History of public relations

Most textbooks consider the establishment of the Publicity Bureau in 1900 to be the founding of
the public relations (PR) profession. However, academics have found early forms of public
influence and communications management in ancient civilizations, during the settling of the
New World and during the movement to abolish slavery in England. Basil Clark is considered
the founder of public relations in the United Kingdom for his establishment of Editorial Services
in 1924, though academic Noel Turnball believes PR was founded in Britain first by evangelicals
and Victorian reformers.

Propaganda was used by the United States, the United Kingdom, Germany and others to rally for
domestic support and demonize enemies during the World Wars, which led to more sophisticated
commercial publicity efforts as public relations talent entered the private sector. Most historians
believe public relations became established first in the US by Ivy Lee or Edward Bernays, then
spread internationally. Many American companies with PR departments spread the practice to
Europe when they created European subsidiaries as a result of the Marshall plan.

The second half of the twentieth century is considered the professional development building era
of public relations. Trade associations, PR news magazines, international PR agencies, and
academic principles for the profession were established. In the early 2000s, press release services
began offering social media press releases. The Cluetrain Manifesto, which predicted the impact
of social media in 1999, was controversial in its time, but by 2006, the effect of social media and
new internet technologies became broadly accepted.

Contents

1 Ancient origins

2 Antecedents

3 Origins as a profession

o 3.1 Early pioneers

o 3.2 Early campaigns

4 Wartime propaganda

o 4.1 World War I

o 4.2 World War II

5 Professional development
 6 Social and digital

7 See also

8 References

9 Further reading

Ancient origins

An artistic depiction of a preacher promoting the crusades

Although the term "public relations" was not yet developed,[1] academics like James E. Grunig
and Scott Cutlip identified early forms of public influence and communications management in
ancient civilizations.[2]:41 According to Edward Bernays, one of the pioneers of PR, "The three
main elements of public relations are practically as old as society: informing people, persuading
people, or integrating people with people."[3][4][5] Scott Cutlip said historic events have been
defined as PR retrospectively, "a decision with which many may quarrel."[6]

A clay tablet found in ancient Iraq that promoted more advanced agricultural techniques is
sometimes considered the first known example of public relations.[1][7][8] Babylonian, Egyptian
and Persian leaders created pyramids, obelisks and statues to promote their divine right to lead.
Additionally, claims of magic or religious authority were used to persuade the public of a king or
pharaoh's right to rule.[5]

Ancient Greek philosophers such as Isocrates, Plato and Aristotle created early theories in
rhetoric and persuasion.[9][10] In Greece there were advocates for hire called "sophists". Plato and
others said sophists were dishonest and misled the public, while the book "Public Relations as
Communication Management" said they were "largely an ethical lot" that "used the principles of
persuasive communication."[11] In Egypt court advisers consulted pharaohs to speak honestly[12]:38
and scribes documented a pharaoh's deeds.[13] In Rome Julius Caesar wrote the first campaign
biography promoting his military successes. He also commissioned newsletters and poems to
support his political position.[1][12]:39 In medieval Europe, craftsmen organized into guilds that
managed their collective reputation. In England, Lord Chancellors acted as mediators between
rulers and subjects.[14][15]

Pope Urban II's recruitment for the crusades is also sometimes referred to as a public relations
effort.[1][15][16] Pope Gregory XV founded the term "propaganda" when he created Congregatio de
Propaganda ("congregation for propagating the faith"), which used trained missionaries to
spread Christianity.[17] The term did not carry negative connotations until it was associated with
government publicity around World War II.[14][17][18] In the early 1200s, the Magna Carta was
created as a result of Stephen Langton lobbying English barons to insist King John recognize the
authority of the church.[19]

Antecedents

A plaque from Harvard quoting a passage from the fundraising pamphlet, New
England's First Fruits

Explorers like Magellan, Columbus and Raleigh used exaggerated claims of grandeur to entice
settlers to come to the New World.[20] For example, in 1598, a desolate swampy area of Virginia
was described by Captain Arthur Barlowe as follows: "The soil is the most plentiful, sweet,
fruitful and wholesome of all the world."[4][6] When colonists wrote back to Europe about the
hardships of colonizing Virginia, including the death toll caused by conflicts with Indians,
pamphlets with anonymous authors were circulated to reassure potential settlers and rebuke
criticisms.[6]

The first newsletter and the first daily newspaper were founded in Germany in 1609 and 1615
respectively.[5] Cardinal Richelieu of France had pamphlets made that supported his policies and
attacked his political opposition. The government also created a publicity bureau called
Information and Propaganda and a weekly newspaper originally controlled by the French
government, The Gazette.[21][22] In the mid-1600s both sides of the English Civil War conflict
used pamphlets to attack or defend the monarchy respectively.[23] Poet John Milton wrote
anonymous pamphlets advocating for ideas such as liberalizing divorce, the establishment of a
republic and the importance of free speech.[24] A then-anonymous pamphlet in 1738 by Maria
Theresa of the Austrian Empire was influential in criticizing the freemasons and advocating for
an alliance between the British, Dutch and Austrian governments.[25]

In 1641, Harvard University sent three preachers to England to raise money for missionary
activities among the Indians. To support the fund-raising, the University produced one of the
earliest fund-raising brochures, New England's First Fruits.[14][26] An early version of the press
release was used when King's College (now Columbia University), sent out an announcement of
its 1758 graduation ceremonies and several newspapers printed the information.[20] Princeton was
the first university to make it a routine practice of supplying newspapers with information about
activities at the college.[20]

