25/01/2016

Acoustics

Lecture-1, EGR3037M

Dr. F. Georgiadis

Module Specification Objectives

Nature of sound, noise measurements and analysis
Response of the ear and noise exposure
The acoustic wave equation and simple solutions
Radiation and reception of acoustic waves
Machinery noise sources
Measurement of Sound intensity and Sound
Barriers and enclosures

Textbook: Ver, I.L., Beranek, L.L, Noise and Vibration

Control Engineering, John Willey and Sons 2006

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Lecture -1
Nature of sound, noise measurements and
analysis
Response of the ear and noise exposure
The acoustic wave equation and simple
solutions

Nature of Sound

C R
o a
m r
p e
r f
e a
s c
s t
i i
o o
n n

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Compression increased density

Rarefaction decreased density
Sound wave propagation of pressure wave

All waves transfer energy without transferring

matter.
Sound longitudinal wave

Sources
Vibrating solids
Rapid expansions or compressions (explosions
and implosions)
Laminar flow around blunt objects, resulting
in vortices that snap with a frequency

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Range of human hearing:

20Hz 20kHz

Representing a longitudinal wave as

a transverse wave

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For a sine wave

P(x,t) = Asin(2ft-(x/c))

P Pressure
A Amplitude
f Frequency c=/T
t Time
x Spatial distance c=f
c Wave speed
Wavelength (f = 1/T)
c = 343 ms-1 in air at 20C

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The 1D Wave Equation

u u + d(u) dx
dx
P
P + dP dx
dx
P pressure
density
dx
u particle velocity

For continuity of flow:

Mass flow into element: u dt
Mass flow out of element: (u + d(u)/dx dx) dt
Initial mass: dx
At time dt, mass: ( + d/dt dt) dx
Mass change = mass in mass out

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Change in density over time plus change in

mass flow over time equals zero.
This is a 1 dimensional continuity equation.

Equilibrium of momentum
Momentum into an element: u.dt.u = u2dt
Momentum out of an element:
(u2 + d(u2)/dx dx) dt
Momentum increase:
(u+ d(u)/dt dt)dx - u dx = d(u) dx dt
dt

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Impulse (rate of change of momentum)

-dP/dx dx dt (remember, this is still 1D)
Momentum out momentum in + momentum change
-dP/dx dx dt = (u2 + d(u2)/dx dx) dt - u2dt +d(u)/dt dx dt

1D Momentum Equation

1 2

d1/dt = d2/dx

However, for linear acoustics, u is very small

(u10-3 ms-1) u2 is negligible.

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For adiabatic compression:

P = RT
P/ RT =

Letting c2 = RT

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1D Wave Equation

Simple Solutions

Solutions of the form:

P = g1(t x/c) g2(t+x/c); g1 and g2 are arbitrary
functions.
E.g. P = A1cos(t-x/c) +A2cos(t+x/c) is a solution to 6
the wave equation.
A1cos(t-x/c) describes wave moving in positive
direction.
A2cos(t+x/c) describes wave moving in negative
direction.
P = A1sin(t-x/c) +A2sin(t+x/c) is also a valid solution.

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The wave number, k

Let k = /c; ( = 2f) =2/k
k is the spatial equivalent of frequency.
Number of wavelengths per unit distance.

P = A1cos(t-x/c) becomes P = A1cos(t-kx) 7

e^(i) = cos( )+ i sin( )

e^(-i) = cos( )- i sin( )
Which lead to:
cos( )=1/2(e^(i) + e^(-i) )
7 can then be written:
P = Re(A1e^(i(t-kx)), Or
P =A1 /2 (e^(i(t-kx))) + e^(-i(t-kx))) )
It is easy to see that the mean value of P is zero
It can be shown that a measure of the pressure is the
root mean square and it is given by:
2
1 2 1 2 2
2 12
= = =
0 0 1 2

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Considering particle velocity

If u <<<c and considering

P = A1cos(t-kx)= A1cos[k(x-ct)]
The instantaneous density can approximated with average density,
2 can be re-written:
- du/dt = dP/dx
With, dP/dx=-kA1sin[k(x-ct)

1 1 1
= = kA1sin[k(xct) = A cos[k(xct)]
1
u = P/c

+ for a positive travelling wave; - for a negative travelling wave.

The ears response

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Inverse of a noise source; pressure wave

causes oscillations.
Range of human hearing 20Hz to 20kHz
This range can be broken into bands
The ratio of upper to lower frequency of a
band is the same for all bands.

