Element 4:- Chemical and biological health hazards and

controls

Target Organs:-
A part of the body which sustains an adverse effect when it is
exposed to or by contaminated by a particular harmful agent

Examples:-
Mercury, Lead the brain
Asbestos, Ammonia the Lungs

Bodies defences against dust

The hair and wetness of the nose

The change of direction of the larynx
Sneezing and coughing
The hair cells in the respiratory tract
Tears and blinking of the eyes

Dermatitis
Symptoms:-
Blisters, Inflammation, Dryness, reddening, cracking of skin

Protective measures against dermatitis

Eliminate the substance

Substitution of the substance
Barrier creams,
Good hygiene practices
PPE

Routes of entry in the body

Inhalation
Ingestion
Absorption
Direct entry
Injection

Acute effects:-

Adverse health effects resulting from single or short term exposure

which is usually reversible e.g. Alcohol
Chronic:-

Adverse health term effects resulting from prolonged or repeated

exposure leading to a gradual often irreversible effects e.g. liver disease
caused by Alcohol

Classification of Hazardous Substances

Irritant:-
Non-corrosive substances which through immediate, prolonged or
repeated contact with skin or mucous membrane may cause
inflammation e.g. Petrol

Corrosive:-
Substances which on contact with living tissue may destroy it by burning
e.g. acids

Harmful:-
Substances which if swallowed, inhaled or penetrate the skin may
cause damage to health

Very Toxic:-
A poisonous substance which in low quantities may cause death, acute
or chronic damage to health

Toxic:-
A poisonous substance which in low quantities may cause death, acute
or chronic damage to health

Carcinogenic:-
Substances which cause disorders to cell growth that may lead to
cancer

Information on Manufacturers Safety data sheets

Identification of the substance

Manufacturers information
Composition of the ingredients
First-aid precautions
Fire-fighting measures
Handling and storage
PPE
Disposal considerations
Transport information
 Regulatory information

Grab Sampler (Chemical stain detector tube)

Draw it

Advantages Disadvantages
Low cost Inaccurate
Takes little time Positioning of tube
Immediate result Only a snap shot
Little training Inefficient
Information during spillage Chemical use only
Good for coarse indication Substance specific

Hazardous substance risk assessment 5 steps as normal

Control of health hazards

Eliminate
Reduce by substitution
Isolate:-

Total Enclosure
Segregate the people

Control

Engineering Control (LEV)

Maintenance of controls
Change the work pattern or method
Hygiene and housekeeping

PPE
Discipline

Emergency controls for spillage, air pollution etc.

Ventilation systems alarmed

PPE
Emergency showers, eye wash facilities
Booms, sawdust, spillage procedures
Evacuation procedures
Isolation of the area
Evacuation of the employees at risk
 PPE for staff involved in clear up

Local Exhaust Ventilation

Main Parts:- Hood, Ducting, Filter, Fan

Draw it

LEV becomes inefficient because of:-

Blocked filters
Lack of maintenance
Position of hood
Unauthorised alterations
Broken ducting
Wear of fan blades
Incorrect settings
Increased contaminant level
Inadequate design
Failure of operators to use it

Checks opposite of above

Specific Agents

Ammonia

Strongly alkaline colourless gas with a pungent odour. It is a

corrosive and can cause irritation to the eyes and upper
respiratory tract in small concentrations. Large concentrations
can cause blindness and fluid in the lungs. Eye protection and
respiratory protection essential.

Asbestos

Main types:- Blue, Brown and White

Diseases:- Asbestosis, Lung cancer, Mesothelioma

Uses

Pipe lagging
Wall and roof panels
Ceiling tiles
 Textured coatings
Insulation materials
Gaskets
Brake linings

Carbon Dioxide

Colourless and odourless gas which is heavier than air. Low

levels increases the rate of respiration and high levels depress
the rate of respiration leading to unconsciousness and even
death. Produced in fermentation process e.g. breweries.

Carbon Monoxide

Colourless and odourless and tasteless gas. Found where

incomplete combustion occurs e.g. boilers, vehicle exhausts

Inhalation of the gas results in headache, drowsiness, flushed

pink appearance and ultimately asphyxiation

Chlorine

A greenish toxic gas with a pungent smell which is highly irritant

to the respiratory system.

Dusts

Nuisance dust can cause asthma, bronchitis, emphysema and

conditions such as asbestos, Silicosis.

