Reservoir Characterization Glossary

A
Additivity. n. [Reservoir Characterization]. A property of semivariogram models. Any linear
combination of admissible models with positive coefficients can be nested or added together.
Generally, single models are used for modeling experimental semivariograms that are close in
shape to one of the basic admissible models, or for the approximate fitting of complex structural
functions. Nested models are used to better fit complex structural functions.

Advective Transport Modelling. n. [Reservoir Characterization]. A series of techniques that use

geostatistical methods to determine fluid and contaminant flow in the subsurface. These
techniques are used primarily to study contamination in groundwater in environmental studies.

Analog. n. [Reservoir Characterization, Shale Gas]. An example used for comparison. In oil and
gas exploration, geoscientists and engineers compare new prospects and fields with fields and
surface exposures thought to be similar in depositional environment and reservoir character to
guide predictions. Wide variations in shale reservoirs create doubt about the utility of analog
comparisons.

Arithmetic Mean. n. [Reservoir Characterization]. A mathematical method of finding a central

value for a group of data. It is most often referred to as the average but also as the mean. The
arithmetic mean is the sum of all the observed values divided by the number of observations.

Artificial Intelligence. n. [Reservoir Characterization]. The study of ideas that enable computers
to do the things that make people seem intelligent. The term is commonly abbreviated as A.I.
Many computer programs written for use in the oil field utilize "rule based" approaches to
provide expert systems. The rules are taken from an expert working in the field and are written in
a way that attempts to reproduce the knowledge and approaches used by that expert to solve a
range of real problems. Most such programs are limited to specific areas such as dipmeter
interpretation, electrofacies determination, reservoir characterization, blowout prevention,
drilling fluid selection, etc. Sometimes expert systems are written in computer languages that
easily handle "rules" such as LISP, but once fully tested are usually translated to BASIC, C or
FORTRAN to be compiled into efficient applications or programs.

Azimuth. n. [Geology]. The angle between the vertical projection of a line of interest onto a
horizontal surface and true north or magnetic north measured in a horizontal plane, typically
measured clockwise from north.

n. [Drilling]. The compass direction of a directional survey or of the wellbore as planned or

measured by a directional survey. The azimuth is usually specified in degrees with respect to the
geographic or magnetic north pole.
n. [Reservoir Characterization]. The angle that characterizes a direction or vector relative to a
reference direction (usually True North) on a horizontal plane. The azimuth is usually quoted in
degrees from 0 to 359.

n. [Drilling, Shale Gas]. The direction in which a deviated or horizontal well is drilled relative to
magnetic north. Most horizontal wells in shale reservoirs are drilled in the direction of the
minimum horizontal stress. This allows for the creation of multiple hydraulic fractures that are
normal to the wellbore.

B
Bayesian inference. n. [Reservoir Characterization]. An inference or deduction made using
Bayes' theorem. Bayesian inference also is used in performing stochastic analyses of geological
scenarios or building stochastic models of geological environments.

Bayesian Method. n. [Reservoir Characterization]. A method of updating distributions that

requires that prior distributions of the required geological characteristics are defined and that
calculation of the posterior distributions be based on an exact stochastic model.

Bayesian Probability. n. [Reservoir Characterization]. A probability based on Bayes' theorem of

interdependent events occurring interdependently.

Bivariate Analysis. n. [Reservoir Characterization]. Analysis of two data sets that determines
whether or not the data are related and describes the best relationship between them. Crossplots
are often used to visualize potential bivariate relationships. Regression methods frequently help
determine the best equation to fit to the data and the goodness of the fit.

Boltzmann Probability Distribution. n. [Reservoir Characterization]. One of a number of

possible distributions that may occur when the results of events are plotted. Boltzmann
distributions were originally described from theoretical consideration on the probable
interactions of molecules. It has been used in simulation of annealing and can be used for
studying perturbations in geostatistical models.

Boolean Simulation. n. [Reservoir Characterization]. The development of a reservoir model by

the use of objects. Reservoir models may be developed by adding together a series of objects
(such as channel belts) in a fashion that honors the well data (logs, cores, etc.) and satisfies all
the geostatistical requirements of the model. Such models may be used to simulate the behavior
of the fluids in a reservoir.

Box Plots. n. [Reservoir Characterization]. A grid pattern laid over a representation of fractures.
The number of boxes that contain a fracture is counted and plotted against the box size on
logarithmic scales. The slope of the line is equal to minus the fractal dimension. This is
sometimes referred to as the box "dimension."

Briggs Color Cube. n. [Reservoir Characterization]. A system for color-coding three-

dimensional information. This system is used in wireline log analysis to provide color shading in
which the final color is determined by the values of three curves. One curve dictates the intensity
of red, a second the intensity of green, and the third the intensity of blue. The final resulting color
is the result of the three input curves. The input curves may be raw curves from the field or
computed curves. When used for correlation work on cross sections, the curves must have been
normalized to remove the effects of incorrect calibrations and borehole problems.

Brownian Motion. n. [Reservoir Characterization]. The motion of atoms and molecules in fluids
due to the temperature of the fluid. The motion appears to be random, but is described by the
relationships derived by Brown.

Classical Reservoir Modeling. n. [Reservoir Characterization]. A conventional method of

mapping reservoir parameters in two dimensions, x and y. The resulting map set usually includes
the top and bottom structure map derived from seismic and well data and that are used to
generate thickness maps, in addition to maps of other geological and petrophysical parameters
produced by standard interpolation techniques. These techniques are appropriate for describing
reservoirs that are reasonably continuous and not too heterogeneous. They are usually much
faster than full 3D techniques or geostatistical methods, but may be inaccurate when applied to
description of complex, heterogeneous strata.

Cluster. n. [Reservoir Characterization]. A group of data points having similar characteristics.

These points are usually found by cluster analysis, and are sometimes used to determine
electrofacies from wireline data.

vb. [Reservoir Characterization]. The act of determining clusters from data sets.

Cluster Analysis. n. [Reservoir Characterization]. Mathematical techniques for summarizing

large amounts of multidimensional data into groups. The two most popular techniques are:

hierarchical

k-means.

The hierarchical system calculates as many clusters as there are data points and displays their
relative closeness by means of a dendogram. This system is preferred when there are few data
points but the user wishes to see the dendogram to chose an appropriate number of clusters for
analysis. Principal Component Analysis (PCA) is a form of hierarchical cluster analysis.
The k-means system requires the user to choose the number of cluster to be determined. The
computation scatters the centers of the clusters among the data and then moves them until they
are "gravitationally bound" to the larger groups of data and no longer move. The points
determined in this way represent the central points of the clusters. This technique is very fast and
appropriate for very large data sets. It is most commonly used in electrofacies calculations.
Cluster analysis is often used to provide electrofacies from wireline data where each curve is set
to be a dimension.

