural Carbon Steel at High Temperatures
Fig. 6 Comparison of reduction factor for yield strength and elastic range experimental values with the standard values of
EN 1993-1.
the second graph is presented the experimetal and
standard reduction factor of elastic range. The
experimental values were greater and tested steels
would suffer a greater deformation in the development
of a fire, which will mean a fact to be taken into
account if the case that were happen. By extrapolacion
of experimental values, it can be deduced that the
deformation of steels would take place from the 390 C.
3.3 Micrography Study
Three areas were selected to observe the
deformation for the mechanical test samples. No
deformed area, and in the useful area, the part farthest
and nearest of the fracture. The micrographs presented
were made at 22 C and after high temperature tensile
test (500 C, 650 C, 800 C and 950 C) for S355NL
and S460NL steels.
In the micrographs of S355NL and S460NL steels, it
was shown that fracture areas with minimum
deformation and without deformation were the same
for all temperatures. For 22 C, 500 C and 650 C, on
the nearest zone of the fracture, there was maximum
deformation and grain elongation. For 800 C and
950 C, on fracture zone it was not observed a
lengthening of grain, due to the effect of thermal creep
(explained in the next section). And for 950 C, the
grain size increases slightly.
507
3.4 Fractography Study
The macrographs made of the fracture area of the
S355NL and S460NL steels are shown below. The
figures presented are for the same steel (S460NL and
S355NL) and it was present a comparison between the
temperatures.
In all figures, the macrographs and micrographs show
that the behavior of both steels was quite similar. For
room temperature, 500 C and 650 C it was observed
the size of the base necking is almost the same. During
the rupture was formed a neck by nucleation and
coalescence of holes. The internal distribution holes can
be seen at 400 magnifications and it matches at
distribution holes for 500 C and 650 C. The break was
ductile, the surface is fibrous and during deformation a
neck was developed (Fig. 10).
At 800 C, the reduction area decrease (Fig. 9), the
base of the tear was greater than for lower temperatures
and internal distribution appears to be less porous and
homogeneous (Fig. 10). At the end of the test, the
device detected the failure of the material, but if the
specimen is observed, it needed a few seconds to see
the separation of the parts. All of this was due the large
plastic deformation. A lot of cracks appeared on the
sharp edges of the samples and perpendicular to them
(Fig. 8). To 950 C the changes in the morphology of
508 Behaviour of Structural Carbon Steel at High Temperatures

No deformed Minimum Maximum No deformed

(a) (b) (c) (d)

Fig. 7 Micrographs of S-355-NL and S-460-NL steels after tensile test, 500. (a) S355NL no deformed at 22 C, 500 C, 650 C,
800 C and 950 C, (b) S355NL minimum deformation at 22 C, 500 C, 650 C, 800 C and 950 C, (c) S355NL maximum
deformation at 22 C, 500 C, 650 C, 800 C and 950 C, (d) S460NL no deformed at 22 C, 500 C, 650 C, 800 C and 950 C.

Fig. 8 Macrographs of S-355-NL(up) and S-460-NL(down) steels at 22 C 20, 500 C 20, 650 C 20, 800 C 20 and
950 C 15.
 Behaviour of Structural Carbon Steel at High Temperatures 509

Fig. 9 Macrographs of S-355-NL (up), S-460-NL (down) steels at 22 C 40, 500 C 40, 650 C 40, 800 C 27 and 950 C 27.

Fig. 10 Macrographs of S-355-NL(up) and S-460-NL(down) steels at 22 C, 500 C, 650 C, 800 C and 950 C, all pictures 400.

the materials tested were even greater.
The process of creep will be dominant when the
material temperature when is between 30% and 60%
of the corresponding melting temperature. This
circumstance occurs in steels tested at 800 C and
950 C and was checked on stress-strain curves where
there was a large plastic deformation on the material
tested. This is due to the dislocations movement
influenced by the high value of the temperatures,
which leads to the material to a plastic collapse with
the emergence of numerous fractures in the material
without contraction of the section on the material
tested.
4. Conclusions
The micrographs of steels for temperatures between
500 C and 900 C were obtained, when steels were
subjected to load and without it. It checked how the
ferritic-pearlitic band structure begins to disappear
from the 820 C. No record of the structure in band was
found for 950 C. It was found as appeared certain
areas in acicular Widmansttten structure. The average
grain size tends to grow with the temperature in both
steels on one micrometer, being most clearly this trend
from the 920 C.
The stress-strain curves and mechanical properties of
steels at temperatures of 20 C, 500 C, 650 C, 800 C
and 950 C were studies and it saw how changed the
plastic deformation of steels with the temperature.
Reduction factors for effective yield strength resistance
and the elastic modulus were deducted along with the
values of the Euronorm for the interval of temperature
510 Behaviour of Structural Carbon Steel at High Temperatures
between 400 C and 650 C and it found that there was
one greater decrease for steels tested, so it should be
seen in the designs under fire. Also the values of the
hardness in two steels have been obtained and values
ranged around 5% for temperatures tested.
For both steels has found that fluency with large
plastic deformation phenomena were very important to
800 C and 950 C temperatures, and specific hardness
in areas of steels broken during tensile tests declined
clearly. This situation should be taken into
consideration for the design structural steels under
fully developed fire.
Acknowledgments
The authors gratefully acknowledge the financial
support of the Ministry of Science and Innovation of
Spain, the project BIA2008-06705-C02-02 and Dr.
Vctor Lpez Serrano and Dra. M Jess Bartolom [11]
Garca of Physical Metallurgy Department of CENIM,
for the help provided in the metallurgical study.
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