Dust Identification

Visual signs of dust

Dust lamps
Static or personal sampling
Health surveillance

Control measures for dust

Elimination
Substitution e.g. pellets instead of powders
Enclosure of the process
Local exhaust ventilation
Vacuuming instead of sweeping
 Damping down
Limiting time of exposure
Limiting numbers exposed
Respiratory protective equipment

Lead

A heavy, soft and easily worked metal. Can enter body by eating
contaminated food but usually by breathing fumes or dust.

Acute lead poisoning can result in nausea, headaches, effects on

the nervous system sometimes death in severe cases.

Organic Solvents

These dissolve other substances and are also used as cleaning

and degreasing agents. They are volatile and evaporate quickly at
room temperature so their vapours can be drawn into the lungs.

Acute effects are irritation of the eyes, skin, throat and lungs.
Effects may be headaches, nausea, dizziness and loss of
consciousness and in extreme cases in death.

Isocyanates

Organic compounds widely used in industry for products such as

spray painting of vehicles and production of polyurethane rubbers
and foams.

Inflammation of the nasal passages and throat can lead to

asthma.

Silica

Found in sand, granite etc. and the health hazard comes from
breathing it in which can lead to the lung disease silicosis.

Biological Agents

Leptospirosis or Weils disease

Bacteria found in the urine of female rats and the most common
source is in river water, sewers etc. Enters the body through
 puncture of the skin or ingestion. Attacks the kidneys and liver
causing high temperatures and may be fatal.

Legionella

An airborne bacterium found in water sources such as cooling

towers, stagnant water etc. It is caused by inhalation of airborne
droplets of water containing the legionella bacteria leading to a
form of pneumonia i.e. breathing difficulties, high temperature and
possible death. Those at greatest risk are middle aged smokers
or elderly people with chest problems. Control measures involve
temperature control and monitoring, avoiding dead legs legs in
pipework, biocide treatment and effective cleaning and
maintenance.

Hepatitis

A disease of the liver and can cause high temperatures, nausea

and jaundice. It is caused by hazardous substances or a virus.
Health workers and those handling bodily fluids are most at risk.
The control measures involve inoculation and good hygiene
practices.

Control measures for Biological Hazards

Cleaning and disinfection

Water treatment
Vermin control
Containment of the biological agent
Avoidance of sharp implements
Proper disposal of contaminated waste
Immunisation
Persona hygiene
PPE

Waste Storage

Sufficient storage area

Clearly the label the storage area
Ensure storage area secure
Protect storage area with bunds etc.
 Store different types of waste separately
Never store incompatible waste together
Select appropriate containers
Keep quantities of waste to a minimum
Protect waste from the elements

Test ( 4 )
Outline the control measures that could be used to reduce
the risk of infection from one of the biological hazards

cleaning & disinfecting,

PPE,
engineering controls (such as containment & the use of
microbiological safety cabinets),
vermin control, good personal hygiene & immunisation.
Training

In relation to occupational dermatitis

(i) Identify TWO common causative agents

acids, alkalis, detergents, mineral oils,

organic solvents, metal salts, wet cement

(ii) Describe the typical symptoms of the condition

Reddening of the skin, soreness, itchiness, flaking, cracking &

bleeding with possible infection

(iii) State the sources of information that may

help identify dermatitis substances in the
workplace

Safety data sheets

 Product labels
Specialist publications
Government bodies publications

a) Explain the term respirable dust.

respirable dust is an atmospheric dust of a particular particle size
range that enables it to enter the lungs during respiration.

(b) Outline the ways in which the levels

of dust in a workplace can be assessed.

Visual examination of the accumulation of dust on

surfaces or the use of a dust lamp to highlight sources of
dust emission) & quantitative methods (sampling methods
or direct reading instruments).
basic sampling strategies (personal versus fixed or area
sampling) & the principle of assessing the (b)
Concentration of airborne dust by noting the weight
difference of a pre-weighted filter after a known quantity
of contaminated air is drawn through it.

a) Define the term target organ within the context of

occupational health

Organ of the body on which a toxic substance exerts its effects

b) Outline the personal hygiene practices that should be

followed to reduce the risk of ingestion of a hazardous
substance
 No smoking/eating/drinking in area
Wash skin after use
Apply barrier creams/after use creams
Wear/clean PPE gloves/RPE
Cover wounds
Clean work-wear/change if soiled

a) Identify possible routes of entry of biological organisms

into the body.