Coherence map. n. [Reservoir Characterization]. See: Coherence vector map

Coherence vector map. n. [Reservoir Characterization]. A map that displays the degree of
correlation between wells as a vector that points from one well to another, the length of the
vector being related to the degree of correlation from a correlogram. These maps are used in
automatic correlation of well logs across a field and indicate where formations are continuous or
are terminated.

Cokriging. n. [Reservoir Characterization]. A form of kriging that involves multiple variables.

For example, well data may be used to generate one semivariogram, and three-dimensional
seismic data used to generate another. Both semivariograms, along with a cross-variogram
model, can then be used to generate a cokriged map.

Compartment. n. [Reservoir Characterization]. The productive segment of an oil or gas field

that is not in fluid communication with the remainder of the field. Productive compartments may
become isolated at the time of accumulation by depositional processes or become isolated after
deposition and burial by diagenesis or by structural changes, such as faulting.

Compartmentalization. n. [Reservoir Characterization]. The geological segmentation of once

continuous reservoirs into isolated compartments. Reservoirs that have become
compartmentalized require different approaches to interpretation and production than continuous
reservoirs. The degree of compartmentalization may vary as a consequence of production.

Conceptual model. n. [Reservoir Characterization]. A hypothetical model characterizing strata,

generally strata deposited in one or a related set of environments. Conceptual models usually
incorporate rules about possible geometries and successions of facies that can be included in a
geological scenario. These often provide limitations to the interpretation of a given reservoir.
Conceptual models commonly incorporate sequence stratigraphic concepts such as facies tracts,
unconformities, flooding surfaces, erosional surfaces and parasequences. Conceptual models are
often used in conjunction with geostatistical and classical technologies for reservoir
characterization.

Conditional Simulation. n. [Reservoir Characterization]. A geostatistical tool that yields a

quantitative measure of the error in a map. It is performed when multiple maps have been created
using kriging or cokriging and where each map has similar mean and variance as the control
points, has approximately the same semivariogram, and approximately honors the control points.
If guide data are used, the average of the conditional simulation images is the kriging with
external drift (KED) solution.

In general, conditional simulation maps contain more detail than maps produced by kriging or
KED, but require much more effort to produce.

Conical Projection. n. [Reservoir Characterization]. A projection of data from the apex of a cone
in a three-dimensional plot onto a surface at the base of the cone. This projection often is
performed in log analysis to remove a dimension and see what a data point would read in the
absence of that dimension. For example, removal of shale effects in a plot of neutron, density and
gamma ray data helps determine the mineralogy of a sample where the apex of the cone would
represent the shale point in the plot.

The M-N plot is a plot in which the fluid has been removed by conical projection from the
neutron, density and sonic data to provide a porosity-independent plot that can be used to
determine lithology.

Correlation. n. [Geology]. A connection of points from well to well in which the data suggest
that the points were deposited at the same time (chronostratigraphic) or have similar and related
characteristics.

n. [Geophysics]. The comparison of seismic waveforms in the time domain, similar to coherence
in the frequency domain.

n. [Reservoir Characterization]. A positive relationship between data samples that implies a

connection or a relationship between them.

Correlogram. n. [Reservoir Characterization]. A graphical representation of the degree of

agreement between segments of curves being correlated between different wells. The degree of
lag (required shift), the amplitude of the peaks and the shapes of the peaks are parameters used to
calculate the match in a correlogram.

Crossplot. n. [Reservoir Characterization]. A two-dimensional plot with one variable scaled in

the vertical (Y) direction and the other in the horizontal (X) axis. The scales are usually linear
but may be other functions, such as logarithmic. Additional dimensions may be represented by
using color or symbols on the data points. These plots are common tools in the interpretation of
petrophysical and engineering data

Cumulative Production. n. [Reservoir Characterization, Shale Gas]. The total amount of oil and
gas recovered from a reservoir as of a particular time in the life of the field. Cumulative
production can be referenced to a well, a field, or a basin.

Cyclothem. n. [Reservoir Characterization]. A succession of strata deposited during a single

cycle of deposition. These sedimentary successions usually occur repeatedly, one above the
other. The two main varieties are the cyclic units that are symmetrical cyclothems, and the
rhythmic units that are asymmetrical cyclothems. Cyclic groupings of cyclothems are called
megacyclothems, and cyclic groupings of megacyclothems are called hypercyclothems.
Cyclothems are thought to be due to natural cycles, such as changes in sea levels related to
changes in the volume of polar ice caps.

D
Darcy. n. [Reservoir Characterization]. A standard unit of measure of permeability. One darcy
describes the permeability of a porous medium through which the passage of one cubic
centimeter of fluid having one centipoise of viscosity flowing in one second under a pressure
differential of one atmosphere where the porous medium has a cross-sectional area of one square
centimeter and a length of one centimeter. A millidarcy (mD) is one thousandth of a darcy and is
a commonly used unit for reservoir rocks.

Depth Control. n. [Well Completions]. The procedures and equipment used to measure and
correlate depth to ensure that a treatment is applied at the correct position within the wellbore.

n. [Reservoir Characterization]. The practice of ensuring that all measurements taken in a

borehole are matched to the "base depth," normally the depth determined with the resistivity log.

Depth Matching. n. [Reservoir Characterization]. The practice of shifting depths of various data
sets to a measurement that is known to be on depth. The general standard that is usually used is
the first resistivity logs run, because those logs usually underwent the most rigorous depth
control.
Depth matching is usually applied to all wireline data, cores, borehole seismic data, and any
other data taken in a well. Depth matching is a vital process in any well evaluation or any
reservoir characterization exercise, so much so that, in its absence, accuracy and validity of the
exercise must be questioned.

Derivate Logs. n. [Reservoir Characterization]. Logs that have been calculated from other logs
to find the rate at which a log is changing with depth. For example, the derivative caliper
(rugosity) calculates the rate at which the caliper is changing from one depth to another. Bad hole
conditions that cause the density log to produce incorrect measurements are usually more closely
related to the rugosity of the hole than the hole size, so the rugosity curve is the more useful in
this regard.

Determinism. n. [Reservoir Characterization]. The use of deterministic methods to solve

problems or find solutions to data sets.
Deterministic Methods. n. [Reservoir Characterization]. Techniques that use equations or
algorithms that have been previously developed for similar situations. These methods do not
involve stochastic or statistical approaches. Deterministic methods are generally easier and faster
to apply and readily lend themselves to computer applications. However, they may not provide
the most detailed or the most accurate reservoir models.

Deviation. n. [Reservoir Characterization]. The angle at which a wellbore diverges from vertical.
Wells can deviate from vertical because of the dips in the beds being drilled through. Wells can
also be deliberately deviated by the use of a whipstock or other steering mechanism. Wells are
often deviated or turned to a horizontal direction to increase exposure to producing zones,
intersect a larger number of fractures, or to follow a complex structure.

