Perceptual Motor Skills, 1986,62,159-162.

@ Perceptual and Motor Skills 1986

EFFECT OF PLAYING A VIDEO GAME O N A

MEASURE OF SPATIAL VISUALIZATION

MICHEL DORVAL AND MICHEL PfiPIN1

Univerrite' Lava[

Summary.-70 undergraduate students, without any prior experience of

video games playing, were given a pretest and a posttest on the Space Relations
Test of the DAT, Forms A and B being, respectively, administered on the two
occasions. The experimental group of 38 had eight sessions of playing the
Zaxxon video game, each session including five plays. The control group of
32 received no such treatment. A 2(sex) by 2(group) analysis of covariance,
using pretest scores as the covariate, yielded a significant effect for group
which supports the hypothesis that spatial visualization test scores can be im-
proved by video game playing. Moreover, the sex-related difference in visual-
spatial skills frequently reported does not appear on the pretest. Finally, no
effect for sex and no interaction of group x sex were found, indicating that
both male and female subjects gained equally from playing Zaxxon.

Until now, no application of microprocessor technology has aroused as

much controversy as video games (9, 16, 17). Unfortunately, the polemic
regarding the positive and negative effects of very frequent video game use has
been based on opinions and speculations rather than on empirical findings.
Among those points of view, the enhancement of visual-spatial skills, and
particularly spatial visualization, has been suggested by several authors (2, 12,
13). McGee ( 15) described spatial visualization as the ability to rotate men-
tally, manipulate and twist two- and three-dimensional stimulus objects.
Males' superiority on visual-spatial tasks is among the most persistent
individual differences in the literature (1, 10, 1 4 ) , even though recent re-
viewers (6, 11, 15) conclude that most of these studies are questionable. Fur-
thermore, the literature contains evidence that performance on spatial tests
may be improved following instruction on spatial relationships (4, 5, 7, 8,
20, 21, 2 3 ) . Moreover, training related to a spatial task has often been more
effective for girls than for boys (7, 8, 23), suggesting that some environmental
factors might be, at least in part, responsible for these sex-related differences.
The hypotheses of the present study were the following. First, spatial
visualization test scores can be improved by video-game playing; second, both
men and women can improve their spatial visualization skill, and women can
improve more than men, which would modify pretest sex-related differences
that might occur.

T h e authors thank Viateur Couture and Bernard Legros for their help in collecting and
coding the data. This research was made possible by grants from the Quebec F.C.A.C.
Research Funds. Requests for reprints should be sent to Michel Pepin, Ecole de psy-
chologie, Pavillon F.-A. Savard, Universitk Laval, Sainte-Foy, Quebec, Canada G1K 7P4.
160 M. DORVAL & M. PePIN

Only subjects without prior experience of video games were selected. They were
33 female and 37 male French Canadian undergraduate students, recruited in literature
and humanities departments; their mean age was 22 yr. Subjects were randomly as-
signed i n rhe experimental group (19 men and 19 women) and in the control group
(18 men and 14 women)?
All subjects were pretested and then posttested 6 wk. later o n the Space Relations
Test of the D A T ( 3 ) , Forms A and B of the rest being respectively administered on
the two occasions.
Subjects of the trained group were individually given eight sessions of playing video
games, each session including five plays of the Zaxxon game (Colecovision). This
game was selected for the two following reasons. First, Zaxxon presents face validity
for spatial visualization; for instance, Zaxxon is, at the moment, one of the few games
commercially available that simulates three-dimensionality. Moreover, in a recent multi-
dimensional scaling of 10 video games, Zaxxon was found at the extreme end of the
dimensionality continuum I n this game, the player controls a spaceship in a three-
dimensional space, the goals of the game being mainly to shoot enemies and to avoid
obstacles. Second, Zaxxon is well-known t o possess excellent qualities i n terms of design
and manipulation ( 2 2 ) , which are of prime importance in keeping motivation of
players high.
T h e frequenq of the sessions was determined according to the convenience of the
subjects but was ac least one session a week and no more than two a week.

RESULTS
Means and standard deviations by sex and groups for pre- and psttest
are presented in Table 1. Group means for the experimental and control sub-

TABLE 1
MEANSAND STANDARDDEVIATIONS BY SEX AND GROUP

DAT Women Men All All

Expmtl. Control All Expmtl. Control All Exprntl. Control Subjects
Pretest
M 61.4 56.9 59.5 65.0 60.9 63.0 63.2 59.1 61.3
SD 15.5 15.3 15.3 19.6 20.4 19.8 17.5 18.2 17.8
Posttest
M 71.7 60.1 66.8 73.2 67.6 70.5 72.4 64.3 68.7
SD 9.8 14.7 13.3 18.5 19.7 19.0 14.6 17.9 16.6
n 19 14 33 19 18 37 38 32 70

jects, both as a whole and for each sex, do not differ significantly at pretest.
Moreover, the significant sex-related differences in visual-spatial skills fre-
quently reported in the literature do not appear here on any pretest, even
though a tendency is noted ( t = .82, p > .05 ) .
To assess the effects of sex and training on the DAT scores, a 2(sex) by
2(group) analysis of covariance was carried out, using pretest scores as the
'Attrition accounts for the different ns.
 VIDEO GAMES AND SPATIAL VISUALIZATION 161

covariate and a regression approach used to deal with the unequal ns per
cell. This analysis yielded a significant group effect on the psttest scores
( F = 6.57, p < .05).
W e found no effect for sex, and no interaction of group X sex. This
shows that men and women gained equally and significantly from playing
Zaxxon.