A medallion from 1787 promoting the abolitionist cause

According to Noel Turnball, a professor from RMIT University, more systematic forms of PR
began as the public started organizing for social and political movements.[27][28] The Society for
Effecting the Abolition of the Slave Trade was established in England in 1787.[29] It published
books, posters and hosted public lectures in England advocating against slavery.[30] Industries that
relied on slavery attempted to persuade the middle-class that it was necessary and that slaves had
humane living conditions.[31] The Slave Trade was abolished in 1807.[32][33] In the US, the
movement to abolish slavery began in 1833 with the establishment of the American Anti-Slavery
Society,[4] using tactics adopted from the British abolitionist movement. According to Edward
Bernays, the US abolitionist movement used "every available device of communication, appeal
and action," such as petitions, pamphlets, political lobbying, local societies, and boycotts. The
South responded by defending slavery on the basis of economics, religion and the constitution. In
some cases propaganda promoting the abolition of slavery was forbidden in The South and
abolitionists were killed or jailed.[5] Public relations also played a role in abolitionist movements
in France, Australia and in Europe.[12]
The Boston Tea Party has been called a "public relations event" or pseudo event in that it was a
staged event intended to influence the public.[11][26] Pamphlets such as Common Sense (177576)
and The American Crisis (1776 to 1783) were used to spread anti-British propaganda in the
United States, as well as the slogan "taxation without representation is tyranny." After the
revolution was won, disagreements broke out regarding the United States Constitution.
Supporters of the constitution sent letters now called the Federalist Papers to major news outlets,
which helped persuade the public to support the constitution.[4][34] Exaggerated stories of Davy
Crocket and the California Gold Rush were used to persuade the public to fight the war against
Mexico and to migrate west in the U.S. respectively.[20]

Author Marvin Olasky said public relations in the 1800s was spontaneous and de-centralized.[35]
In the 1920s, Americans wanted to disprove the perspective of French aristocrats that the
American democracy run by "the mob" had "no sense of history, no sense of gratitude to those
who had served it, and no sense of the meaning of 'virtue'". To combat this perception, French
aristocrat Marquis de Lafayette, who helped fund the American Revolution, was invited to a tour
of the United States. Each community he visited created a committee to welcome him and
promote his visit.[35] In the mid-1800s P. T. Barnum founded the American Museum and the
Barnum and Bailey Circus.[36] He became well known for publicizing his circus using
manipulative techniques.[11][18][37] For example, he announced that his museum would exhibit a
161-year-old woman, who had been Washington's nurse, then produced an elderly woman and a
forged birth certificate.[36]

Early environmental campaigning groups like the Coal Abatement Society and the Congo
Reform Association were formed in the late 1800s.[27] In the late 1800s many of the now-standard
practices of media relations, such as conducting interviews and press conferences emerged.[38]
Industrial firms began to promote their public image. The German steel and armaments company
Krupp created the first corporate press department in 1870 to write articles, brochures and other
communications advertising the firm.[38] The first US corporate PR department was established in
1889 by Westinghouse Corporation.[39] "The first public relations department was created by the
inventor and industrialist George Westinghouse in 1889 when he hired two men to publicize his
pet project,alternating current (AC) electricity."[39][40] Some scholars believe that the first
appearance of the term "public relations" was in the 1897 Year Book of Railway Literature.[41]

Origins as a profession

The book Today's Public Relations: An Introduction says that, although experts disagree on
public relations' origins, many identify the early 1900s as its beginning as a paid profession.[37]
According to Barbara Diggs-Brown, an academic with the American University School of
Communication, the PR field anchors its work in historical events in order to improve its
perceived validity, but it didn't begin as a professional field until around 1900.[4] Scott Cutlip
said, "we somewhat arbitrarily place the beginnings of the public relations vocation with the
establishment of The Publicity Bureau in Boston in mid-1900." He explains that the origins of
PR cannot be pinpointed to an exact date, because it developed over time through a series of
events.[14] Most textbooks on public relations say that it was first developed in the United States,
before expanding globally;[42] however, Jacquie L'Etang, an academic from the United Kingdom,
said it was developed in the UK and the US simultaneously.[42] Noel Turnball claims it began as a
professional field in the 18th and 19th century with British evangelicals and Victorian reformers.
[27]
According to academic Betteke Van Ruler, PR activities didn't begin in Continental Europe as
a professional field until the 1920s.[38]

According to academic Stuart Ewen, most PR efforts in the US at the time were "damage
control".[43] According to Goldman, from around 1903 to 1909 "many newspapers and virtually
all mass-circulation magazines featured detailed, indignant articles describing how some industry
fleeced its stockholders, overcharged the public or corrupted politics." The public became
abruptly more critical of big business.[44] The anti-corporate and pro-reform sentiment of the
Progressive Era was reflected in newspapers, which were dramatically increasing in circulation
as the cost of paper decreased.[43][45] Public relations was founded, in part, to defend corporate
interests against sensational and hyper-critical news articles.[11][43][45] It was also influential in
promoting consumerism after the emergence of mass production.[46]

Early pioneers

The aftermath of the Ludlow Massacre

The Publicity Bureau was the first PR agency and was founded by former Boston journalists,
including Ivy Lee.[4][47] Ivy Lee is sometimes called the father of PR and was influential in
establishing it as a professional practice. In 1906, Lee published a Declaration of Principles,
which said that PR work should be done in the open, should be accurate and cover topics of
public interest.[18][48][49] According to historian Eric Goldman, the declaration of principles marked
the beginning of an emphasis on informing, rather than misleading, the public.[44] Ivy Lee is also
credited with developing the modern press release and the "two-way-street" philosophy of both
listening to and communicating with the public.[50] In 1906, Lee helped facilitate the
Pennsylvania Railroad's first positive media coverage after inviting press to the scene of a
railroad accident, despite objections from executives. At the time, secrecy about corporate
operations was common practice.[44] Lee's work was often identified as spin or propaganda.[51] In
1913 and 1914, the mining union was blaming the Ludlow Massacre, where on-strike miners and
their families were killed by state militia, on the Rockefeller family and their coal mining
operation, The Colorado Fuel and Iron Company.[52][52] On the Rockefeller family's behalf, Lee
published bulletins called "Facts Concerning the Struggle in Colorado for Industrial Freedom,"
which contained false and misleading information.[51][53][53] Lee warned that the Rockefellers were
losing public support and developed a strategy that Junior followed to repair it. It was necessary
for Junior to overcome his shyness, go personally to Colorado to meet with the miners and their
families, inspect the conditions of the homes and the factories, attend social events, and
especially to listen closely to the grievances. This was novel advice, and attracted widespread
media attention, which opened the way to resolve the conflict, and present a more humanized
versions of the Rockefellers. [54] In response the labor press said Lee "twisted the facts" and
called him a "paid liar," a "hired slanderer," and a "poisoner of public opinion."[51] By 1917,
Bathlehem Steel company announced it would start a publicity campaign against perceived
errors about them. The Y.M.C.A. opened a new press secretary. AT&T and others also started
their first publicity programs.[44]