Dip. n. [Geology]. The magnitude of the inclination of a plane from horizontal. True, or
maximum, dip is measured perpendicular to strike. Apparent dip is measured in a direction other
than perpendicular to strike.

n. [Reservoir Characterization]. The angle between a planar feature, such as a sedimentary bed or
a fault, and a horizontal plane. True dip is the angle a plane makes with a horizontal plane, the
angle being measured in a direction perpendicular to the strike of the plane.

Apparent dip is the angle measured in any direction other than perpendicular to the strike of the
plane. Given the apparent dip and the strike, or two apparent dips, the true dip can be computed.

Dip fault. n. [Reservoir Characterization]. A fault whose primary movement is in the dip
direction. Dip faults are also referred to as dip-slip faults.

Directional Variograms. n. [Reservoir Characterization]. Variograms and semivariograms that

have a directional component in addition to the normal distance component. Directional
variograms and semivariograms are commonly used where geological features are
heterogeneous. For example, fluvial environments dominated by valleys, channels and point bars
are likely to have directional components that are detectable and that will influence the behavior
of fluids in these formations. Geostatistical models that use directional variograms can be
expected to be more reliable in these circumstances.

Distribution. n. [Reservoir Characterization]. The variation in the values of a one-dimensional

data set. There are a number of readily recognized, possible distributions known to statistics,
each with mathematical definitions. Statisticians may endeavor to find whether a data set is a
good fit to any of the recognized distributions. Some examples include:

bimodal
Boltzmann
chi-squared
general normal
 Gaussian or standard normal (bell-shaped curve)
normal
Poisson
student's t

Domain. n. [Geophysics]. The set of values an independent variable can take. For example, the
independent variable of the time domain is time; and for the frequency domain, it is frequency.

n. [Reservoir Characterization]. A region of magnetic polarity within a ferromagnetic body.

Domains collectively determine the magnetic properties of the body by their arrangement.

n. [Reservoir Characterization]. A region characterized by a specific feature.

n. [Reservoir Characterization]. The set of values assigned to the independent variables of a

function.

Domainal fabric. n. [Reservoir Characterization]. A structure made up of a number of

superposed domains, usually of different size or wavelength. These are used in geostatistical
work to describe statistical behaviors on small scales (such as porosity in thin sections) to large
scales (such as porosity distributions in reservoirs).

Domainal structure. n. [Reservoir Characterization]. See: Domainal fabric

E
Effective Medium Theory. n. [Reservoir Characterization]. A method for determining the
effective properties of random fields, commonly abbreviated EMT. Originally developed to
estimate transport coefficients, this theory is based on the idea of replacing the inhomogeneous
medium by an equivalent homogenous medium such that the fluctuations induced by restoring
the heterogeneity average to zero.

EMT is used to upscale parameters such as permeability for use in coarse-grained reservoir
simulation studies. This use is controversial in reservoirs that are not homogeneous.

Eigenvector. n. [Reservoir Characterization]. The vector that best represents the trend of data in
multiple dimensions. This is the major component of principal component analysis (PCA). In log
analysis, log data plotted in the number of dimensions equal to the number of curves can be
subjected to principal component analysis, replotted in PCA space and then subjected to cluster
analysis to find usable electrofacies.

Empirical. adj. [Reservoir Characterization]. Pertaining to analysis that includes equations or

formulae that were derived purely from data analysis and were not derived from a theoretical
basis. The majority of equations used in reservoir characterization and reservoir engineering are
empirical.

Epanechnikov kernel. n. [Reservoir Characterization]. A discontinuous parabola kernel that is

used in contouring areal density of data points in a crossplot. The kernel function can take many
other forms, such as triangular, rectangular or Gaussian. The function determines the shape of the
bump or cluster of data under scrutiny. This technology is often used in cluster analysis and
statistical graphic techniques.

Error. n. [Reservoir Characterization]. A data value that is not correct. This could be caused by a
faulty measurement or by incorrect processing of the data.

n. [Reservoir Characterization]. The difference between a data value and the value predicted by a
statistical distribution or other mathematical algorithm. Strictly, normal distributions apply only
to random events, but they are often used to describe nonrandom events because their
distributions look like approximations to a "bell curve." Under these circumstances, the error is
only a measure of deviation from a normal distribution and may not have direct physical
significance.

Euclidian Dimension. n. [Reservoir Characterization]. A dimension in Euclidian space.

Euclidian dimensions are all orthogonal to each other (at right angles to each other) and refer to
physical space with X, Y and Z components.

Euclidian Distance. n. [Reservoir Characterization]. The distance between two points in

Euclidian space. Euclidian dimensions are all orthogonal to each other (they are all at right
angles to each other) and refer to physical space.

Eustatic Sea Level. n. [Reservoir Characterization]. Global sea level, which changes in response
to changes in the volume of ocean water and the volume of ocean basins.

Expectation. n. [Reservoir Characterization]. The results of extrapolating from a known data

point to points away from measurements. In geostatistical modeling, generating expectation
trends is a fundamental process that requires procedures to estimate geometric changes by using
various statistical approaches. Often, trends in surfaces are estimated and used to provide bounds
on possible facies extrapolation.

Expert System. n. [Reservoir Characterization]. A computer system that uses a rule-based

algorithm to provide expertise on a given subject. Many computer programs have been written
for use in the oil field using rule-based approaches to provide expert systems. The rules are taken
from an expert working in the field and are written in a way that attempts to reproduce the
knowledge and approaches used by that expert to solve a range of actual problems. Most such
programs are limited to specific disciplines such as dipmeter interpretation, electrofacies
determination, reservoir characterization, blowout prevention or drilling fluid selection.
Sometimes expert systems are written in computer languages such as LISP that easily handles
rules, but once fully tested, expert systems are usually translated to BASIC, C or FORTRAN to
be compiled into efficient applications or programs.

F
Facies. n. The characteristics of a rock unit that reflect its origin and permit its differentiation
from other rock units around it. Facies usually are characterized using all the geological
characteristics known for that rock unit. In reservoir characterization and reservoir simulation,
the facies properties that are most important are the petrophysical characteristics that control the
fluid behavior in the facies. Electrofacies and other multivariate techniques are often used to
determine these characteristics. Rock types rather than facies are more likely to be used in
reservoir simulation.

Facies Modeling. n. [Reservoir Characterization]. The act of modeling a reservoir using

knowledge of the facies that make up the reservoir and the depositional environments that the
facies represent. The depositional characteristics will suggest rules concerning the geometries of
the facies and the possible relationships between facies, especially where the facies have been
related to each other within a stratigraphic sequence or a cyclothem. Facies modeling is often an
important component of geostatistical reservoir characterization and facilitates construction of
superior reservoir models for complex reservoirs.