Inhalation, injection, entry through broken skin, exchange of

body fluids & ingestion.

(b) Outline the control measures that could be used to

reduce the risk of infection from biological organisms.
cleaning & disinfecting,
PPE,
engineering controls (such as containment & the use of
microbiological safety cabinets),
Vermin control, good personal hygiene & immunisation.
Training

a) Identify FOUR forms that an airborne hazardous

substance may take

Dust, smoke, fume, vapour, gas

b) Outline the advantages and limitations in using a

chemical stain indicator (stain detector) tube to monitor the
atmospheric concentrations of hazardous substances

Advantages
Low Cost
Easy to use take little time
 Immediate result
Gives indication during emergency spillages
Good for coarse (approximate) measurement

Disadvantages
Inaccurate;
Contaminant must be known;
Only a snapshot
Only suitable for fumes/vapours;
Shelf life;
Competence of user;
Affected by other chemicals

c) State the primary effect on the body of each of the

following types of hazardous substance, giving a named
example of each type

1) Irritant
2) Corrosive
3) Toxic
4) Carcinogenic

i) On contact with skin, eyes or mucous membrane can

cause INFLAMMATION e.g.: detergents/adhesives

ii) May DESTROY living tissue/Burning effect e.g.:

Strong acids/alkali

iii) POISONOUS cause harm to biological systems/interfere

with bodily functions
e.g.: Lead/mercury/pesticides

iv) Alter living cells causing CANCER

 e.g.: Asbestos/vinyl chloride

Employees working for a specialist shoe manufacturer are

engaged in trimming soles by hand prior to using a solvent
based adhesive to glue them onto the shoes.

a) Describe FOUR possible adverse health effects that

may be experienced by these employees

skin & eye irritation,

dermatitis,
headaches,
nausea & dizziness,
with possible & more serious effects such as narcosis
& loss of consciousness
Repetative strain injury
Cuts

b) Identify the information that should be included on the

manufacturers safety data sheet

the name of the substance;

its chemical properties & composition;
the nature of the hazard; relevant standards (e.g.
occupational exposure standards);
precautions to be taken in its transport, handling & use;
measures to be taken in an emergency (e,g spillage or
accidental exposure) including first-aid treatment;
& disposal requirements
 c) Outline the measures to minimise risks both from the
trimming and glueing operations

the possible substitution of the adhesive for a less toxic

one,
ventilation of the working area,
using the minimum amount of the substance for the job,
adhering to good housekeeping procedures (e.g. keeping
lids on containers & avoiding contaminated rags), the use
of a respirator & other PPE, good
personal hygiene, the provision of information, instruction
& training to the employees
limiting time exposure use of respirators
Gloves for using tools
Regular breaks from trimming operation

a) State TWO respiratory diseases that may be caused by

exposure to asbestos

Asbestosis; Mesothelioma; Lung cancer

b) Identify where asbestos is likely to be found in a building

during renovation work

Pipe lagging
Ceiling/floor tiles
Roof sheets/panels/guttering/fall pipes
Fire resistance/fire stopping
Loft/wall insulation
Rope/gaskets/packing/plugs
Gas/electrical appliances
Surface coatings (around steel columns)
a) List THREE respiratory diseases that could be caused by
exposure to dust at work

Pneumoconiosis/miners lung
Asbestosis
Asthma
Silicosis
Farmers lung
Bronchitis
b) Describe the bodys respiratory defence mechanisms
against atmospheric dust

Nasal hairs remove larger particles/sneezing

Mucous coated cilia (hairs) remove medium sized particles
Particles penetrating bronchi removed by
coughing/irritation
Small particles reach alveoli
Digested (broken down) by cells

c) Outline the control measures that may be used to

eliminate or reduce dust in a work environment, using
practical examples where appropriate

Eliminate e.g.: pre-formed material/no cutting

Substitute e.g.: paste/liquid/granules
Change process e.g.: auto-dosing
Isolate e.g.: separate room
Enclosure e.g.: x
Extraction e.g.: LEV
Suppression e.g.: damping down
Avoid disturbing e.g.: vacuum

a) Identify TWO substances that can cause dermatitis and

describe how this occurs condition
 Caused by alkalis, detergents, mineral oils which get on to
the skin and cause reddening, soreness, itching and cracking
of the skin

b) Outline the specific measures designed to prevent the

occurrence of occupational dermatitis

Avoid use/substitute;
Change process e.g. remote handling;
Wear gloves/barrier creams/ after use creams; Personal
hygiene;
Information e.g.: Data sheets/labels/HSE leaflets

a) State the principles of EACH of the following methods

used to control airborne contaminants at work

1) Dilution ventilation

Introduction of large volumes of air By natural (open

windows/doors) or mechanical means (fans/blowers) to
Dilute airborne contaminants