Edward Bernays, a nephew of Sigmund Freud, is also sometimes referred to as the father of PR
and the profession's first theorist for his work in the 1920s.[55] He took the approach that
audiences had to be carefully understood and persuaded to see things from the client's
perspective.[49][56] He wrote the first textbook on PR and taught the first college course at New
York University in 1923.[11] Bernays also first introduced the practice of using front groups in
order to protect tobacco interests.[49][56] In the 1930s he started the first vocational course in PR.[57]
Bernays was influenced by Freud's theories about the subconscious.[50] He authored several
books, including Crystallizing Public Opinion (1923), Propaganda (1928), and The Engineering
of Consent (1947).[11][58] He saw PR as an "applied social science" that uses insights from
psychology, sociology, and other disciplines to scientifically manage and manipulate the thinking
and behavior of an irrational and "herdlike" public.[55][59]

Image from an early German PR campaign promoting cigarettes for women

In 1929, Edward Bernays helped the Lucky Strike cigarette brand increase its sales among the
female demographic.[37] Research showed that women were reluctant to carry a pack of Lucky
Strike cigarettes, because the brand's green color scheme clashed with popular fashion choices.
Bernays persuaded fashion designers, charity events, interior designers and others to popularize
the color green.[37] He also positioned cigarettes as Torches of Freedom that represent rebellion
against the norms of a male-dominated society.[51]

According to Ruth Edgett from Syracuse University, Lee and Bernays both had "initial and
spectacular successes in raising PR from the art of the snake oil salesman to the calling for a true
communicator." However, "late in their careers, both Lee and Bernays took on clients with
clearly reprehensible values, thus exposing themselves and their work to public criticism."[60]
Walter Lippmann was also a contributor to early PR theory, for his work on the books Public
Opinion (1922) and The Phantom Public (1925). He coined the term "manufacture of consent,"
which is based on the idea that the public's consent must be coaxed by experts to support a
democratic society.[4]

Former journalist Basil Clarke is considered the founder of PR in the UK.[61][62] He founded the
UK's first PR agency, Editorial Services, in 1924.[42][62][63] He also authored the world's first code
of ethics for the field in 1929.[64] Clarke wrote that PR, "must look true and it must look complete
and candid or its 'credit' is gone". He suggested that the selection of which facts are disseminated
by PR campaigns could be used to persuade the public.[65]

Arthur W. Page is sometimes considered to be the father of "corporate public relations" for his
work with the American Telephone and Telegraph Company (AT&T) from 1927 to 1946.[4][66]
The company was experiencing resistance from the public to its monopolization efforts.[67] In the
early 1900s, AT&T had assessed that 90 percent of its press coverage was negative, which was
reduced to 60 percent by changing its business practices and disseminating information to the
press.[63] According to business historian John Brooks, Page positioned the company as a public
utility and increased the public's appreciation for the its contributions to society.[67] Stuart Ewen
said AT&T used its advertising dollars with newspapers to manipulate its coverage and had their
PR team write feature stories that were published as if they were written by independent
journalists.[43]

Early campaigns

Empire Marketing Board poster.

Edward Clarke and Bessie Tyler were influential in growing the Ku Klux Clan to four million
members over three years using publicity techniques in the early 1920s.[12] In 1926 the Empire
Marketing Board was formed by the British government in part to encourage a preference for
goods produced in Britain. It folded in 1933 due to government cuts.[68] In 1932, a pamphlet "The
Projection of England" advocated for the importance of England managing its reputation
domestically and abroad.[42] The Ministry of Information was established in the UK in 1937.[42]

Franklin Delano Roosevelt and Woodrow Wilson were the first Presidents to emphasize the use
of publicity.[44] In the 1930s Roosevelt used the media to promote The New Deal and to blame
corporations for the country's economic problems. This led companies to recruit their own
publicists to defend themselves.[14] Roosevelt's anti-trust efforts led corporations to attempt to
persuade the public and lawmakers "that bigger [corporations] was not necessarily more evil."[11]
Wilson used the media to promote his government reform program, The New Freedom.[44] He
formed the Committee on Public Information.[69]

In the 1930s, the National Association of Manufacturers was one of the first to create a major
campaign promoting capitalism and pro-business viewpoints.[70] It lobbied against unions, The
New Deal and the 8-hour work-day. NAM tried mostly unsuccessfully to convince the public
that the interests of the public were aligned with corporate interests and to create an association
between commerce and democratic principles.[6][43][45] During the Second World War, Coca Cola
promised that "every man in uniform gets a bottle of Coca-Cola for five cents, wherever he is
and whatever it costs the company." The company persuaded politicians that it was crucial to the
war-effort and was exempted from sugar rationing.[71] During the European Recovery Program
PR became more established in Europe as US-based companies with PR departments created
European subsidiaries.[21][63]