Filters. n. [Reservoir Characterization]. Devices for selecting or excluding data from a data
stream or data set. These devices may be physical (for example to tune an electrical circuit to a
particular frequency) or a mathematical algorithm. Mathematical filters take many forms, some
of which are used in oilfield data analysis and interpretation. Examples include statistical
techniques, geostatistical techniques, clustering, conditional algorithm, etc. A simple example of
a conditional algorithm might include using a caliper to determine whether a borehole was
rugose, thus requiring special log interpretation through the rugose interval.

Fitted model. n. [Reservoir Characterization]. See: Fitted Variogram

Fitted Variogram. n. [Reservoir Characterization]. A variogram or semivariogram is said to

have been fitted after the best possible model has been applied to it.

Flooding Surface. n. [Reservoir Characterization]. A surface exhibiting evidence of an abrupt

increase in water depth, separating younger from older strata. The surface may also display
evidence of minor submarine erosion. It forms in response to an increase in water depth and
typically bounds parasequences. In sequence stratigraphic terminology, it replaces the older,
more generic term "trangressive surface," although it is not a strict equivalent.
This term is also used as a short version of the terms maximum flooding surface or marine
flooding surface.

Flow Model. n. [Reservoir Characterization]. A model of a reservoir in which the steady-state

flow and the advective transport are described in two or three dimensions by a computer
program. A flow model is an essential component of a reservoir simulator. Flow models are often
derived from the petrophysical characteristics of a reservoir (especially porosities and
permeabilities) and then the model is adjusted and refined until it correctly predicts the
reservoir's past behavior and can match the historical pressure and production data.

Flow Simulation. n. [Reservoir Characterization]. The dynamic simulation of fluids through a

reservoir model over time. When the simulation correctly recreates the past reservoir
performance, it is said to be "history matched," and a higher degree of confidence placed in its
ability to predict the future fluid behavior in the reservoir.

Fluid Flow. n. [Reservoir Characterization]. The movement of fluid through pores and fractures
within permeable rocks in a reservoir. Generally, the fluid flow is assumed to follow Darcy's law,
so the fluid flow may be simulated with a model of the reservoir.

Fourier Analysis. n. [Geophysics]. The process of decomposing a function of time or space into
a sum (or integral) of sinusoidal functions (sines or cosines) with specific amplitudes and phases.

n. [Reservoir Characterization]. A mathematical algorithm designed by geometrician and

physicist Baron J.B.J. Fourier to determine the frequency distribution within a wave pattern as a
series of sine waves. Fourier analysis is also used to study any series of repeated signals or
patterns. This analysis is sometimes used to study patterns in images such as thin sections, and in
geostatistics and log analysis.

Fractal. n. [Reservoir Characterization]. A special mathematical geometry with properties that

reproduce a pattern over a range of scales. They can contain some variations so that the patterns
do not perfectly repeat. This geometry claims to represent many natural systems, including plant
growth, geological deposition, coastlines and other geographical shapes. Fractal geometry has
also led to the recent study of "Chaos Theory." This technology is sometimes used in
geostatistical studies.

Fractal Analysis. n. [Reservoir Characterization]. Analysis of a geometrical system using fractal

mathematics. This analysis is sometimes used in geostatistics to describe depositional systems
and other geological phenomena.

Fractal Networks. n. [Reservoir Characterization]. Networks that are described using the
mathematics of fractals. These are useful for describing certain types of fracture systems.

Fracture Networks. n. [Reservoir Characterization]. Patterns in multiple fractures that intersect

with each other. Fractures are formed when rock is stressed or strained, as by the forces
associated with plate-tectonic activity. When multiple fractures are propagated, they often form
patterns that are referred to as fracture networks. These networks are studied using a number of
mathematical and statistical techniques and may even be represented using fractals. Fracture
networks may make an important contribution to both the storage (porosity) and the fluid flow
rates (permeability or transmissability) of formations.

G
Gaussian Collocated Cosimulation. n. [Reservoir Characterization]. An algorithm built on a
Markov-type hypothesis, whereby collocated secondary information is assumed to screen out
secondary data from farther away. The method allows the direct cosimulation of several
interdependent variables, integrating several different sources of soft information.

Gaussian Techniques. n. [Reservoir Characterization]. A parametric approach to stochastic

imaging or simulation of a reservoir. Simpler than the indicator (nonparametric) approach,
Gaussian techniques include a normal score transform of the data to produce a new variable that
is, by construction, univariate and normally distributed.

Geostatistical Methods. n. [Reservoir Characterization]. Techniques that are applied to reservoir

characterization using various statistical approaches to estimate the geological characteristics of
formations at a distance from known points, such as within wellbores. These techniques include
the use of semivariograms, kriging and multivariate analysis.

Geostatistical Modeling. n. [Reservoir Characterization]. The process of generating models of

the subsurface using geostatistical methods. The methods derive a detailed model using only
sparse data (such as logs and cores from a few wells in a large area) and a knowledge of the
depositional systems and structural settings to estimate the subsurface characteristics between the
wells. These methods were originally developed in the mining industry, where boreholes are
generally much closer, and later were adapted for use in the oil and gas industry. Geostatistical
models are used for reservoir simulation and reservoir management.

Geostatistics. n. [Reservoir Characterization]. The study of samples of data from a complete

data set (or population) to attempt to estimate the behavior of the population. Typically,
geostatistics is applied during the creation of high-resolution subsurface models of mineral
deposits or oil reservoirs. The data are available only from well cores and logs (high vertical
resolution but laterally infrequent data samples) and from surface seismic (low vertical
resolution) data. Geostatistically derived reservoir models, when successful, are used in reservoir
simulations and for reservoir management.

Glyph. n. [Reservoir Characterization]. A diagram that displays multivariate data. A good choice
of glyph design can aid the recognition of complex similarities or distinctions in a set of data. A
well-known example of an oilfield glyph is the Stiff diagram, which shows the patterns of
cations and anions in fluids.

Greedy Algorithm. n. [Reservoir Characterization]. A mathematical procedure used to improve

computer usage in simulated annealing runs. The procedure uses a fast swapping technique to
match model semivariograms to actual semivariogram data.

Gridding. n. [Reservoir Characterization]. The act of determining values for grid elements on a
map. The grid element values are chosen from nearby data points. Methods are deterministic and
use linear and nonlinear interpolation methods, or may be statistical and use geostatistical
approaches such as kriging. Gridding is usually applied to one characteristic per map, such as
structure, thickness, porosity, permeability or saturation.

Gridding Algorithm. n. [Reservoir Characterization]. A computational procedure incorporated

in methods for determining the values to be assigned to grid elements on a map. The
deterministic gridding algorithms are mostly simpler interpolation; the stochastic approaches
include the geostatistical methods, among them kriging.

H
Harmonic. adj. [Geology]. Pertaining to structures in which the shapes of adjacent layers
resemble or conform to one another. Folds of rock layers that have similar mechanical properties
or competence tend to be harmonic, with little change in fold shape, symmetry or wavelength
from one layer to the next. Antonyms: disharmonic

n. [Reservoir Characterization]. A set of data values related by some function of frequencies and
capable of being represented by sine and cosine functions.

n. [Reservoir Characterization]. A particular frequency at which a data set has a resonance, or the
frequency has special significance.

