WATER SUPPLY

Water supply- is the provision of water by public utilities, commercial organizations,

community endeavorsor, by individuals, usually via a system of pumps and pipes. It
is also a systems get water from a variety of locations after appropriate treatment,
including groundwater (aquifers), surface water (lakes and rivers), and the sea
through desalination.

Water Cycle:

1. EVAPORATION- It is defined as the transfer of liquid water into vapour state

to the atmosphere. It involves the conversion of water from liquid to vapour
state and then again return to the atmosphere in the form of liquid or solid
precipitation that reaches the earth surface.

2.CONDENSATION-As moist air is lifted, it cools and water

vapour condenses to form clouds.
Collections of water droplets form clouds in the sky or fog at ground level.
3. PRECIPITATION- The term precipitation denotes all forms of water that
reach the earth surface from the atmosphere. Most precipitation falls back
into the oceans or onto land. If precipitation falls in the form of snow it can
accumulate in the form of ice caps or glaciers.

FORMS OF PRECIPITATION:
1. RAIN - is liquid precipitation that reaches the surface in the form of drops
that are greater than 0.5 mm in diameter. The intensity of rain is determined
by the accumulation over a given time. Categories of rain are light, moderate
and heavy.
2. DRIZZLE - Drizzle is liquid precipitation that reaches the surface in the form
of drops that are less than 0.5 millimetres in diameter.
3. SNOW- Snow is an aggregate of ice crystals that form into flakes. Snow
forms at temperatures below freezing. For snow to reach the earth's surface
the entire temperature profile in the troposphere needs to be at or below
freezing. It can be slightly above freezing in some layers if the layer is not
warm or deep enough the melt the snowflakes much. The intensity of snow is
determined by the accumulation over a given time. Categories of snow are
light, moderate and heavy.
4. SLEET - Sleet (Ice Pellets) are frozen raindrops that strike the earth's
surface. In a sleet situation the precipitation aloft when it is first generated
will be snow. The snow falls through a layer that is a little above freezing and
the snow partially melts. If the snow completely melts it will be more likely to
reach the earth's surface as super cooled water instead of sleet. If the snow
partially melts there will still be ice within the falling drop for water to freeze
on when the drop falls into a subfreezing layer.
 5. HAIL - is dense precipitation ice that is that least 5 mm in diameter. It
forms due to ice crystals and super cooled water that freeze or stick to the
embryo hail stone. The freezing of super cooled water releases latent heat
and this can result in the outer edge of the hail stone warming above
freezing. Then the water refreezes creating solid ice. Hail will commonly have
soft ice and hard ice layers when it is sliced open.
6. GLAZE -When water drops to a surface at 0 freezes to form an ice coating
Formed when super cooled raindrops turn to ice on colliding with solid
objects.

MEAN PRECIPITATION OVER AN AREA:

1.ARITHMETIC MEAN-When the rainfall measured at various stations in a
catchment show little variation, the variation rainfall over the catchment area
is taken as the arithmetic mean of the station values. FORMULA:

2. THEISSEN POLYGON METHOD-In this method the rainfall recorded at each

station is given a weight age on the basis of an area closest to the station.
FORMULA:

3. ISOHYETAL METHOD- An isohyetal is a line joining points of equal rainfall

magnitude. The average value of the rainfall indicated by two isohyets is
assumed to be acting over the inter isohyet area. FORMULA:
INFILTRATION

is the downward movement of water from the land surface into soil or
underlying rock layers.

This water can replenish aquifers, which store large amounts of freshwater
that can be removed from the ground using a water well.

Some infiltration stays close to the land surface and can seep back into
surface-water bodies as Groundwater discharge.

SURFACE RUN OFF

About 1/3 of the water that returns to the earth as precipitation runs off the
surface of the land, downhill, into streams, rivers, lakes, and oceans.

The other 2/3 of precipitation is evaporated, transpired, or is infiltrated into

ground water.

Surface runoff is a very important part of the water cycle because it returns
water once again to the bodies of water, where evaporation occurs.

TRANSPIRATION

Water is returned to the atmosphere by plants.

Water is absorbed by plants (usually through the roots) from water that is in
the soil.

The water travels up through the plant and then is evaporated back into the
atmosphere from the plant surface.

Atmospheric factors affecting transpiration:

Temperature

Relative Humidity

Wind and air movement

Soil-moisture availability
 Types of plant

GROUNDWATER

It is the water present beneath Earth's surface in soil pore spaces and in
the fractures of rock formations.

It is often cheaper, more convenient and less vulnerable to pollution than

surface water. Therefore, it is commonly used for public water supplies.

Groundwater makes up about twenty percent of the world's fresh

water supply, which is about 0.61% of the entire world's water, including
oceans and permanent ice.

GROUNDWATER WELLS- an excavation or structure created in the ground by

digging, driving, boring, or drilling to access groundwater in
underground aquifers. The well water is drawn by a pump, or using
containers, such as buckets, that are raised mechanically or by hand.

ACQUIFERS - An underground layer of water-bearing permeable rock, rock fractures

or unconsolidated materials (gravel, sand, or silt) from which groundwater can be
extracted using a water well.

RESERVOIR

An enlarged natural or artificial lake, storage pond or impoundment created

using a dam or lock to store water.

Can be created by controlling a stream that drains an existing body of water.

They can also be constructed in river valleys using a dam.

Alternately, a reservoir can be built by excavating flat ground and/or

constructing retaining walls and levels.