This study is the first attempt to improve spatial visualization test scores
via video-game playing. The results indicate that spatial visualization, as
measured by the Space Relations Test of the Differential Aptitude Tests, is
trainable through Zaxxon playing for both men and women. One interpre-
tation of these findings is that playing Zaxxon might have affected motivation
of the subjects. In fact, the design of most video games, including Zaxxon,
constantly emphasizes to players that practice is the only way to improve their
scores and that even low scorers can improve if only they strive to do so. It is
conceivable that subjects' attitudes toward the task required in the Space Rela-
tions Test of the Differential Aptitude Tests might have been modified in such
a way that they felt more confident to succeed on' the task, considering the
improvement experienced while playing Zaxxon.
Moreover, the fact that the present study did not yield sex-related differ-
ences in spatial visualization points out the precarious evidence of sex-related
differences in visual-spatial skills. However, it should be considered that the
subjects of this study were recruited in areas (Literature and Humanities)
where it is theorically plausible that both sexes rely more on verbal approaches
rather than on spatial ones. Since, as proposed by Sherman (18, 19), past
experiences may affect the development of visual-spatial skills, the selection
of the sample might have jeopardized the external validity of the results. It
is, however, interesting to note that video-game playing had a similar effect
on both sexes.
Finally, the fact that significant improvement was achieved by adults after
only eight sessions leads us to expect that playing some video games might
also result in such an improvement among younger subjects. Actually, a
larger study with a variety of cognitive measures is now being conducted among
younger subjects. This should clarify empirically extreme statements regarding
the effects of very frequent use of video games.
REFERENCES
1. ANASTASI,
A. (1958) Differential psychology: individual and group differences
in behavior. (3rd ed.) New York: Macmillan.
2. BALL,H. G. (1978) Telegames teach more than you think. Audio-Visual ln-
struction, 23 ( 25 ) , 24-26.
3. BENNET,G. K., SEASHORE, H. G., WESMAN, A. G., & CHEVRIER, J. M. (1960)
Terts Diffhentielr dlAptitude-Formules A et B. MontrGal: Institut de Re-
cherche~ psychologiques.
162 M. DORVAL & M. PfiPIN

4. BLADE, M. F., & WATSON, W . S. (1955) Increase in spatial visualization test

scores during engineering study. Psychological Monographs, 69, No. 12 (Whole
No. 397).
5. BRINKMAN,E. H. (1966) Programmed instruction as a technique for improving
spatial visualization. Journal of Applied Psychology, 50, 1979-1984.
6. BURNSTEIN,B., BANK, L., & JARVIK, L. F. (1980) Sex differences in cognitive
functioning: evidence, determinants, implications. Human Development, 23,
289-313.
7. CONNOR, J. M., SCHACKMAN,M., & SERBIN, L. A. (1978) Sex-related differ-
ences in response to practice on a visual-spatial test and generalization to a related
test. Child Development, 49, 24-29.
8. CONNOR,J. M., SERBIN, L. A., & SCHACKMAN,M. (1977) Sex differences in
children's response to training on a visual-spatial test. Developmental Psychol-
ogy. 13, 293-294.
9. CRESPI,P. (1983) Sorting out the video game controversy. Parks Er Recreation,
1 8 ( 5 ) , 28-31, 58.
10. GARAI, J. E., & SCHEINFELD,A. (1968) Sex differences in mental and behavioral
traits. Genetic Psychology Momgraflhs, 77, 169-299.
11. HARRIS, L. J. (1978) Sex differences in spatial ability: possible environmental,
genetic, and neurological factors. In M. Kinsbourne (Ed.) , Asymmetrical func-
tion of the brain. New York: Cambridge Univer. Press. Pp. 405-522.
12. LOFTUS, G. R., & LOFTUS, E. F. (1983) Mind a! play: the Psychology of video
games. New York: Basic Books.
13. LOWERY,B. R., & KNIRK, F. G. (1982) Micro-computer videogames and spatial
visualization acquisition. Journal of Educational Technology Systems, 11,
155-166.
14. MACCOBY,E. E., & JACKLIN,C. N. (1974) The psychology of sex differences.
Stanford, CA: Stanford Univer. Press.
15. MCGEE, M. G. (1979) Human spatial abilities: psychometric studies and eoviron-
mental, genetic, hormonal, and neurological influences. Psychological Bulletin,
85, 889-918.
16. NEEDHAM,N. R. (1982) Thirty billion quarters can't be wrong-r can they?
Today's Education, 71 ( 3 ) , 53-55.
17. NG, D., & JUNE, L. (1983) Study on videogaming with youth. Paper presented
at the annual meeting of the Society for the Anthropological Study of Play, Baton
Rouge, LA.
18. SHEMAN, J. (1967) Problem of sex differences in space perception and aspects
of intellectual functioning. Psychological Review, 74, 290-299.
19. SHERMAN, J. (1978) Sex-related cognitive differences: an essay on theory and
evidence. Springfield, IL: Thomas.
20. SMIm, W. S., & SCHROEDER,C. K. (1979) Instruction of fourth grade girls and
boys on spatial visualization. Science Education, 63 ( 1 ) , 61-66.
21. STERICKER,A., & LEVESCONTE,S. (1982) Effect of brief training on sex-related
differences in visual-spatial skill. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology,
43, 1018-1029.
22. TRUDEL,D. (1983) Les cartouches de jeu. Protbgez-vous, Novembre, 45-58.
23. VANDENBERG,S. G. ( 1975) Sources of variance in performance in spatial tests.
In J. Elioc & N. J. Salkind (Eds.), Children's spatial development. Spriogfield,
IL: Thomas. Pp. 57-66,

Accepted November 25, 1985.