In 1938, amid concerns regarding dropping diamond prices and sales volume, De Beers and its
advertising agency N.W. Ayers adopted a strategy to "strengthen the association in the public's
mind of diamonds with romance," whereas "the larger and finer the diamond, the greater the
expression of love." This became known as one of America's "lexicon of great campaigns" for
successfully persuading the public to purchase expensive luxury items during a time of financial
stress through psychological manipulation. It also led to the development of the slogan "A
diamond is forever" in 1947 and was influential in how diamonds were marketed thereafter.[72][73]
After World War I the first signs of public relations as a profession began in France and became
more established through the Marshall Plan.[21]

Wartime propaganda

World War I
1914 "Lord Kitchener Wants You!" poster
The first organized, large-scale propaganda campaigns were during World War I.[74] Germany
created the German Information Bureau to create pamphlets, books and other communications
that were intended to support the justness of their cause, to encourage voluntary recruitment, to
demonize the enemy and persuade America to remain neutral in the conflict.[48][74] In response to
learning about Germany's propaganda, the British created a war propaganda agency called the
Wellington House in September 1914.[75][76] Atrocity stories, both real and alleged, were used to
incite hatred for the enemy, especially after the "Rape of Belgium" in 1915.[77][78] France created a
propaganda agency in 1914.[79] Publicity in Australia led to a lift in the government's ban on
military drafts.[12] Austria-Hungary used propaganda tactics to attack the credibility of Italy's
leadership and its motives for war. Italy in-turn created the Padua Commission in 1918, which
led Allied propaganda against Austria-Hungary.[80]

One week after the United States declared war on Germany in 1917, US President Woodrow
Wilson established the US propaganda agency, the Committee on Public Information (Creel
Commission),[43] as an alternative to demands for media censorship by the US army and navy.[44]
The CPI spread positive messages to present an upbeat image about the war and denied
fraudulent atrocities made up to incite anger for the enemy.[81][82] The CPI recruited about 75,000
"Four Minute Men," volunteers who spoke about the war at social events for four minutes.[83]

As a result of World War I propaganda, there was a shift in PR theory from a focus on factual
argumentation to one of emotional appeals and the psychology of the crowd.[43] The term
"propaganda" which was originally associated with religion and the church, became a more
widely known concept.[44]

World War II
Propaganda did not develop a negative connotation until it was used in Nazi propaganda for
World War II.[84] Even though Germany's World War I propaganda was considered more
advanced than that of other nations, Adolf Hitler said that propaganda had been under-utilized
and claimed that superior British propaganda was the main reason for losing the war.[84][85][86] Nazi
Germany created the Ministry of Public Enlightenment and Propaganda in March 1933, just after
Nazis took power.[87] The Nazi party took editorial control over newspapers, created their own
news organizations and established Nazi-controlled news organizations in conquered regions.[88]
[89]
The Nazi party used posters,[90] films,[91] books[92] and public speakers[93] among other tactics.

According to historian Zbynk Zeman, broadcasting became the most important medium for
propaganda throughout the war. Posters were also used domestically and leaflets were dropped
behind enemy lines by air-ship.[79] In regions conquered by Germany, citizens could be punished
by death for listening to foreign broadcasts. Britain had four organizations involved in
propaganda and was methodical about understanding its audiences in different countries. US
propaganda focused on fighting for freedom and the connection between war efforts and
industrial production. Soviet posters also focused on industrial production.[79]
In countries where citizens are subordinate to the government, aggressive propaganda campaigns
continued during peace-time, while liberal democratic nations primarily use propaganda
techniques to support war efforts.[79]

Professional development

According to historian Eric Goldman, by the 1940s public relations was being taught at
universities and was a professional occupation relied on in a similar way as lawyers and doctors.
However, it failed to obtain complete recognition as a profession due in part to a history of
deceit.[44] Author Marvin Olasky said in 1987 that the reputation of the profession was getting
worse,[35] while Robert L. Heath from the University of Houston said in 1991 that it was
progressing toward "true professional status."[94] Academic J. A. R. Pimlott said it had achieved
"quasi-professionalism."[95] Heath said despite the field's newfound professionalism and ethics,
its reputation was still effected by a history of exploitive behavior.[37]

The number of media outlets increased and PR talent from wartime propaganda entered the
private sector.[63][96] The practice of public relations became ubiquitous to reach political, activist
and corporate objectives. The development of the press into a more real-time media also led to
heightened scrutiny of public relations activities and those they represent. For example, Richard
Nixon was criticized for "doubletalk" and "stonewalling" in his PR office's responses to the
Watergate scandal.[11]

Trade associations were formed first in the U.S. in 1947 with the Public Relations Society of
America (PRSA), followed by the Institute of Public Relations (now the Chartered Institute of
Public Relations) in London in 1948. Similar trade associations were created in Australia,
Europe, South Africa, Italy and Singapore. The International Association of Public Relations was
founded in 1955.[37][39] The Institute for Public Relations held its first conference in 1949 and that
same year the first British book on PR, "Public Relations and publicity" was published by J.H.
Brebner.[97] The International Association of Business Communicators was founded in 1970.[96]
Betsy Ann Plank is called "the first lady of public relations" for becoming the first female
president of the PRSA in 1973.[96]

Two of today's largest PR firms, Edelman and Burson-Marsteller, were founded in 1952 and
1953 respectively.[22] Daniel Edelman created the first media tour[22] in the 1950s by touring the
country with "the Toni Twins," where one had used a professional salon and the other had used
Toni's home-care products.[98][99] It was also during this period that trade magazines like PR Week,
Ragans and PRNews were founded.[96] John Hill, founder of Hill & Knowlton, is known as the
first international PR pioneer.[22] Hill & Knowlton was the first major U.S. firm to create a strong
international network in the 1960s and 1970s.[100] Both Edelman and Burson-Marsteller followed
Hill & Knowlton by establishing operations in London in the 1960s and all three began
competing internationally in Asia, Europe and other regions.[22] Jacques Coup de Frejac was
influential in persuading U.S. and UK companies to also extend their PR efforts into the French
market and for convincing French businesses to engage in PR activities.[22] In the early 2000s, PR
in Latin America began developing at a pace "on par with industrialized nations."[101]