Tank reservoirs store liquids or gases in storage tanks that may be elevated,
at grade level, or buried. Tank reservoirs for water are also called cisterns.

Underground reservoirs store almost exclusively water and petroleum below

ground.
 ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT

Whole life environmental impact : All reservoirs will have a

monetary cost/benefit assessment made before construction to see if
the project is worth proceeding with.

Hydroelectricity and Climate Change

Biology

Human impact

Limnology

Seismicity

Microclimate

DAMS

Dams have two main functions:

The first is to store water to compensate for fluctuations in river flow or in

demand for water and energy.

The second to raise the level of the water upstream to enable water to be
diverted into a canal.

TYPES OF DAMS:

GRAVITY DAMS-A gravity dam is a dam constructed from concrete or

stone masonry and designed to hold back water by utilizing the weight
of the material alone to resist the horizontal pressure of water pushing
against it. Gravity dams are designed so that each section of the dam
is stable, independent of any other dam section.

ARCH DAMS- An arch dam is a solid dam made of concrete that is

curved upstream in plan. The arch dam is designed so that the force of
 the water against it, known as hydrostatic pressure, presses against
the arch, compressing and strengthening the structure as it pushes
into its foundation or abutments.

TIMBER DAMS were erected of heavy timbers or dressed logs in the

manner of a log house and the interior filled with earth or rubble.

BUTTRESS DAM- A buttress dam or hollow dam is a dam with a solid,

water-tight upstream side that is supported at intervals on the
downstream side by a series of buttresses or supports

EARTH DAMS- An earth dam is a dam built with highly compacted

earth.

STEEL DAM- A steel dam is a type of dam (a structure to impound or

retard the flow of water) that is made of steel, rather than the more
common masonry, earthworks, concrete or timber construction
materials

STONE MASONRY DAM -are dams made out of masonry

mainly stone and brick, sometimes joined with mortar. They are either
the gravity or the arch-gravity type.

COFFER DAM -is a barrier, usually temporary, constructed to exclude

water from an area that is normally submerged.

DAMS FOUND IN THE PHILIPPINES:

THE ANGAT DAM- is a concrete water

reservoir embankment hydroelectric dam that supplies the Manila
metropolitan area water. It was a part of the Angat-Ipo-La Mesa water system.
The reservoir supplies about 90 percent of raw water requirements for Metro
Manila through the facilities of the Metropolitan Waterworks and Sewerage
System and it irrigates about 28,000 hectares of farmland in the provinces
of Bulacan and Pampanga.

THE AGUSAN DAM- The Agusan Hydroelectric Plant, the downstream facility
of two proposed plants, was constructed in Damilag, Manolo, Fortich, and
Bukidnon to serve the immediate domestic and industrial requirements of the
area. The watershed is small, and covers an area of around 25 km2 at the
diversion dam. The run-of-river plant consists of two 800-kW turbine
generators that use water from the Agusan River to generate electricity. It is
a concrete flow dam with a total capacity of 2, 996 million cubic meter, and
depth of 193 meters.

THE LA MESA DAM- The La Mesa Dam is an earth dam whose reservoir can
hold up to 50.5 million cubic meters and occupying an area of 27 square
 kilometers in Quezon City, Philippines. It is part of the Angat-Ipo-La Mesa
water system, which supplies most of the water supply of Metro Manila. The
water collected in the reservoir is treated on-site by the Maynilad Water
Services, and at the Balara Treatment Plant further south by the Manila
Water. It is located in the La Mesa Watershed Reservation, the last forest of
its size in the metropolis.

THE MAGAT DAM- Magat Dam is a large rock-fill dam in the island of Luzon in
the Philippines. The dam is on the Magat River, a major tributary of Cagayan
River. Magat Dam is one of the largest dams in the Philippines. It is a multi-
purpose dam which is used primarily for irrigating about 85,000 hectares
(210,000 acres) of agricultural lands, flood control, and power generation
through the Magat Hydroelectric Power Plant.The water stored in the
reservoir is enough to supply about two months of normal energy
requirements.

THE SAN ROQUE DAM- 1.2 kilometer long embankment dam on the Agno
River. It is the largest dam in the Philippines and twentieth largest in the
world. It spans the municipalities of San Manuel and San Nicolas,
Pangasinan and is nearly 200 km north of Metro Manila.The dam impounds
a reservoir with a surface area of about 12.8 square kilometers extending
North into the municipality of Itogon, Benguet. A gated spillway protects the
dam from overtopping. Each wet season, the run-off is stored for later release
via water turbines to generate power and irrigate crops.

THE WAWA DAM- also known as Montalban Dam. is a gravity dam constructed
over the Marikina River in
the municipality of Rodriguezin Rizal province, Philippines. The slightly
arched dam is situated in the 360-metre (1,180 ft) high Montalban Gorge or
Wawa Gorge, a water gap in the Sierra Madre Mountains, east of Manila. it
was built in 1909 during the American colonial era to provide the water needs
for Manila. It used to be the only source of water for Manila until Angat
Dam was built and Wawa was abandoned. Due to insufficiency of water
supply for Metro Manila, there was a strong clamor to reuse the dam.

IRRIGATION-Is the artificial application of water to the land or soil. It is used to :

Assist in the growing of agricultural crops, Maintenance of landscapes, Re-
vegetation of disturbed soils in dry areas and during periods of inadequate rainfall.