2) Local exhaust ventilation

Removing contaminant at source by mechanical means and

consists of a Hood, ducting, filter and fan

An essential ingredient for a process is delivered in

powdered form and poured by hand from bags in
to a mixing vessel. Outline the control measures
that might be considered in this situation in order
to reduce employee exposure to the substance
 elimination (e.g. by introducing pre-formed components or
outsourcing the dusty operation);
substitution (e.g. of powder by granules, liquid or paste);
isolation of the process in a separate room;
enclosure (in a glove box, for instance);
the provision of LEV;
& suppression by damping down & carrying out cleaning
operations by vacuuming rather than sweeping
Supply of respirator and eye protection
Limit time of exposure
Carry out measurement of dust level

Outline the factors that that may reduce the

effectiveness of local exhaust ventilation (LEV)
system
Blocked filters
Lack of maintenance
Position of hood
Unauthorised alterations
Broken ducting
Wear of fan blades
Incorrect settings
Increased contaminant level
Inadequate design
Failure of operators to use it

Outline the factors to be taken into account when

undertaking an assessment of the risks to health from a
hazardous substance to be used in the workplace

Nature of substance (liquid/dust/fume/vapour)

 Harmful effects (toxic/harmful/irritant/corrosive)
Route of entry (inhalation/ingestion/injection/ absorption)
Numbers of people exposed
Concentration of substance/OES levels
Duration/frequency of exposure
Control measures
Monitoring controls
Reference documentation/assessment/data sheet

A factory employee has developed a respiratory disease after

exposure to a hazardous substance.

a) Outline the factors that should be considered when

carrying out an assessment of the risks to health from
the substance

The hazards of the substance such as:-

The degree of toxicity,
the level of exposure
What are the safe exposure limits
Who can be affected and how
the methods of work adopted (which may determine
the routes of entry),
the duration & frequency of exposures,
Assessment of the effectiveness of existing control
measures.

b) Describe the control measures that may be available to

the employer when elimination of the substance is not
practical
 ventilation of the working area,
using the minimum amount of the substance for the
job, adhering to good housekeeping procedures (e.g.
keeping lids on containers & avoiding contaminated
rags), the use of a respirator & other PPE,
good personal hygiene, the provision of information,
instruction & training to the employees
limiting time in use of respirators
Regular breaks

C ) Outline the information that the employer should

provide to other workers who may be exposed to the
substance

Harmful effects of substance

Routes of entry
Safe use/handling and storage
Preventative measures/PPE
Maintenance of controls
Emergency procedures
First aid actions
Safe disposal of substance
Exposure levels/health surveillance

A fitter is employed to lay carpet tiles in new premises using

a solvent based adhesive. In relation to the use of the
adhesive in such circumstances:

(i) Identify the possible effects on health

 skin & eye irritation,
dermatitis,
headaches,
nausea & dizziness,
With possible & more serious effects such as narcosis &
loss of consciousness.

(ii) Outline the control measures that should be

considered.

the possible substitution of the adhesive for a less toxic

one,
ventilation of the working area,
using the minimum amount of the substance for the job,
adhering to good housekeeping procedures (e.g. keeping
lids on containers & avoiding contaminated rags),
the use of a respirator & other PPE,
good personal hygiene,
the provision of information, instruction & training to the
fitter
limiting time exposure use of respirators

Outline the factors that need to be considered when

managing the risk of exposure to hazardous chemicals in the
workplace

The hazards of the substance such as:-

The degree of toxicity,
the level of exposure
What are the safe exposure limits
Who can be affected and how
the methods of work adopted (which may determine the
routes of entry),
 the duration & frequency of exposures,
assessment of the effectiveness of existing control
measures.