According to The Global Public Relations Handbook, public relations evolved from a series of
"press agents or publicists" to a manner of theory and practice in the 1980s.[22] Research was
published in academic journals like Public Relations Review and the Journal of Public Relations
Research. This led to an industry consensus to categorize PR work into a four-step process:
research, planning, communication and action.[96]

Social and digital

During the 1990s specialties for communicating to certain audiences and within certain market
segments emerged, such as investor relations or technology PR.[96] New internet technology and
social media websites effected PR strategies and tactics.[96] In April 1999, four managers from
IBM, Sun Microsystems, National Public Radio and Linux Journal created "The Cluetrain
Manifesto." The Manifesto established 95 theses about the way social media and internet
technologies were going to change business. It concluded that markets had become "smarter and
faster than most companies," because stakeholders were getting information from each other.[102]
[103]
The Manifesto "created a storm" with strong detractors and supporters.[104] That same year,
Seth Godin published a book on permission marketing, which advocated against advertising and
in favor of marketing that is useful and educational.[104] While initially controversial, by 2006 it
became commonly accepted that social media had an important role in public relations.[104]

Press releases, which were mostly unchanged for more than a century, began to integrate digital
features. BusinessWire introduced the "Smart News Release," which incorporated audio, video
and images, in 1997. This was followed by the MultiVu multimedia release from PRNewswire in
2001.[105] The Social Media Release was created by Todd Defren from Shift Communications in
2006[106] in response to a blog written by journalist and blogger Tom Foremski titled "Die! Press
release! Die! Die! Die!"[107] Incorporating digital and social features became a norm among wire
services, and companies started routinely making company announcements on their corporate
blog.[105]

According to The New York Times, corporate communications shifted from a

monologue to two-way conversational communications [108] and new media also
made it "easier for consumers to learn about the mix-ups and blunders" of PR. [108]
For example, after the Deepwater Horizon oil spill, BP tried to deflect blame to other
parties, claim the spill was not as significant as it was and focused on the science,
while human interest stories related to the damage were emerging. [109] In 2011,
Facebook tried to covertly spread privacy concerns about competitor Google's Social
Circles.[110] Chapstick created a communications crisis after allegedly, repeatedly
deleting negative comments on its Facebook paPublic Relations Through Time
Early History

Public relations (PR) is not a recent invention. The importance of communication with the public
and maintenance of positive public image was known as early as in the antiquity but the
beginnings of modern PR are traditionally dated in the 18th century London. One of the first PRs
was Georgiana Cavendish, Duchess of Devonshire who heavily campaigned for Charles James
Fox and his Whig party. PR in the real meaning of the word, however, dates only to the early
20th century. The first real PR specialist was according to some Ivy Lee (1877-1934), while the
others see Edward Bernays (1891-1995) as the father of public relations.

Ivy Lee or Edward Bernays?

Whether the founder of modern PR is Ivy Lee or Edward Bernays remains a matter of debate.
Both historians who consider the first PR specialist Ivy Lee and those who see Bernays as the
founder of modern PR have strong arguments to support their views. We will not get into the
debate who of the two men had a greater influence on the future development of PR. Instead, we
will take a closer look at the work and contribution of Lee and Bernays to the modern PR.

Ivy Lee is best known for his services to Standard Oil and its founder John D. Rockefeller. But
those who are familiar with PR history know him better for introducing the term public
relations and for pioneering the modern press release although he mainly used it as a one-way
propaganda for his clients.

Edward Bernays refined Lees press release as a PR tool but he also contributed a lot to the
development of the theory of PR. He is said to be influenced greatly by his uncle and professor
Siegmund Freud in his concepts of PR. Bernays has written several books on PR, of which are
best known Crystallizing Public Opinion, Propaganda and The Engineering of Consent. In
his works, Bernays argued that PR is an applied social science which manages and manipulates
the public opinion by the use of sociology, mass psychology and similar disciplines.

PR and Propaganda

Although Lee, Bernays and other PR pioneers such as Carl Byoir and John W. Hill played an
important role in modern PR, they were also responsible for the professions close association
with propaganda by the public. As a result, their successors did not have an easy job in changing
the professions bad reputation and even today, PR is sometimes equated with propaganda.

PR After the Advent of the Internet

The Internet has changed communication dramatically. The public is increasingly turning to the
world wide web for information and as a result, PR must keep up with the changes in
transmission of information if it wants to retain its role as a communicator between the public
and organisations. Modern PR thus besides the traditional tools also implements online tools and
tactics, including social media such as blogs, content publishing, search engine optimisation
(SEO), podcasts, etc..

ge.[111] During the Iraq War, it was exposed that the US created false radio personalities to spread
pro-American information and paid Iraqi newspapers to write articles written by American
troops.

vsPublic relations
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
For the rock band, see Public Relations.
"Public information" redirects here. It is not to be confused with Public sector information.

Public relations (PR) is the practice of managing the spread of information between an
individual or an organization (such as a business, government agency, or a nonprofit
organization) and the public.[1] Public relations may include an organization or individual gaining
exposure to their audiences using topics of public interest and news items that do not require
direct payment.[2] This differentiates it from advertising as a form of marketing communications.
Public relations is the idea of creating coverage for clients for free, rather than marketing[3] or
advertising.[4] An example of good public relations would be generating an article featuring a
client, rather than paying for the client to be advertised next to the article.[5] The aim of public
relations is to inform the public, prospective customers, investors, partners, employees and other
stakeholders and ultimately persuade them to maintain a certain view about the organization, its
leadership, products, or political decisions. Public relations professionals typically work for PR
and marketing firms, businesses and companies, government, government agencies and public
officials as PIOs and nongovernmental organizations and nonprofit organizations. Jobs central to
Public Relations include account coordinator, account executive, account supervisor and media
relations manager.[6] Those interested into public relations should have strong written and
speaking abilities, be team focused and creative. A masters in strategic communication will
enhance a marketing or communication BS or BA and make prospective employers more
competitive in the job market.