Hierarchical Cluster Analysis. n. [Reservoir Characterization]. A method of cluster analysis in

which the distance between every pair of data points is determined and the relative distances
displayed on a dendogram. This method is completely accurate but is very CPU intensive when
the data set has a large number of data points. For large numbers of data points, the k-means
method is usually preferred.

This method is sometimes used after the data have first been transformed into their principal
components. The method is one possible approach to electrofacies calculations.
Highstand Systems Tract. n. [Reservoir Characterization]. A systems tract bounded below by a
downlap surface and above by a sequence boundary, commonly abbreviated as HST. This
systems tract is characterized by an aggradational to progradational parasequence set.

History Matching. n. [Reservoir Characterization]. The act of adjusting a model of a reservoir

until it closely reproduces the past behavior of a reservoir. The historical production and
pressures are matched as closely as possible. The accuracy of the history matching depends on
the quality of the reservoir model and the quality and quantity of pressure and production data.
Once a model has been history matched, it can be used to simulate future reservoir behavior with
a higher degree of confidence, particularly if the adjustments are constrained by known
geological properties in the reservoir.

Hough Transform. n. [Reservoir Characterization]. A method for detecting patterns of points in

binary data sets. Data pairs on a plot are assigned slopes and offsets and then replotted in slope
and offset space. The method has been used on wireline curve data and on image data, where
dips and azimuths are used. The Hough transform can be used to obtain the Buckles number.

I
Indicator Methods. n. [Reservoir Characterization]. An approach to stochastic imaging or
simulation of a reservoir that is nonparametric. The Gaussian approach is a simpler approach that
includes a normal score transform of the data to produce a new variable that is univariate and
normally distributed.

Indicator Models. n. [Reservoir Characterization]. Models of reservoirs built using indicator

(nonparametric) methods.

Information Theory. n. [Reservoir Characterization]. The study, collection and management of

information, especially with respect to computer technology. Information theory is an important
component in the construction and efficient usage of databases.

Interpolation. n. [Reservoir Characterization]. The assignment of values to points intermediate

to two data points. Linear interpolation plots values along a straight line between the values of
the two nearest data points. Other interpolation techniques involve other functions. Interpolation
is used to fill in missing data in well logs and other data sets. It may also be used to assign values
to grid elements in maps.

Iterative Methods. n. [Reservoir Characterization]. Mathematical techniques that require an

algorithm or equation to be repeated until a condition is met. These methods usually require the
convergence of a result to a value. Computers are excellent tools for performing iterative
techniques quickly and efficiently.
 K
K-means Cluster Analysis. n. [Reservoir Characterization]. A clustering technique that begins
with the assignment of the number of clusters to be found. Points that will represent the centroids
of these clusters are then evenly dispersed through the data and moved as if by gravity until they
settle into positions in the data clouds and cease to move. This technique is much faster than the
hierarchical technique but not as accurate, and is often used in electrofacies analysis when large
data sets must be analyzed.

Koch Curve. n. [Reservoir Characterization]. A curve used to generate a certain type of fractal
geometry. Straight lines are replaced by regular polygons repeatedly. These curves look like a
snowflake when displayed graphically and are used to illustrate that a curve has a fractal
dimension D>1.

Kriging Weights. n. [Reservoir Characterization]. The weights assigned to control points in

kriging operations to minimize the variance, thus eliminating systematic estimation errors.

Kurtosis. n. [Reservoir Characterization]. A measure of a curve describing the statistical

frequency distribution in the region about its mode; the relative "peakedness" of the distribution.
This measure is used in the description of wireline curves and in schemes that attempt to
correlate them from well to well.

L
Layer Cake Geometry. n. [Reservoir Characterization]. See: Layer-cake-geometry

Layer-Cake-Geometry. n. [Reservoir Characterization]. A highly simplified description of a

geological scenario. Although sometimes used for "quick and dirty" simulation models, this
description is often not appropriate for detailed or accurate work. Generally, layer-cake geometry
is an oversimplification of actual structure and stratigraphy of a reservoir. It assumes that the
reservoir comprises a stack of conformable layers.

Longitudinal Plot. n. [Reservoir Characterization]. A plot of the longitudinal component of the

dip vector computed from a dipmeter. Longitudinal plots are used in the SCAT (Statistical
Curvature Analysis Technique) method of interpreting dipmeter data for geological structure.
They are especially useful in doubly plunging dip situations.

Lowstand Systems Tract. n. [Reservoir Characterization]. A systems tract overlying a sequence

boundary and overlain by a transgressive surface. Characterized by a progradational to
aggradational parasequence set, this systems tract commonly includes a basin-floor fan, a slope
fan and a lowstand wedge. It is often abbreviated as LST.

M
Map. n. [Reservoir Characterization]. A representation, on a plane surface and at an established
scale, of the physical features of a part or whole of the Earth's surface or of any desired surface
or subsurface data, by means of signs and symbols, and with the means of orientation indicated.
Reservoirs are often represented by a series of maps for each of the layers distinguished within
the reservoir. This series of maps may include maps of structure, gross thickness, net thickness,
porosity, water saturation and other required petrophysical characteristics. A complete set of
petrophysical characteristic maps may constitute a reservoir description, reservoir
characterization or reservoir model.

Marine Flooding Surface. n. [Reservoir Characterization]. See: Flooding Surface

Maximum Flooding Surface. n. [Reservoir Characterization]. A widespread marine flooding

surface that separates the underlying transgressive systems tract from the overlying highstand
systems tract. The surface also marks the deepest water facies within a sequence. The maximum
flooding surface represents a change from retrogradational to progradational parasequence
stacking patterns. It commonly displays evidence of condensation or slow deposition, such as
abundant burrowing, hardgrounds, mineralization and fossil accumulations. On wireline logs, the
shales that immediately overlie the maximum flooding surface commonly have different
characteristics than other shales and can often be recognized on the basis of resistivity, gamma
ray, neutron and density logs. These shales can also be recognized by electrofacies analysis when
the analysis is designed to do so.

Mean. n. [Reservoir Characterization]. Synonyms: arithmetic mean

Median. n. [Reservoir Characterization]. A mathematical measure of the centrality of a data set.

If the data set is arranged in the order of the values, the median is the value of the central data
point for an odd number of data, or the mean of the two central data points for an even number of
data. The median is often used in place of the mean or average when there are a number of
extreme data values or the distribution of data is skewed.

Midrange. n. [Reservoir Characterization]. A mathematical method of finding a central value for

a group of data. The midrange is defined as the sum of the lowest value in the data set and the
highest value if the data set divided by two.