Outline the information that employees should receive when

there is a risk that their work will expose them to a
substance hazardous to health

Harmful effects of substance

Routes of entry
Safe use/handling and storage
Preventative measures/PPE
Maintenance of controls
Emergency procedures
First aid actions
Safe disposal of substance
Exposure levels/health surveillance
Identify the information that should be included on a
hazard data sheet supplied with a hazardous substance.
the name of the substance;
its chemical properties & composition;
the nature of the hazard; relevant standards (e.g.
occupational exposure standards);
precautions to be taken in its transport, handling & use;
measures to be taken in an emergency (e,g spillage or
accidental exposure) including first-aid treatment;
& disposal requirements

a) List TWO substances that can cause occupational

dermatitis and describe how this occurs
acids, alkalis, detergents, mineral oils, organic solvents, metal
salts, wet cement get on to the skin and cause reddening of the
skin, soreness, itchiness, Flaking, cracking & bleeding with
possible infection

b) Outline specific measure designed to prevent the

occurrence of occupational dermatitis. substances in the
workplace
Substitute with less hazardous substance
Use of gloves and other PPE
Use of barrier creams
Good hygiene practices
Information an training

a) Describe with the aid of a labelled sketch, a chemical

indicator (stain detector) tube for atmospheric
monitoring

b) List the main limitations of chemical indicator

(stain detector) tubes
Outline with examples the appropriate control measures
for dealing with exposure to a hazardous chemical
ranging from the most effective to the least effective

Eliminate
Reduce by substitution
Isolate:-
Total Enclosure
Segregate the people
Control
Engineering Control (LEV)
Maintenance of controls
Change the work pattern or method
Hygiene and housekeeping
PPE
Discipline
A furniture factory uses solvent-based adhesives in its
manufacturing process.

(i) Identify the possible effects on health

of employees using the adhesives.

irritation of eyes,
skin & lungs, dermatitis,
headaches,
nausea & dizziness.
psychological effects of exposure to the adhesive with
the possible secondary effect of an increased risk of
accidents.
 (ii) State FOUR control measures to
minimise such health effects.

discontinuing the use of the adhesive or

introducing a less toxic alternative,
minimising the use of the product or
limiting the surface area of application,
providing ventilation for the area where
the adhesive is to be used,
introducing good housekeeping & work
procedures (e.g. to ensure that containers are not left
open),
providing suitable personal protective
equipment,
ensuring good standards of personal
hygiene,
& providing information, instruction &
training for the employees.

a) List FOUR respiratory diseases that could be caused by

exposure to dust at work.

Asbestosis, silicosis, asthma, bronchitis, & cancer of the

lung or other part of the respiratory system.

b) Identify the possible indications of a dust

problem in a workplace.

visible signs of dust (in the air or deposited on surfaces

or clothes),
 complaints of discomfort by employees.
impaired health linked to exposure (possibly detected by
health or medical surveillance),
the results of workplace monitoring,
& problems associated with plant & equipment such as
blocked filters.

In relation to the spillage of a toxic substance from a

ruptured drum stored in a warehouse:

(i) Identify THREE ways in which persons working in

close vicinity to the spillage might be harmed.

skin or eye contact,

inhalation of fumes or particles & ingestion.
slips.

(ii) Outline a procedure to be adopted in the event of such

a spillage.

isolation of the area & evacuation of employees at risk,

the provision of bunding to contain the spillage,
the issue of appropriate personal protective equipment to
those involved in carrying out the procedure,
contact with the emergency services,
safe disposal of the spilled substance & any absorbent
material used.

(a) Identify the THREE types of asbestos commonly

found in buildings.
 white (chrysotile),
brown (amosite),
& blue (crocidolite).

(b) Explain where asbestos is likely to be encountered

in a building during renovation work.

pipe lagging,
ceiling tiles,
asbestos cement roof & wall sheets,
sprayed asbestos coatings on structural members,
loft & wall insulation,
& asbestos rope & gaskets.

A factory uses small quantities of various toxic

chemicals which are obtained from & returned to a
central storeroom.

(i) Identify FOUR possible routes of entry of toxic

substances into the body &, in EACH case,
describe a circumstance in which the storeroom
staff might be at risk of such exposure.

Inhalation in relation to spillage & the build up of

vapours, ingestion due to poor personal hygiene
practices
Ingestion by touching the substance and accidentally
getting into the mouth
absorption through the skin as a result of inadequate
personal protective equipment or uncovered wounds,
Injection from the use of damaged, broken or
unsuitable containers for handling the toxic substance.
(ii) Outline the factors to consider when assessing the
health risks to storeroom staff from handling the
chemicals.

degree of toxicity of the substances used,

the methods of work adopted (which may determine
the routes of entry),
the possible duration & frequency of exposures,
& an assessment of the effectiveness of existing control
measures.