Public relations specialists establish and maintain relationships with an organization's target
audience, the media and other opinion leaders. Common responsibilities include designing
communications campaigns, writing news releases and other content for news, working with the
press, arranging interviews for company spokespeople, writing speeches for company leaders,
acting as organization's spokesperson, preparing clients for press conferences, media interviews
and speeches, writing website and social media content, managing company reputation (crisis
management), managing internal communications, and marketing activities like brand awareness
and event management [7] Success in the field of public relations requires a deep understanding of
the interests and concerns of each of the client's many publics. The public relations professional
must know how to effectively address those concerns using the most powerful tool of the public
relations trade, which is publicity.[8]

Contents
1 Definition

2 History

3 Salaries and growth

4 Tactics

o 4.1 Audience targeting

o 4.2 Messaging

o 4.3 Social media marketing

o 4.4 Other techniques

5 Ethics

o 5.1 Spin

o 5.2 Negative

o 5.3 Politics and civil society

6 See also

7 References

8 Further reading

Definition
Ivy Lee, the man who turned around the Rockefeller name and image, and his friend, Edward
Louis Bernays, established the first definition of public relations in the early 1900s as follows: "a
management function, which tabulates public attitudes, defines the policies, procedures and
interests of an organization... followed by executing a program of action to earn public
understanding and acceptance."[citation needed] However, when PR pioneer Ivy Lee was later asked
about his role in a hearing with the United Transit Commission, he said "I have never been able
to find a satisfactory phrase to describe what I do."[9] In 1948, historian Eric Goldman noted that
the definition of public relations in Webster's would be "disputed by both practitioners and critics
in the field."[9]

According to Edward Bernays, the public relations counsel is the agent working with both
modern media of communications and group formations of society in order to provide ideas to
the publics consciousness. Furthermore, he is also concerned with ideologies and courses of
actions as well as material goods and services and public utilities and industrial associations and
large trade groups for which it secures popular support.[10]

In August 1978, the World Assembly of Public Relations Associations defined the field as

"the art and social science of analyzing trends, predicting their consequences, counseling
organizational leaders and implementing planned programs of action, which will serve both the
organization and the public interest."[11]

Public Relations Society of America, a professional trade association,[12] defined public relations
in 1982 as:

"Public relations helps an organization and its publics adapt mutually to each other."[13]

In 2011 and 2012, the PRSA developed a crowd-sourced definition:

"Public relations is a strategic communication process that builds mutually beneficial

relationships between organizations and their publics."[14]

Public relations can also be defined as the practice of managing communication between an
organization and its publics.[15]

History
Main article: History of public relations

Most textbooks consider the establishment of the Publicity Bureau in 1900 to be the founding of
the public relations profession. However academics have found early forms of public influence
and communications management in ancient civilizations, during the settling of the New World
and during the movement to abolish slavery in England. Basil Clark is considered the founder of
public relations in the United Kingdom for his establishment of Editorial Services in 1924,
though academic Noel Turnball believes PR was founded in Britain first by evangelicals and
Victorian reformers.

Propaganda was used by the United States, the United Kingdom, Germany and others to rally for
domestic support and demonize enemies during the World Wars, which led to more sophisticated
commercial publicity efforts as public relations talent entered the private sector. Most historians
believe public relations became established first in the US by Ivy Lee or Edward Bernays, then
spread internationally. Many American companies with PR departments spread the practice to
Europe when they created European subsidiaries as a result of the Marshall plan.

The second half of the 1900s is considered the professional development building era of public
relations. Trade associations, PR news magazines, international PR agencies and academic
principles for the profession were established. In the early 2000s, press release services began
offering social media press releases. The Cluetrain Manifesto, which predicted the impact of
social media in 1999, was controversial in its time, but by 2006 the effect of social media and
new internet technologies became broadly accepted.

hat is PR?
Public relations is all about reputation. It's the result of what you do, what you say, and what
others say about you. It is used to gain trust and understanding between an organisation and its
various publics - whether that's employees, customers, investors, the local community - or all of
those stakeholder groups. Public relations professionals use many different techniques as part of
their PR campaigns. From media relations and lobbying, to speaking at conferences, to online
viral campaigns, to sponsorship - and more. PR isn't always about short-term campaigns, such as
product launches. It can encompass longer-term strategic aims, such as brand building and
working with local communities.

How does it differ from advertising? With PR, a company does not pay the newspapers and TV
channels for the media exposure it secures. It's this third-party endorsement that gives PR its
power and credibility. How does PR benefit a company? Public relations can play a critical role
in achieving a competitive advantage by, for example, opening new markets, attracting high-
calibre employees, giving more access to funding and investors, creating a high value for
products and services, and protecting businesses in times of crisis. All organisations, whether
local or international, big or small, benefit from public relations.

- See more at: http://www.prca.org.uk/What_is_PR#sthash.QsKawbk8.dpuf

About Public Relations

The formal practice of what is now commonly referred to as public relations dates to the early
20th century. In the relatively brief period leading up to today, public relations has been defined
in many different ways, the definition often evolving alongside public relations changing roles
and technological advances.

The earliest definitions emphasized press agentry and publicity, while more modern definitions
incorporate the concepts of engagement and relationship building. The PRSA National
Assembly adopted the following definition in 1982: "Public relations helps an organization and
its publics adapt mutually to each other."