Model. n. [Geophysics]. A representation of a physical property or entity that can be used to

make predictions or compare observations with assumptions. Mathematical velocity models are
commonly used to predict the depth to a formation of interest. Physical models, such as layers of
clay or putty, can be used to simulate rock layers. As Sheriff (1991) points out, agreement
between data and a model does not prove that the model is correct, since there can be numerous
models that agree with a given data set.

vb. [Reservoir Characterization]. To produce a representation or a simulation of a problem.

n. [Reservoir Characterization]. A conceptual, three-dimensional construction of a reservoir or oil

and gas field. The model is constructed from incomplete data and much of the interwell space
must be estimated from nearby wells or from low vertical resolution data, such as seismic data.
The construction of models can be performed by deterministic methods or geostatistical
methods, or a combination of both.

Modeling. n. [Geophysics]. Synonyms: Seismic Modeling

n. [Reservoir Characterization]. The act of constructing a model

Moment. n. [Reservoir Characterization]. The product of a physical quantity and its distance
from an axis or a tendency to cause motion around an axis.

n. [Reservoir Characterization]. The mean or expected value of the product formed by

multiplying together a set of one or more variates or variables, each to a specified power.

Monte Carlo risk Analysis. n. [Reservoir Characterization]. An approach to performing risk

analysis on any project with uncertain input data. Generally, numbers are selected from
representative input data and then used in iterative, CPU-intensive calculations to find the most
likely outcome and the range of probable outcomes. The uncertainty in the output also provides a
measure of the validity of the model. The technique is applied to financial investment portfolio
and investment risk analysis as well as scientific applications.

Monte Carlo analysis methods are used in the oil field to estimate the risks involved in new
exploration projects, evaluation of development schemes and evaluation of validity of reservoir
models.

Monte Carlo sampling. n. [Reservoir Characterization]. The sampling of uncertain data for use
in Monte Carlo risk analysis or simulation.

Monte Carlo simulation. n. [Reservoir Characterization]. The use of Monte Carlo risk analysis
techniques to estimate the most probable outcomes from a model with uncertain input data and to
estimate the validity of the simulated model

Multiple regression. n. [Reservoir Characterization]. Regression techniques that find

relationships between two or more variables that have a complex (nonlinear) relationship.
Porosity and permeability relationships are often of this form in rocks that have multiple porosity
types (primary, intergranular, fracture or vugular porosity, for example) or multiple cement types
and other variables that affect permeability.

Multishot survey. n. [Reservoir Characterization]. A technique for determining the deviation of

a wellbore. The multishot tool provides more accuracy than the single-shot tool and is usually
used in highly deviated wells.

N
Nested fractal structures. n. [Reservoir Characterization]. Any model that incorporates more
than one variable that is represented by fractal geometry or a fractal function. These models can
become very complex if the variables are interdependent.

Neural networks. n. [Reservoir Characterization]. A concept for advanced computer

calculations developed by Alan Turing to mimic some of the operations of the neurons in a brain.
Memory elements (neurons) are conceptually interconnected by multiple paths connected with
on-off switches to emulate the synapses of the brain. The original intent was to build a data-
processing machine.

Modern applications reduce the concept to structured digital software processing models.
Repeated processing through a neural network allows the network to learn from the data it
processes. The learned process obtained from a set of training data with solutions can then be
applied to other data sets for which no solution exists. An oilfield example includes training a
network with wireline log and core data and then using the network to interpret further log data
in terms of the core data. Neural networks are also being used in seismic processing, geological
mapping and petrophysical analysis.

Numerical methods. n. [Reservoir Characterization]. Mathematical methods that require

iterative processing of data rather than applying deterministic equations. Some relationships can
be solved only by numerical methods, including most integration problems, some differentials
and some statistical processes.

Numerical model. n. [Reservoir Characterization]. A rendering of a model of a reservoir or field

in entirely numerical formats. Numerical models, once built, may be used to perform many
mathematical operations, including calculations of available reserves and simulations of the
behavior of the reservoir.

Numerical reservoir simulation. n. [Reservoir Characterization]. The mathematical simulation

of a numerical model of a reservoir's petrophysical characteristics to analyze and predict fluid
behavior in the reservoir over time.
 P
Parameter. n. [Reservoir Characterization]. A characteristic of a model of a reservoir that may
or may not vary with respect to position or with time. Porosity is a petrophysical parameter (or
characteristic) that varies with position.

n. [Reservoir Characterization]. A variable that is given a constant value for the purposes of
certain calculations. For example, during log analysis of a particular layer of a reservoir, the
water resistivity (Rw) may be set to a particular value and referred to as a parameter.

Parasequence boundary. n. [Reservoir Characterization]. A marine flooding surface or its

correlative surface.

Parasequence set. n. [Reservoir Characterization]. A succession of genetically related

parasequences that form a distinctive stacking pattern, and that are typically bounded by major
marine flooding surfaces and their correlative surfaces. Parasequence sets are usually classified
as progradational, aggradational or retrogradational.

Periodogram. n. [Reservoir Characterization]. A graphical representation of harmonic

information in a data set. Often taken from Fourier analysis of the data, this representation is
used to determine periodicities in petrophysical data and in geological depositional sequences.

Petrophysical model. n. [Reservoir Characterization]. A process or procedure used to interpret

petrophysical (usually wireline log) data. Usually representing a set of equations, algorithms or
other mathematical processes, petrophysical models often have multiple routines. For example, a
deterministic model might include routines that:

calculate the shale volume

calculate total porosity

calculate effective porosity

calculate water saturation

calculate permeability.

Often, the model is calibrated using core, production, test and other data sets. Although many
software packages contain ready-built petrophysical models or component routines that can be
called upon, many log-analysis problems are unique and require that "built to purpose" models
be constructed. Construction of new petrophysical models is normally driven by the data
available and the nature of the problem to be solved.
n. [Reservoir Characterization]. A model of a reservoir or a field in which the petrophysical data
were the only or the primary data used to construct the model.

Petrophysical rock type. n. [Reservoir Characterization]. Rock types that have been classified
according to their petrophysical properties, especially properties that pertain to fluid behavior
within the rock, such as porosity, capillary pressure, permeabilities, irreducible saturations or
saturations. Petrophysical rock types are often calibrated from core and dynamic data, but are
usually calculated from wireline logs, where possible, because the wireline logs are generally the
only measurements that are available for all wells at all depths. Electrofacies approaches are
often used to determine rock types from logs.

Poisson distribution. n. [Reservoir Characterization]. A probability distribution in which the

mean and the variance are identical. This distribution was first described by S.D. Poisson, a
French mathematician and physicist (1781-1840).