Centre frequency f0 = (f1f2)

n-Octave band is: f2 / f1 = 2n
Octave bands: f2 = 2 f1
3 x Octave bands makes one Octave band

As (2 )10 = 10.079 10
10 x Octave bands a decade

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Centre frequencies of Octave bands are

chosen to be 1, 10, 100, 1000 etc.
Splitting a decade into 10, Octave bands,
the centre frequencies will be at intervals of
10n/10.

E.g. 100Hz 1000Hz

n 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
10n/10 1 1.25 1.6 2 2.5 3.15 4 5 6.3 8

Octave band: 100 125 160

Octave band: 200 250 315
Octave band: 400 500 630
Octave band: 800 1000 1250

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Amplitude
3 methods to measure:
Measure the maximum change in position of the
particles (difficult to measure directly)
Measure the maximum change in density (difficult to
measure directly)
Measure the maximum change in pressure (easiest of
the three to measure; animals have done it naturally
for hundreds of years)
Rarely reported directly; used to calculate
intensity.
Intensity (Amplitude)2

Intensity
What is it?
Combination of rate and density of energy
transfer.
Generally, larger amplitude means greater
intensity resulting in louder sound.
Definition: time averaged power per unit area
Units: Watt per metre squared (W m-2)
P
I
A

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Intensity cont...
Power is energy transferred over time, therefore
(K + U s )/T
I
A
where K is kinetic energy and Us is elastic energy.
In case of Mechanical waves it can be shown that
half of the energy in the system is elastic and half
kinetic.
Therefore 2 K/T
I
A
1
and K mv2
2

Firstly, looking at the velocity, we start by forming an equation

for a particles displacement with respect to time.

x
x(x, t) x max sin 2 ft -

If we derivate the displacement with respect to time we get velocity.

x
v(x, t) x(x, t) 2f x max cos 2 ft -
t
Squaring this, we get:
x
v 2 (x, t) 4 2f 2 x 2 max cos 2 2 ft -

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Now, the mass part of kinetic energy.

m V Ax
1 2 2 x
K mv v (x, t) 4 2 f 2 x 2 max cos 2 2 ft -
2

1 1 x
K ( A)v 2 (x, 0)dx ( A)(4 2 f 2 x 2max )cos 2 2 dx
0 2 0 2

Looking at the constants first, these become:

2 2 Af 2 x 2 max

Solving the integral

1 1 x
K ( A)v 2 (x, 0)dx ( A)(4 2 f 2 x 2max )cos 2 2 dx
0 2 0 2

Height of area were dealing with is 1; width is

one wavelength.

2 x 1
0 2
cos 2 dx

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Putting together what weve found

K 1 1
(2 2 Af 2 x 2 max ) 2 Af 2vx 2 max
T 2 T
(Remembering /T is velocity)

2 K/T
I
A

2 2 Af 2 vx 2 max
I 2 2 f 2 vx 2 max
A

Does this equation sound sensible?

I 2 f vx 2 2 2
max
More dense

More frequency

Faster

Bigger amplitude

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Intensity and pressure

Sound pressure is the pressure difference
caused by a passing sound wave to the region
surrounding it.
Pressure measured in Pascals (Pa), where 1 Pa
= 1N/m2, or more commonly mPa or Pa

P Fv P Power
I pv p - pressure
A A

P Fv P Power
I pv p - pressure
A A
Found earlier
I 2 f vx
2 2 2
max

12 2

= =
2

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Threshold of human hearing 20Pa

Threshold of pain 20Pa

Sound Pressure Level ()

Measured in bels
The base ten logarithm of intensity to
intensity of a reference signal.
Usually divided into tenths or decibels.

I
dB 10 log
I
0
Reference sound pressure, I0 = 10-12 W m-2

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I
Lp dB 10log
I0
P2
I P2 P
2
P
2 v
10 log 10 log 2 10log 2 10log 20log
I0 P0 P0 P0 P0
2 v

By convention, reference sound pressure, P0 = 2 x 10-5 Pa

A level of 0 dB is not the same as an intensity

of 0 W/m2, or a pressure amplitude of 0 Pa, or
an amplitude of 0 m
Signals below the threshold or reference value
are negative. Silence has a level of negative
infinity.
Since the base ten log of 2 is approximately
0.3, every additional 3 dB of level corresponds
to a doubling of amplitude.

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For interest only...

Less common is the Neper (Np) and decineper
(dNp) for measuring sound pressure level.
Named after John Napier, the only difference
is that natural logarithms are used in place of
base ten logs.

I P
dNp 10 ln 20 ln

I0 P0

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