In 201112, PRSA led an international effort to modernize the definition of public relations.
PRSA initiated a crowdsourcing campaign and public vote that produced the
following definition:

Public relations is a strategic communication process that builds mutually beneficial

relationships between organizations and their publics.

What are key points in this definition?

Simple and straightforward, this definition focuses on the basic concept of public
relations as a communication process, one that is strategic in nature and emphasizing
mutually beneficial relationships.

Process is preferable to management function, which can evoke ideas of control and
top-down, one-way communications.

Relationships relates to public relations role in helping to bring together organizations

and individuals with their key stakeholders.

Publics is preferable to stakeholders, as the former relates to the very public nature
of public relations, whereas stakeholders has connotations of publicly-traded
companies.

As a management function, public relations also encompasses the following:

Anticipating, analyzing and interpreting public opinion, attitudes and issues that might
impact, for good or ill, the operations and plans of the organization.

Counseling management at all levels in the organization with regard to policy decisions,
courses of action and communication, taking into account their public ramifications and
the organizations social or citizenship responsibilities.

Researching, conducting and evaluating, on a continuing basis, programs of action and

communication to achieve the informed public understanding necessary to the success of
an organizations aims. These may include marketing; financial; fund raising; employee,
community or government relations; and other programs.

Planning and implementing the organizations efforts to influence or change public

policy. Setting objectives, planning, budgeting, recruiting and training staff, developing
facilities in short, managing the resources needed to perform all of the above.

31 Public Relations Definitions

Here are thirty-one definitions of public relations from experienced PR practioners. The list
starts with the Public Relations Society of America (PRSA.) As the professional public relations
organization, PRSAs definition was a starting point for several of the respondents. Following
PRSAs explanation of public relations, the PR definitions have been organized in alphabetical
order by source.

1. Public relations helps an organization and its publics adapt mutually to

each other. Public Relations broadly applies to organizations as a collective
group, not just a business; and publics encompass the variety of different
stakeholders. PRSA (Public Relations Society of America)

2. Public relations is communicating your organizations messages at the right

time and in the right place to the right audience. With the proliferation of
tools and technologies, we can measure the value of those efforts and how
they align with a business overall mission. Marla Aaron MRM Worldwide

3. Public Relations in its true sense is about human connections and the art of
mastering human connections at a deep level. In the early days of PR, it was
about relationships with not just the press but communities in various forms
the difference was that these audiences were not online. When played from a
place of passion and purpose, public relations in the new world will not only
take social media, branding and marketing to the next level, but will elevate
the people and products that are changing the world. Renee Blodgett
Magic Sauce Media

4. Traditionally, PR has focused on cultivating the media and celebrities, whove

the reach and credibility, to tell the stories of an agencys clients. However, in
the new media world, where digital conversations among peers can capture a
higher Google ranking than a main stream media publication, who influences
opinion has been expanded. At the end of the day, PR is still about building
relationships with the people who can convey that third party endorsement.
That person just may surprise you because it could be you! Toby
Bloomberg Bloomberg Marketing/Diva Marketing

5. PR focuses on building good relations with the companys various publics by

obtaining favorable publicity, building a good corporate image, and handling
crisis management issues. Today, a good PR firm must be experts in use of
social media. Mark Burgess Blue Focus Marketing

6. Public relations communicates the news, influences the news, receives the
news, and responds to the news for a brand via the media. Its the art and
science of talking to the right audience in the right voice. PR is the
communication hub of an organization. It influences and shapes a companys
image, reputation, brand perception and culture. PR connects a brand and its
public via direct messages or editorial media including print, broadcast, radio,
digital, video or social media. Before social media, a company had one voice;
now social media encompasses an orchestra of voices that contribute to a
companys image, reputation, brand perception and its public community.
Lisa Buyer The Buyer Group
7. PR is the part of a marketing and communications strategy that crafts an
organizations message(s) to its diverse publics including customers,
prospects, investors, employees, suppliers, distributors, media/journalists,
social media networks, the government and the public. Given
communications and media evolution, these messages can be communicated
one-to-many, one-to-one and/or many-to-many across owned media, third
party media and/or social media via online and offline vehicles. These
communications and their distribution must be search-friendly. Since every
individual is essentially a publisher complete with a media platform from
which to broadcast his message, organizations must monitor the social media
landscape for keywords and brand mentions, be prepared to respond to
emerging news 24/7, and have a crisis management plan ready. Heidi
Cohen Riverside Marketing Strategies

8. PR is the process of making a heartfelt connection between a person or

organization and the people who can truly benefit from and care about their
message. Its an awareness of what makes people tick, facilitated by a desire
to build communities, engage and discuss, and give voice to worthy projects.
PR isnt mass messaging, spinning truths, or a barrier between the public and
the person represented. PR should make genuine connections.
Shennandoah Diaz Brass Knuckles Media

9. The purpose of PR is to participate in conversations about your industry and

your business, build relationships with relevant stakeholders and ultimately
build a supportive community of influencers and interested parties around a
company, organization or brand. Sally Falkow Press-Feed

10.In our relationship with the media, we view PR as great customer service. We
try to turn around data requests or calls to speak with analysts as quickly as
possible. Similar to the old Dominos pizza slogan, Under 30 minutes or its
free, we try to get reporters the information they need in under 30 minutes,
or pass them quickly to someone else who can. Clark Fredricksen
eMarketer

11.Good PR tentacles out key messages in alignment with the business plan in a
factual/creative way; communicating to audiences through appropriate
channels. Sue R.E. Geramian DMA

12.Public relations is the creation, distribution and dissemination of messaging

and communications for the purpose of promoting and fostering positive
awareness, associations, imagery, perception of a person, place or thing
among a particular target audience to effect a desired behavior. Dan
Gersten

13.PR is a set of activities aimed at increasing a vendors positive exposure with

its markets. Lee Greenhouse Greenhouse Associates

14.The definition of PR would be reputation, value and relationship building. It

is valuable but not valued. (Terry Flynn) Although the function can be very
 effective at marketing PR, I think time is better spent in reputation and issues
management. If an organization is perceived to be a good corporate citizen
(decent to its employees, etc.), customers are more likely to want to
purchase products and services. Meaning that, ultimately, marketing goals
are also met. Judy Gombita Public Relations and Communication
Management Specialist [Note: Judy blogged about the Canadian Public
Relations Societys official definition of PR. (Editors Note: This quote was
previously edited in a way that changed the meaning. It has been replaced
with the original wording. My apologies for this error.)]