Pressure transient analysis. n. [Reservoir Characterization]. See: Pressure-transient analysis

Pressure transient well test. n. [Reservoir Characterization]. A means of assessing reservoir

performance by measuring flow rates and pressures under a range of flowing conditions and then
applying the data to a mathematical model. In most well tests, a limited amount of fluid is
allowed to flow from the formation being tested. The formation is isolated behind cemented
casing and perforated at the formation depth or, in openhole, the formation is straddled by a pair
of packers that isolate the formation. During the flow period, the pressure at the formation is
monitored over time. Then, the formation is closed (or shut in) and the pressure monitored at the
formation while the fluid within the formation equilibrates. The analysis of these pressure
changes can provide information on the size and shape of the formation as well as its ability to
produce fluids.

Pressure-transient analysis. n. [Reservoir Characteriation]. The analysis of pressure changes

over time, especially those associated with small variations in the volume of fluid. In most well
tests, a limited amount of fluid is allowed to flow from the formation being tested and the
pressure at the formation monitored over time. Then, the well is closed and the pressure
monitored while the fluid within the formation equilibrates. The analysis of these pressure
changes can provide information on the size and shape of the formation as well as its ability to
produce fluids.

Principal axis. n. [Reservoir Characterization]. The axis along which the data in n-dimensional
space is primarily distributed. In two dimensions, the first principal axis is the semimajor axis of
the ellipse that best fits the data set. Multiple principal axes are always orthogonal. Data are
sometimes rearranged to be in principal component space before further analysis (such as cluster
analysis) is performed. Analysis on data that have been transformed into principal component
space is referred to as principal component analysis, or PCA.
Principal component analysis. n. [Reservoir Characterization]. Analysis of data that has been
transformed from the original axes to principal axes, often abbreviated PCA. The first principal
axis is the direction in which the data are primarily distributed or the "long" axis of the
distribution in n-dimensional space. Data are sometimes rearranged to be in principal component
space before further analysis (such as cluster analysis) is performed.

Probability. n. [Reservoir Characterization]. A numerical estimate of the chances of an event

occurring given a limited number of opportunities for the event to occur.

Q
Quantile map. n. [Reservoir Characterization]. A map based on quantile values from the
probabilities of the values of the data. This map is used to reveal problems with distributions of
variables in geostatistical studies.

Quartile. n. [Reservoir Characterization]. Special quantiles at 0%, 25%, 50%, 75% and 100%.

R
Radius of Curvature. n. [Reservoir Characterization]. A method of following a trend between
points by connecting the data points by segments of a circle such that the segments "line up" with
each other smoothly. This method is used to plot out deviation surveys based on a limited
number of survey points to find the path of a wellbore.

Random walk method. n. [Reservoir Characterization]. See: random-walk method

Random-walk method. n. [Reservoir Characterization]. A method of performing stochastic

analysis on dynamic data. This method can be used in stochastic simulation of fluid behavior in
reservoirs and fields.

Recovery. n. [Reservoir Characterization]. The fraction of hydrocarbons that can or has been
produced from a well, reservoir or field; also, the fluid that has been produced.

Recovery forecast. n. [Reservoir Characterization]. A prediction of the amount of production

that will occur from a well, reservoir or field. This estimate is sometimes expressed as a fraction
of the total hydrocarbons originally in place

Regression. n. [Geology]. The migration of shoreline into a basin during progradation due to a
fall in relative sea level. Deposition during a regression can juxtapose shallow-water sediments
atop deep-water sediments. See; Transgression
n. [Reservoir Characterization]. The statistical fitting of trend lines to a data set. Many regression
methods are available, including linear, iterative, multiple and polynomial. If there is a 'good' fit
to the data, then the variables are often assumed to be dependent.

Regression coefficient. n. [Reservoir Characterization]. A quantification of the degree of

'goodness' of fit of a regression line to a data set. A value of 0.5 represents random data with no
dependence, and a coefficient of 1.0 represents a perfect fit with absolute dependence.

Reservoir characterization. n. [Reservoir Characterization]. A model of a reservoir that

incorporates all the characteristics of the reservoir that are pertinent to its ability to store
hydrocarbons and also to produce them. Reservoir characterization models are used to simulate
the behavior of the fluids within the reservoir under different sets of circumstances and to find
the optimal production techniques that will maximize the production.

n. [Reservoir Characterization] The act of building a reservoir model based on its characteristics
with respect to fluid flow.

Reservoir Communication. n. [Reservoir Characterization]. The flow of fluids from one part of
a reservoir to another or from one reservoir to another. The term is often used to describe
crossflow from one reservoir compartment to another.

Reservoir description. n. [Reservoir Characterization]. See: reservoir characterization

Reservoir Modeling. n. [Reservoir Characterization]. The act of producing a model of a

reservoir. The model could include any of the geological, fluid or other characteristics of the
reservoir.

Reservoir Simulation. n. [Reservoir Characterization]. A computer run of a reservoir model

over time to examine the flow of fluid within the reservoir and from the reservoir. Reservoir
simulators are built on reservoir models that include the petrophysical characteristics required to
understand the behavior of the fluids over time. Usually, the simulator is calibrated using historic
pressure and production data in a process referred to as "history matching." Once the simulator
has been successfully calibrated, it is used to predict future reservoir production under a series of
potential scenarios, such as drilling new wells, injecting various fluids or stimulation.

Rock Properties. n. [Reservoir Characterization]. The physical characteristics of reservoir rocks

that enable them to store fluids and to allow fluids to flow through them. The main properties of
interest are rock porosities and permeabilities.

Rock Types. n. [Reservoir Characterization]. A set of characteristics that several rocks have in
common. The characteristics of interest are usually those pertaining to fluid movement and fluid
storage capacity.
 S
SCAT. n. [Reservoir Characterization]. See: Statistical Curvature Analysis Technique

Scattergram. n. [Reservoir Characterization]. A graph in which data points are plotted but not
connected. The x and y axes of the scattergram represent the two variables being plotted.
Sometimes, the data points are coded by using color or symbols to represent a third dimension.

Seals. n. [Reservoir Characterization]. The geological barriers that isolate fluid compartments
within reservoirs or that hydraulically isolate reservoirs from each other. The seals may contain
fluids (for example shales) but have very low permeability. The properties of seals can determine
the height of hydrocarbon column trapped below them.

Sequential Gaussian Simulation. n. [Reservoir Characterization]. A procedure for estimating

the reservoir characteristics between data points. Based on the idea of iterating from a first guess
and refining through reduction of errors, the procedure generally transforms the model to
normality, simulating the normally distributed transform, and then back-transforming to the
original variable of interest.

Sierpinski Gasket. n. [Reservoir Characterization]. A form of fractal geometry based on a

triangle. It has a fractal dimension D = ln 3/ln 2 = 1.58....

A Sierpinski carpet uses a square instead of a triangle and has a fractal dimension D = ln 8/ln 3 =
1.89....

Simulated Annealing. n. [Reservoir Characterization]. A method for constructing a gridded

reservoir model by iterative trial and error. The grid is initially populated randomly with a
characteristic (such as facies) so that some property (such as a net/gross ratio) is correct. Then
the grids are randomly swapped so that the property is preserved but another property (such as
total length) is improved.