(iii) Outline the control measures that might be

required in order to minimise the risk to the health
of those working in the storeroom.

the use of suitable containers for the chemicals & the

methods for handling them,
the provision of ventilation & appropriate personal
protective equipment,
procedures for dealing with spillage,
the introduction of site rules to ensure personal
hygiene,
provision of information & training to the staff
involved
(a) List the elements of a hierarchy for the control of
air borne contaminants

the elimination of the substance or its substitution for

something less harmful.
Reducing exposures by introducing changes to working
methods, such as the use of a brush instead of a spray
the segregation or enclosure of the process & the
provision of local exhaust ventilation.
 provision & use of personal protective equipment. the
use of an incorrect cartridge for the particular
contaminant,

(b) Outline TWO reasons why a cartridge-type

respirator may in practice fail to provide a
sufficient level of protection.

the cartridge itself not being properly fitted,

failure to change the cartridge at appropriate intervals,
inadequate storage facilities for the respirator leading to
damage or contamination.

Outline the precautions to ensure the health & safety

of persons engaged in paint-spraying in a motor
vehicle repair shop

segregation of the activity, typically by means of a a

spray booth fitted with local exhaust ventilation &
protected electrical equipment; suitable storage & fire
precautions for flammable paints & solvents; the
provision & use of personal protective equipment
(clothing, respiratory protection etc);
monitoring employees exposure to airborne substances;
ensuring the examination & maintenance of control
measures;
providing appropriate training to employees;
& maintaining welfare & hygiene facilities.

(a) Describe the typical symptoms of occupational

dermatitis.

reddening, blistering, cracking of the skin. infection,

(b) Identify the factors that will influence the
likelihood of dermatitis occurring in workers
handling dermatitic substances.

the nature of the agent,

concentration levels,
& the duration & frequency of exposure
cuts & abrasions (which would allow chemicals to be
absorbed more readily), The individuals skin conditions,
the type of skin & its sensitivity,
poor personal hygiene,
& the misuse or non-use of protective measures.

Identify FOUR possible routes of entry of toxic substances

into the body &, in EACH case, describe a
circumstance in which an employee might be at
risk of such exposure.

inhalation due to a build up of fume or vapour, either as

part of a process (e.g. welding) or accidentally (e.g.
spillage);
ingestion caused perhaps by poor personal hygiene
(e.g. eating or smoking without first washing the
hands);
entry through the skin if wounds are not covered or by
contact with chemicals (e.g. solvents) that may be
absorbed through the skin;
Injection possibly caused by the handling of
contaminated sharp objects.
Outline the factors that may indicate a need for health
surveillance of employees in the workplace.

ill-health & absence records,

first-aid treatments,
complaints from employees,
the findings of risk assessments,
the results of inspections or monitoring activities,
changes in methods of work,
& the relevant requirements of current legislation &
approved codes of practice.

For EACH of the following agents, outline the principle

health effects AND identify a typical workplace situation
in which a person might be exposed.

(i) Carbon monoxide

The principal effects from exposure to carbon monoxide are

headaches, drowsiness & possible asphyxiation. Exposure
could occur when working near a vehicle exhaust in an
unventilated area (e.g. vehicle repair premises or
underground car park) or to a boiler with a defective flue.

(ii) Asbestos
Exposure to asbestos may cause asbestosis (disease of the
lung), lung cancer or mesothelioma (cancer of the lining of
the lung). Those at risk include persons engaged in
maintenance or demolition work where asbestos is
contained in the fabric of the building.

(iii) legionella bacteria

 Legionella may cause legionellosis, which is characterised
by flu-like symptoms, pneumonia &, in about 15% of cases,
death. Any workplace has untreated water tanks & systems
from which water droplets may be released into the
atmosphere (e.g. from air-conditioning systems or cooling
towers) poses a risk to those in the vicinity.

(iv) hepatitis virus.

hepatitis virus affects the liver & may result in jaundice,

fever, abdominal pain &, ultimately, liver failure. Any
workplace situation that exposes people to infected persons
or to used hypodermic needles presents a particular risk of
the disease. The hepatitis A virus, which is normally less
serious, is transmitted via the mouth; hepatitis B & C via the
blood.