15.Public relations is a management function that establishes and maintains

two-way, mutual relationships and communications between an organization
and its publics and stakeholders (i.e. those who have a stake, such as
employees, shareholders, etc.) that often determine their success or failure.
PR management includes on-going research, analysis, planning and
evaluation to understand, develop and nurture strategic relationships. Areas
of PR specialization include Investor Relations, Lobbying, Public Affairs
(Government & Community), Publicity & Media/Blogger Relations, Employee
Relations, International Relations and Crisis Management. Often, PR and
Publicity are used synonymously, which leads to a misunderstanding of the
field of PR. Beth Harte The Harte of Marketing

16.Search engines, social networking sites, and video sharing communities have
redefined PR and put the public in public relations. I define PR as the
practice of managing communication between an organization and its
publics. This definition is elastic and permits PR professionals to make other
necessary changes in the future. Greg Jarboe SEO-PR

17.Public Relations, once called non-paid media, is the element of the

marketing communications mix where a marketer creates messages and
supplies them to publishers for distribution. The result is
content contained within a third party channel providing an air of authenticity.
Additionally, public relations is the interactions with the media to ensure the
intent of the marketers message is maintained. Brian Kelly

18.Public relations is communication between an organization and its various

stakeholdersboth internal and external. Barbara Kowalski Modern
Health Communications, Inc.

19.As a part of marketing, Public Relations is tasks to promote a product or

service at little or no cost. The objective is to complement paid marketing by
communicating a firms trust and credibility toward appropriate traditional
and digital channels. Paul Mosenson NuSpark Marketing

20.In its purest form, PR is the art and science of influencing public opinion
through communications. These days, its often a ham-handed attempt at
message control. The problem is that message control is (and always was) an
illusion. The best PR people understand integrated communications and know
that if your product sucks, nothing else matters. B.L. Ochman Whats Next
Blog
21.Todays PR professional understands the intersection of content, social
technologies and marketing in ways that achieve common PR objectives:
credibility, thought leadership and influence. Its less about managing
information flow and pushing content and more about creating content,
networking and engagement. Lee Odden TopRank Online Marketing

22.Integrated marketing and PR are focused multichannel messages that make

a difference, as well as generate a profit in ways that matter to customers.
Michele Price Women In Business Radio

23.PR and corporate communications is marketing, except, youre selling an

intangible to an audience with no interest. Richard Reavey

24.At its essence, Public Relations is about managing and shaping public
perception about your company, product, service, brand, and individual. PR
has evolved to also encompass engaging in one-to-one and one-to-many
conversations that further shape the public perception. In some cases, it can
turn doubters into evangelists for your company, brand or persona. Cece
Salomon-Lee PR Meets Marketing

25.Advertising: I walk into a bar and tell the first hot girl I see how amazing I
am in bed. The hot girl doesnt go home with me. PR: I walk into a bar and a
friend of the hot girl sees me and tells her friend how great I am in bed. The
hot girl goes home with me. Peter Shankman Help A Reporter Out
[ Note: Maybe its a male thing but this definition appeared several times.
Peters was first. ]

26.From a business viewpoint, many people mistakenly think PR is one-way

communication, intended to persuade or sell those stakeholders on the
merits of the company and/or its products or services. Public relations is
actually a dialogue between an organization and its stakeholders geared
towards building mutual understanding, and in that way, building and
maintaining reputation for a company and its products or services. Lucy
Siegel Bridge Global Strategies

27.Public relations is a highly strategic discipline thats integrated with

marketing to achieve business goals. It positions companies and
spokespeople with key audiences, whether internal or external. Public
relations complements an integrated marketing campaign with measurable
results garnered through media relations, social media, thought leadership,
industry analyst relations, investor relations and/or special events. Jayme
Soulati Soulati Media Inc

28.Public relations is part of the larger marketing function. PRs main objective
is to help companies create and build their brands. PR is more than just
announcing a companys latest news. Public relations is leveraging
communications strategies to establish a market position through thought
leadership. Instead of being self-serving, PR provides third-party perspectives
about the industry to the press, bloggers, analysts and influencers, expertise
 through speaking engagements, and contribute thought leadership articles,
and engage in social media. Steve Stratz Illuminate Public Relations

29.PR has evolved with technological advances and its role in management has
increased. Public relations is defining and communicating a companys
narrative to provide clarity and insight to the market it seeks to reach.
Nancy Tamosaitis Thompson-Vorticom, Inc.

30.Public relations is the art and science of sharing genuine, credible, relevant
news and information to grow, maintain and protect brand acceptance,
awareness, reputation and sales, when appropriate. Public Relations creates
measurable, fact-based conversations, events and activities conceived to
generate positive, third party endorsements and target audience buy-in.
Deborah Weinstein Strategic Objectives

31.Using traditional and digital media (free of charge) to educate and inform
public masses about relevant issues and stories that are worthy of sharing
and that have an impact on people. Public relations requires a creative,
compelling, and concise approach, with a deep sense of the art of story-
telling through our emotions and humanity. We have the power to move and
influence people through the news and media. Susan Young Get in Front
Communications, Inc.