Single shot survey. n. [Reservoir Characterization]. See: Single-shot survey

Single-shot survey. n. [Reservoir Characterization]. A technique for acquiring deviation

information from a borehole on a slickline. In high-angle wells, a multishot technique is usually
used instead.

Sinusoid. n. [Reservoir Characterization]. A property or characteristic that has the form of a sine
wave.

Skewness. n. [Reservoir Characterization]. The degree to which a distribution has lost the
bilateral symmetry of a normal distribution. Skewness is usually expressed qualitatively rather
than quantitatively.
Solar Terrestrial Rhythms. n. [Reservoir Characterization]. The periodicities in the behavior of
the Earth and its climate with respect to the sun. Some rhythms are caused by variations in the
elliptically of the Earth's orbit, rotation of the semimajor axis of the Earth's orbit, variation on the
tilt of the Earth's axis and rotation in the tilt of the Earth's axis. Most of these rhythms are
predictable over the short term (up to hundreds of millions of years) but can become chaotic due
to the influence of other planets (particularly massive Jupiter) or extra solar-system activity. The
rhythms affect sea level and other factors that dictate the long-term behavior of depositional
systems.

Spectral Density Analysis. n. [Reservoir Characterization]. A technique for utilizing fractal

geometry to produce reservoir descriptions.

Spline. n. [Reservoir Characterization]. A mathematical procedure for connecting data points

with a smooth line. The line does not necessarily go through the data points, but its direction and
curvature are affected by all the data points. The "stiffness" of the line is controlled by a variable
(lambda) in the algorithm.

Stationary. n. [Reservoir Characterization]. A form of homogeneity in a single characteristic.

Local stationarity occurs when two or more adjacent, locally homogeneous samples yield similar
values of the property of interest.

Statistics. n. [Reservoir Characterization]. A branch of mathematics that attempts to bring some

understanding in the analysis of quantitative measurements. This science deals with the
collection, analysis and interpretation of numerical data, often using probability theory. Statistics
can also involve the generation of synthetic data between or within a group of measured data.

Stochastic analysis. n. [Reservoir Characterization]. An analysis related to a process involving a

randomly determined sequence of observations, each of which is considered as a sample of one
element from a probability distribution.

Stochastic methods. n. [Reservoir Characterization]. See: Stochastic analysis

Stochastic Modeling. n. [Reservoir Characterization]. The production of a model of a reservoir

or field by using stochastic methods to interpolate between data measurements (usually wells).

Stratigraphic Analysis. n. [Reservoir Characterization]. See: stratigraphy

Strike Fault. n. [Reservoir Characterization]. A fault whose primary movement is in the strike
direction (usually horizontal). This type of fault is usually caused by continents or tectonic plates
moving laterally with respect to each other, as is happening in California today. The San Andreas
fault is a strike-slip fault along which the western side is moving north relative to the eastern
side.
Structural analysis. n. [Reservoir Characterization]. An examination of a geological scenario to
understand the geometry and spatial arrangement of rocks. The structure or deformation can
include many mechanisms, such as folding, faulting and fracturing. Structure can usually be
interpreted in terms of the deformation of the crust of the Earth as continents and tectonic plates
move and collide.

Synthetic seismograms. n. [Reservoir Characterization]. The seismic traces at a wellbore

generated from wireline log data. Synthetic seismograms are generated by calculating reflection
coefficients from the sonic and density logs and then applying an ideal or real wavelet to the
reflections to obtain the seismic "wiggle" traces. Synthetic seismograms are usually generated to
compare with the actual seismic data and identify reflectors with layers and formations already
known in the wellbore.

T
Tangential plot. n. [Reservoir Characterization]. See: Tangent diagram

Tensor methods. n. [Reservoir Characterization]. A mathematical entity with components that

change in a particular way in a transformation from one coordinate system to another. Tensor
methods are used in "upscaling" reservoir parameters for use in reservoir simulation studies.

Theoretical. adj. [Reservoir Characterization]. Pertaining to analysis based on equations or

formulae derived from a theoretical basis in science. The majority of equations used in reservoir
characterization and reservoir engineering are empirical, but many have been derived from
scientific theory.

Transgressive surface. n. [Reservoir Characterization]. A marine flooding surface separating the

underlying lowstand systems tract from the overlying transgressive systems tract. Typically, this
is the first major flooding surface following the lowstand systems tract.

U
Uncertainty. n. [Formation Evaluation]. Result of the evaluation aimed at characterizing the
range within which the true value of a quantity is estimated to lie, generally with a given
likelihood. (ISO)

The uncertainty is the amount of possible inaccuracy. It is often a statistical estimate of this
range, such as the half-width of a gaussian distribution. The quantity may have been measured or
derived from an equation.
n. [Reservoir Characterization]. The degree to which a data set may be in error or stray from
predicted values. Sometimes quantified in terms of variance or standard deviation, uncertainty
exists in data because of a variety of problems, such as poor calibration or contamination or
damage to rocks prior to measurement. Uncertainty is the cause of many problems, which
occasionally can be overcome by normalizing the data.

Uncertainty principle. n. [Reservoir Characterization]. A quantum-mechanical principle

formulated by German physicist Werner Karl Heisenberg. It proposes that measuring either one
of two related quantities, such as position and momentum, or energy and time, produces
uncertainty in the measurement of the other. The error in measurement of one (for example,
position) times the error in measurement of the other (for example, momentum) must be greater
or equal to Planck's constant. This principle accounts for bizarre behavior of subatomic particles
and implies that we can never know everything exactly.

V
Varimax rotation. n. [Reservoir Characterization]. A method for rotating axes of a plot such that
the eigenvectors remain orthogonal as they are rotated. These rotations are used in principal
component analysis so that the axes are rotated to a position in which the sum of the variances of
the loadings is the maximum possible.

Variogram. n. [Geophysics]. A two-point statistical function that describes the increasing

difference or decreasing correlation, or continuity, between sample values as separation between
them increases.

n. [Reservoir Characterization]. A two-point statistical function that describes the increasing

differences or decreasing correlation, or continuity, between sample values as separation between
them increases.

The term variogram is sometimes used incorrectly in place of semivariogram. The two differ
only in that the semivariogram uses each pair of data elements only once, whereas the variogram
uses all possible data pairs. Semivariograms are usually used instead of variograms, but opposite
vector directions (for example, north and south) are recognized as representing the same thing
and having identical ranges, sills, nugget points and the like.

W
Walthers Law. n. [Reservoir Characterization]. A law stating that lithologies that conformably
overlie one another must have accumulated in adjacent depositional environments. Exceptions
occur where there are erosional breaks. This law allows for transformations from the vertical data
to a horizontal set and is often used when a vertical sequence of facies has been identified and
characterized (for example, with Markov chain analysis) to estimate the horizontal depositional
pattern.